ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

1. to be added to natural numbers section later.

Remark 1. It seems very plausible to consider x can be obtained from
after finitely many successor operations as a legitimate property for a
set x to have or not have. However, this property cannot be expressed
as a formula (or any collection of formulas, it seems) in our current
language (i.e., first-order language with a single binary relation symbol
). Thankfully, set theorists came up with an ingenious, roundabout
way of dealing with this shortcoming of our language. Namely, we define
a property (for sets) of being inductive (which can be expressed in our
language), add an axiom saying there exists at least one inductive set,
and consider the intersection of all inductive sets. Such a set, denoted by
, is definable in our language, contains all of 0, 1, 2, , and, crucially,
satisfies what is called the induction principle (to be described precisely
later). It turns out that most of the familiar, characteristic properties of
natural numbers can be deduced from such a setting. Furthermore, such
a definition of fits perfectly with the notion of ordinals (to be defined
later). Indeed, 0, 1, 2, and turn out to be the first ordinals.

2. The beginning
Axiom of Extension. xy (z (z x z y) x = y)
Axiom of Pair. xy z w (w z w = x w = y)
For any sets x and y, we let {x, y } denote the unique set whose members
are precisely x and y. Clearly, the above axioms also imply that, for any
set x, there exists a unique set whose sole member is x. We denote such
a set as {x}.
Note that, for any sets x and y, {x} = {y } iff x = y.
Definition 2. For any sets x and y, we define (x, y) := {{x}, {x, y }}. A
set z is called an ordered pair if z = (x, y) for some sets x and y.
Proposition 3. For any sets x, y, z, w,
(x, y) = (z, w) x = z y = w
Proof. Exercise.

Axiom of Union. xy z (z y w (z w w x))

S
Hence, for any set x, there exists a unique set, which we denote by x,
whose members are precisely those sets z satisfying w (z w w x).
S
For any sets a and b, we define a b := {a, b}. Note that a b is the
set whose members are precisely those sets x satisfying (x a x b).
1

ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

Let x and y be sets. If every member of x is a member of y, we write

x y and say x is a subset of y. Note that, by the axiom of extension,
x y and y x implies x = y.
Axiom of Power Set. xy z (z y w (w z w x))
Hence, for any set x, there exists a unique set, which we denote by P(x)
and call the power set of x, whose members are precisely the subsets of x.
Axiom Schema of Comprehension. For each formula (x, y1 , , yn ),
the following sentence:
z y 1 y 2 y n w x(x w x z (x, y1 , , yn ))
Hence, given any set a and any formula (x) (possibly with parameters),
there exists a unique set, denoted by
{x a | (x)}
whose members are precisely those members of a satisfying (x).
Proposition 4. There exists a set which does not have any member. Such
a set (which is clearly unique) is called the empty set and is denoted by
.
Proof. Let a be an arbitrary set. Then the set
{x a | x 6= x}
does not have any member.

Proposition 5. For any set a, there exists a set b such that b

/ a.
Proof. Let a be any set. Then consider the set
b := {x a | x
/ x}
Then it is easy to check that b
/ a.

Corollary 6. There does not exist any set which has all the sets as members.
Proposition 7. For any nonempty set a, there exists a set whose members
are precisely those sets x satisfying the formula
y (y a x y).
Such a set (which is clearly unique) is denoted by

a.

Proof. Let b be any member of a. Then

{x b | y (y a x y)}
is the desired set.


T

Remark 8. The definition of a only makes sense when a 6= . Indeed,

if a = , then every set x satisfies the formula y (y a x y). And
we know that there does not exist any set having every set as a member.
T
For any sets a and b, we define a b := {a, b}. Note that a b is the
set whose members are precisely those sets x satisfying (x a x b).
For any sets a and b, we define
a \ b := {x a | x
/ b}.

ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

3. Relations and functions

Note 9. Let x, y, and z be any sets. Then:
S
(1) x, y (x, y)
SS
(2) If (x, y) z, then x, y
z.
Proposition 10. For any set a, there exists a set whose members are
precisely those sets x satisfying the formula
y ((x, y) a).
Such a set (which is clearly unique) is denoted by dom(a).
SS
Proof. Let a be any set. Then {x
a | y ((x, y) a)} is a desired
set.

Similarly, we define ran(a) as the set whose members are precisely those
sets y satisfying the formula
x((x, y) a).
Note that, for any set x, dom(x) = iff ran(x) = .
A set is called a binary relation if all of its members are ordered pairs.
Note that, for any binary relation a, a = iff dom(a) = .
A binary relation x is called a function if it satisfies the following formula:
y z w ((y, z) x (y, w) x z = w)
For example, the empty set is a function.
Note that, if f is a function then, for any x dom(f ), there exists a
unique set y such that (x, y) f . Such y is denoted by f (x).
Let a and b be sets. A function f is said to be from a into b, written
as f : a b, if dom(f ) = a and ran(f ) b. In case ran(f ) = b (and still
dom(f ) = a), we say f is from a onto b.
A function f is said to be injective if
xy (f (x) = f (y) x = y).
For example, the empty set is an injective function.
A function f : a b is called a bijection from a onto b if it is injective
and onto b.
Note 11.
(1) For any set a, there exists a unique function f : a,
namely the empty set .
(2) If a is any nonempty set, then there does not exist any function
f : a .
Proposition 12. Let a and b be any sets. Then there exists a set whose
members are precisely those sets x such that x = (y, z) for some y a and
some z b. Such a set (which is clearly unique) is called the Cartesian
product of a and b, and is denoted by a b.
Proof.
{x PP(a b) | y z (x = (y, z) y a z b)}
is a desired set.

ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

Note 13. Consider a function f : a b. Then f a b.

Corollary 14. Let a and b be any sets. Then there exists a set whose
members are precisely functions from a into b. Such a set (which is clearly
unique) is denoted by a b.
Theorem 15 (Cantor). Let a be any set. Then there does not exist any
function f : a P(a) which is onto P(a).
Proof. Assume there exists such a function f . Consider the set
b := {x a | y ((x, y) f x
/ y) }
Now b P(a), so b = f (i) for some i a. Then both i b and i
/ b lead
to contradictions.

Proposition 16. Suppose that a is aS set of functions and that, for all
f, g a, either f g or g f . Then a is also a function.
Proof. Exercise.

Proposition 17. Let a and b be any sets. Then there exists a set whose
members are precisely those sets x satisfying the formula
(x) := y z w (x = (y, w) (y, z) a (z, w) b)
Such a set (which is clearly unique) is denoted by b a.
Proof.
{x PP

[[
(a b) | (x)}

is a desired set.

Note 18. Let a and b be any sets. Then:

(1) b a is a binary relation.
(2) For any sets x and y, (x, y) b a iff there exists a set z such that
(x, z) a and (z, y) b.
(3) If a and b are both functions, then so is b a.
Note 19 (Associativity of Composition). For any sets a, b, and c,
c (b a) = (c b) a
Proof. Both are sets whose members are precisely those sets x satisfying:
ij k w ((i, j) a (j, k) b (k, w) c (i, w) = x)

Suppose a, b, and c are any sets. Then there exists a set whose members
are precisely a, b, and c; namely {a, b} {c}. We denote such a set by
{a, b, c}. Furthermore, we may define
{a, b, c, d} := {a, b, c} {d}
and so forth.
Proposition 20. Let f be any function. Then there exists a set whose
members are precisely the functions g such that dom(g) = dom(f ) and
g(x) f (x) for all x dom(g). Such a set (which Q
is clearly unique) is
called the Cartesian product of f , and is denoted by f .

ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

Proof. Clearly such g can be expressed by a formula (having f as a parameter). Moreover, such g is a function
[
g : dom(f )
ran(f )
And we know that there exists a set whose members are precisely such
functions. Now a routine application of the comprehension axiom finishes
the proof.

Y
Note 21.
(1)
= {}
(2) If f is a nonempty
function such that f (x) = for some x
Q
dom(f ), then f = .
Axiom of Choice.
If f is a function such that f (x) 6= for all x
Q
dom(f ), then f 6= .
4. Partial order & Zorns lemma
Let a be a set. A subset R a a is called a partial order on a if the
following conditions hold:
(1) x(x a (x, x) R)
(reflexivity)
(2) xy ((x, y) R (y, x) R x = y)
(antisymmetry)
(3) xy z ((x, y) R (y, z) R (x, z) R)
(transitivity)
If such R additionally satisfies
xy (x a y a (x, y) R (y, x) R)
then R is called a total order on a.
Example 22.
(1) The empty set is a total order on itself. In fact,
it is the only partial order on .
(2) Let a = {b}. Then {(b, b)} (= a a) is a total order on a. In fact,
it is the only partial order on a.
Example 23. Let a be any set, and consider the set
R := {x a a | y (y a x = (y, y))}
Obviously R a a. Also note that, for any x a, (x, x) R. Furthermore, observe that
xy ((x, y) R x = y a)
holds. Now, using this fact, it is easy to check that R satisfies both
antisymmetry and transitivity. Hence, R is a partial order on a. Also
note that R is the smallest partial order on a, in the sense that every
partial order on a contains R as a subset. Also note that, when a is the
empty set or a singleton set, then R is just the unique partial order on a
which we saw in Example 22. In particular, R is a total order on such a.
On the other hand, if a has at least two members, then clearly R is not a
total order on a.
Example 24. Let a be any set. Then the set
R := {x P(a) P(a) | y z (y z a x = (y, z))}
is a partial order on P(a).
Let a be a set. A subset R a a is called a strict order on a if the
following conditions are met:

ESSENTIAL SET THEORY

(1) x(x a (x, x)

/ R)
(2) xy z ((x, y) R (y, z) R (x, z) R)

(irreflexivity)
(transitivity)

Proposition 25. Let a be a set, and consider the set

D := {x a a | y (y a x = (y, y))}
If R is any partial order on a, then R \ D is a strict order on a. Moreover,
every strict order on a is obtained this way from some partial order on
a. Furthermore, any two distinct partial orders on a induce distinct strict
orders on a.
5. Natural numbers