Revised January 2015

Frequently asked questions

LIM has built three, running, proof-of-concept engines. Test results from one engine were used to
run a simulation. However, we have little hard data to compare with conventional engines, so we
can't definitively answer some questions until we get enough funding to finish development.

Emissions---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. You "expect equal or lower emissions impact," but how have you addressed the typical issues
regarding emissions?

LIM's estimate---that our uniflow 2-stroke diesel engine's emissions will be no worse, and
probably better, than conventional diesels---is premised on
the precise control of intake air provided by the LIM valve system.
the volumetric efficiency and effective scavenging of a reverse (top-down) uniflow
configuration. (A uniflow gasoline 2-stroke engine developed by Chiba University
and Fuji Heavy Industries reduced total HC by up to 80 %.)
our intention to use state-of-the-art components, including common-rail, high
pressure, multi-pulse, direct fuel injection, and a variable geometry turbine (VGT)
turbocharger.

Diesel fuel burns more completely than gasoline, so a diesel engine emits less CO2 than a
gasoline engine, but it emits more PM (particulate matter) because diesel fuel is more
resistant to atomization and is not as volatile. A diesel also emits more NOx (oxides of
nitrogen) due to the higher peak combustion temperatures of a compression-ignition
engine. The LIM engine's top-down uniflow configuration will keep the head from being
superheated by exhaust gases flowing through it, thereby lowering peak combustion temps
which we think will reduce/limit NOx formation.

Peak combustion temps can be further reduced by using EGR to dilute the air-fuel mix, and
reduced still further by cooling the EGR gases before they enter the combustion chamber.
(EcoMotors plans to use EGR on their new opoc engine.) If necessary, we would use urea
injection (SCR - selective catalytic reduction) aftertreatment.

LIMs technology significantly improves the control of engine intake air in a LIM uniflow 2stroke (or intake air and exhaust in a LIM 4-stroke) to work better with current, extremely
fast and precise, fuel injection systems. This will increase fuel efficiency and power density
by replacing digitally enhanced, partially variable, mechanical actuation of engine valves,
with digitally managed, fully variable, pneumatic actuation, with no increase---and possibly
a decrease---in emissions.

Results released in January 2015 from this study of big-rig truck engines with clean diesel
emission controls found near-zero emissions for NOx, HC, and PM, and no significant health
impact. So, the LIM engine, like any other diesel, will use whatever state-of-the-art controls are
necessary for it to meet emissions standards. We think our uniflow diesel will be "clean" enough
to need only basic engine controls, like EGR, and common aftertreatment systems like a DPF
(diesel particulate filter) and LNT (lean NOx trap) as used on the European Honda diesel
Accord, and possibly avoid urea injection.
2. There must be some lubrication in the cylinder head to maintain acceptable durability. The
150psi will leak past the [LIM] valve/seals into the exhaust valve port which will result in high
hydrocarbon emissions and aftertreatment poisoning.

This doesnt apply to a compression-ignition (diesel) 4-stroke because its relatively low HC
and CO emissions are converted with a simple DOC (diesel oxidation catalyst). But in a
spark-ignition 4-stroke with LIM valves, extra air in the exhaust would be detected by O2
sensors at the 3-way catalyst, prompting the PCM to call for more fuel, thereby lowering
fuel efficiency, and increasing HC/CO emissions (assuming the catalyst couldnt convert the
excess). But until we know how much air would be lost, we cant make accurate estimates
of its effect, if any, on aftertreatment. Whenever the micro-control valve raises pressure in
one chamber of a LIM valve, it relieves pressure in the opposing chamber by routing it to
the turbo inlet. So we think only a negligible volume of control air might leak past the LIM
valve and into the exhaust stream. We might be able to allow for this by re-calibrating the
PCM programming for the O2 sensors. To minimize any leakage we could reduce valve-tobore clearance, supply lubrication to the valve, or fit a low-tension ring or seal around the
upper end of the valve. Testing will decide.

We see this as a vital area, but believe liquid lubrication might not be essential. Our 2stroke proof-of-concept engines dont have liquid valve lubrication. The absence of any side
load on the valve, use of low-friction coatings, and applying proper tribology may resolve
this concern. Seals are not included (as yet) in the design of the 4-stroke exhaust valve.

Valve actuation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. How does a LIM air-actuated valve differ from an electrically controlled valve?

The main difference between LIM and current variable valve technology is that the LIM
system eliminates the camshaft and related valve train parts---a significant reduction in
mass---enabling the use of a new, lighter, faster, and fully variable valve.

Instead of a camshaft, LIM valves are actuated by two sources of air pressure. The
interaction of internal and external air pressures is complex. The means of engine
ventilation varies, for example, depending on whether the valve is in a 2-stroke---where
induction air pressure alone opens the valve---or in a 4-stroke, where it only adds to the
force of the compressed air that opens the valve. Could pressure from the exhaust stroke
alone, in a 4-stroke LIM engine, be enough to keep the intake valve closed? That would
depend on rpm, load, and whether the engine is naturally aspirated. (Unlike the LIM 2stroke, a LIM 4-stroke engine does not require forced induction.)
Source of air pressure

LIM 4-stroke
Intake valve Exhaust valve

Engine
ventilation

Turbocharger or
supercharger

Assists with
OPENING

Cylinder pressure
(compression stroke Assists with
in both engines, plus CLOSING
the exhaust stroke
and keeping
in a 4-stroke
valve closed
engine.)
Compressed air

Micro-compressor
(could be powered
by a regenerative
braking system.)
Add an accumulator
for starting and as a

Initiates and
finishes
OPENING
and
CLOSING

Initiates and
finishes
OPENING
and
CLOSING
Keeps valve

LIM uniflow 2-stroke

Intake valve
OPENS

Assists with
CLOSING
Keeps valve
closed.

Initiates
CLOSING

Has no
exhaust
valves.

bypass to allow max

engine power.

closed.

4. How is valve seating controlled? I dont see any mechanism associated with valve catch to
ensure a low velocity seating event which is essential to achieve acceptable durability. This was
a very significant issue on the Valeo system.
The collar on a LIM valve divides the valve bore into upper and lower control volumes.
Compressed air can be metered digitally into either volume, i.e., above or below the collar,
through the micro control valves we have yet to develop. (The control valves could be solenoid
actuated, or piezo actuated---similar to current fuel injector designs.) When the LIM valve
closes, the micro-control valve feeds compressed air into the opposing control volume through
small nozzles, just before the valve seats, to cushion its landing. We thereby use both the static
pressure of the air and its kinetic energy from expansion (providing resistance proportional to
the square of its speed) to slow the momentum of the valve
5. The valve as currently designed will have to be pegged to prevent valve rotation in order to
ensure consistent air flow into the cylinder, i.e., swirl or tumble, as required for complete
combustion. If the valve rotates, the swirl / tumble will likely change which runs the risk of
incomplete combustion and failing emissions regulations.

The valve shape we recently patented will induce swirl. Yes, if necessary, the valve could be
modified to provide a fixed-angle swirl, but before making any changes, we want to analyze
airflow through the current valve, and also assess the need for precise swirl patterns to
meet the requirements of specific applications.

In a compression-ignition engine, if the topology of the piston crown is symmetrical then we

assume any change in the direction of valve-induced turbulence would have no effect.

Tumble will be easy to induce, because each valve can be actuated independently of the
others. In a 4-stroke engine with two intake valves, tumble could be induced by opening one
valve later than the other, and closing it earlier.

Early in our development of the first generation valve, two valves failed where the mullions
join the valve floor. Since then, our valves have been re-engineered with a much stronger
design, and no valves have failed.

Benefits of the LIM valve -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. What are the advantages of replacing camshaft-actuated valves with air-actuated LIM valves?

LIM's valves are fully variable, camshaft actuated valves are not.
Even a camshaft phaser, whether hydraulic or electric, can only move the effect of the fixed
lobes on the camshaft higher or lower within the engine's rpm range. An electric phaser is
simply faster and more precise than a hydraulic phaser.

LIM valves can be actuated independently.

This is useful for variable displacement (selective cylinder deactivation).

LIM valves can vary dwell, camshaft-actuated valves cannot.

Conventional valves have almost no dwell---as soon as they reach the fully open position
they begin closing because of the inherent limitations of 360-degree mechanical actuation.
Their fixed shape is a compromisenot an ideal profile for any particular rpm. A LIM valve
can open faster and earlier, remain fully open longer, and close faster and later than a
conventional valve (compare the blue trace to the red one).

At full lift, a LIM intake valve flows more air than a conventional valve.
The following diagram, the result of flow tests done by Ladds Porting Service Inc., Elkridge,
Maryland in 2004, compares the LIM valve and a typical GM intake valve.

Flow data demonstrated that at partial lift, the slightly larger GM valve (2.02 versus
2.00 inches) has better flow characteristics than the LIM valve, but at full lift, the LIM
valve surpasses the flow of the GM valve.

Although the traces are similar, the fact that the LIM valve dwells at full open for
much longer than a conventional valvewhich has dwell time of nearly zero
dramatically increases the volumetric efficiency of the cylinder (about a 2:1 difference).
Efficiency is further improved in a LIM uniflow engine because it has 4 intake valves,
twice as many as most engines.

 When we compared the flow of a conventional GM exhaust valvetypically smaller than

an intake valvewith the flow of a LIM valve, the LIM valve had substantially higher flow
rates than the GM valve across a range of partial lifts, and, combined with the longer
dwell of a LIM valve, demonstrated even greater volumetric efficiency.

A camless diesel or gas LIM engine would be more fuel efficient and more
power-dense than a similar size diesel or gas engine with conventional valves.

Lower BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption): A LIM valve has 4 distinct
control pointswhere it begins to open, begins full lift, ends full lift, and ends closingas
compared to only 3 control points for a
Conventional Valves
conventional valve in an engine with a
camshaft driven VVT (variable valve
timing) system. The control points in a
LIM valve cycle are not determined by a
camshaft, and therefore can be optimized
or tuned for near-ideal performance at
every RPM.
The open-close timing of conventional
valves can be adjusted to a limited
degree by a VVT system, that is, the
valve cycle can be shifted slightly left or
right on the graph, while the basic shape
of the valve trace remains constant. The
LIM valve, however, can vary the time it opens and closes, and how long it stays fully
open, yielding an almost infinite number of shapes it can be programmed to follow.

Increased power density: Higher flow ratesthe result of longer valve dwell, higher
flow at full valve lift, and using four intake valves per cylinderenable more power to be
generated by each cylinder, reducing the number of cylinders required to produce the
same power as a conventional engine of larger displacement. This would substantially
reduce engine cost.

LIM valves' open/close timing, and dwell, are fully variable at any rpm.
This allows valve actuation to be programmed on PCM (powertrain control module) "maps"
for maximum fuel economy, acceleration, low emissions, etc., as called for by various
combinations of inputs in real time from the engine management system.

Mechanical efficiency ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. In a LIM 4-stroke, either gasoline or diesel, how do energy losses of the LIM valve system
compare to the mechanical cam and valve losses of a conventional engine?
We eliminated the friction and inertial losses associated with turning a camshaft to actuate a
conventional valve train, by eliminating everything but the valve. This also eliminated the mass
and resistance of a conventional valve train, which allowed us to reduce the mass of the valve.

Because of its unique shape, a LIM valve for a 4-stroke engine has 25% to 30% less mass
than a conventional valve of the same material, with no sacrifice in flow (cross) section.
Using lighter material for the valve, e.g., titanium, reduces its mass by more than 40%.

Springs and rocker arms have been eliminated, further reducing reciprocating mass. (About
1/3 of a spring's mass is considered reciprocating).

With no valve springs, a LIM diesel engine has no spring resistance to overcome so it starts
quickly. It also needs no glow plug, and idles steadily at about 350 rpm, which indicates that,
even when running accessories, a LIM engine will idle at a much lower rpm than a
conventional engine. This reduced inertia would help make a stop-start system easier to
restart, and allow the use of a smaller integrated starter-generator (ISG).

The valve-bore in a LIM head serves as a guide for the LIM valve, but without the friction
(and wear) from the side loads that would be imposed on a conventional guide by a
conventional valve stem.

The lubrication system for a LIM uniflow diesel does not pump oil to the head. Our three
running prototypes have no valve lubrication. We think the greater surface area of a LIM
valve, and the exposure of that area to air flow, along with future use of low-friction coatings
on the valve and its bore, would make lubrication of the head unnecessary. (A LIM 4-stroke
engine, however, may need lubrication or coolant to cool areas around the exhaust valves.)

The energy trade-offs between mechanical VVT vs. pneumatic FVVA (fully variable valve
actuation) are not yet quantifiable, but so far, our R&D suggests pneumatic actuation offers a
net improvement. When the better performance of pneumatic valve actuation is factored in, the
energy gained by eliminating the friction and inertia of mechanical actuation appears to more
than offset the energy required to compress and distribute air to actuate the LIM valves.
8. What is the parasitic loss associated with running an air compressor on the engine? It depends
on the market since, obviously, heavy duty vehicles already have compressors fitted, but this
implies a 150k mile durability expectation.

Testing needs to be done on a complete engine, but we would be surprised if the losses
from compressing air for valve management were to exceed the losses of operating a
camshaft, lifters, rockers, and opening valves against stiff springs. Even if losses from
operating our digitally managed system exceed those of a comparable, conventional, cambased system, the benefits of increased variability may justify the added energy cost. Some
parasitic losses can be beneficial :
Modern diesels use very high-pressure fuel pumps that demand far more energy than
old style pumps, but are justified by a better running engine, lower emissions, and
greater fuel efficiency.
Mercedes Kompressor models have mechanical superchargers which, of course, cost
energy to operate, but the low-end power benefit has value to consumers.

The heavy duty vehicle market already has engine-driven compressors for air brake systems
that meet the 150k mile durability expectation, although that may vary depending on duty
cycle (long-haul vs. local), so we expect to be able to find---or have Bendix or some other
maker build---a similar compressor with sufficient output pressure to meet our needs.

9. There is no conventional valve stem, and the L/D ratio of the valve guiding mechanism will
promote jamming / sticking / variation in the friction coefficient which will result in a variation in
the opening and closing timing of the 2 intake or 2 exhaust valves of a 4 valve engine. This will
cause significant issues with combustion.
The L/D (length to diameter) ratio of our valves is less extreme than most modern piston
designs. In practice, we havent encountered this problem since 2003, when it was caused by a
fabrication error. Although the L/D ratio for the current LIM valve may not be ideal---assuming a
ratio of 1.5 as a rule of thumb for an unguided piston---the absence of any side load on our
valves is a mitigating factor. The valves are actuated only by a combination of internal
(management air) and external (induction and compression air) pressures. If testing indicates
the current L/D ratio is a problem, well use low-friction materials or coatings on the valve and
its bore, lengthen the valve, or both.
10. The exhaust valve and port will be subject to very high temperatures which will likely lead to
durability concerns (heads drop off valves, valves stuck)

We have yet to test a LIM type exhaust valve in a 4-stroke engine. When funding is
available, such tests will of course be required.

As with any poppet valve, the valve face of a LIM valve, when closed, is in full contact with
the valve seat for proper sealing and heat transfer. The valve guide, i.e., the exhaust valve
bore in the head of a 4-stroke, will be actively cooled. Since the stem (body) of a LIM valve
has far more surface area than a conventional valve stem, we think it should have a higher
rate of heat transfer and might therefore run cooler than an exhaust valve in a conventional
4-stroke engine of similar output.

11. The LIM reverse uniflow 2-stroke concept is not new and, except for the LIM valve, I dont see
significant invention associated with the engine. The main driver for any uniflow engine is to
improve the scavenging, enabling improved combustion. The main driver for a standard uniflow
(in through the cylinder liner, out through the head) is to avoid overheating the liner resulting in
bore distortion and poor engine durability. The reverse flow will still achieve the good
scavenging, but will not overcome the temperature issue.

Reverse uniflow is not original to LIM. The digital pneumatic valve train is our original design
for a less complicated, more precise, and more energy-efficient induction system.

We think loop scavenged gasoline 2-strokes are at more risk of cylinder distortion,
particularly assymetrical distortion, than the LIM engine. Unlike the uniform placement of
exhaust ports around the LIM cylinder wall, the exhaust port in a loop scavenged engine is
opposite the cooler intake port, yet such engines run at high rpm and are relatively durable.

Our 2-stroke engine block will have wet liners and modular construction. Each liner will be
cast with a thick collar of extra material around its middle through which the exhaust ports
will be machined. This collar will minimize distortion from exhaust heat by 1) stiffening the
liner in the exhaust port area, 2) increasing the thickness of the liner to increase its capacity
for heat absorption, and 3) increasing its surface area in direct contact with coolant for
maximum heat dissipation. We think this will resolve the temperature issue. And the reverse
uniflow configuration may result in lower peak combustion temps and, therefore, less NOx.

Air pressure -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12. How will you generate the air pressure needed to actuate the valves?
A micro-compressor would be driven by the engine, by an electric motor, or by regenerative
braking. An accumulator (air storage tank) would allow the compressor to run intermittently. At
times of heavy load or rapid acceleration, air for the valves could be supplied from the tank to
avoid any drag on engine output if the compressor were engine-driven. The tank would also
store air to actuate the valves during starting.

13. How much air pressure is needed to actuate LIM valves?

Bench tests, and actually running a single-cylinder, proof-of-concept diesel engine with airactuated LIM valves, have shown that maintaining a system pressure of about 8 bar (115 psi)
would be sufficient to run a LIM engine up to 8000 rpm.

Cost and weight reduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------14. What is the cost of the compressor? The Fiat multi-air is one of the more expensive VVA
systems in use. The best way to look at this is that the entire system cost delta must be less
than the Fiat multi-air.

So far we have not found a suitable off-the-shelf compressor. Nonetheless, mechanical

displacement compressors are not very high tech, so developing an appropriate compressor
for the output and duty cycle we need should not be a major cost consideration.

Fiats MultiAir system uses a camshaft, the LIM system doesnt. Our compressor might not
cost much more than Fiats camshaft, sprockets, chain, tensioners, and related hardware.

15. To reduce cost and weight, how many parts could be eliminated by changing from a 4-stroke
engine to a (smaller) LIM 2-stroke of similar (or greater) output?
A former Harley-Davidson engineer researched how many parts could be eliminated by
replacing a Harley 4-stroke DOHC gasoline engine with a LIM 2-stroke diesel. Because of the
LIM engine's higher torque, he included eliminating one or two gears from the transmission.

Possible Harley Parts Eliminated

About 60 parts not including fasteners
Camshaft, front.
Camshaft, rear.
Secondary cam drive chain.
Primary cam drive chain.
Chain tensioner guide kit, includes lower, front, and rear
Chain drive kit, includes chain, front and rear sprockets.
Many bushings, gaskets, O-rings.
Rocker arm, front intake, rear exhaust x 2.
Rocker arm, rear intake, front exhaust x 2.
Rocker cover x 2.
Rocker housing x 2.
Lifter cover, front.
Lifter cover, rear.
Rocker arm support x 2.
Breather assembly kit x 2.
1 or 2 gears from the transmission.

Rocker arm shaft x 4.

Pushrod, exhaust x 2.
Pushrod, intake x 2.
Pushrod lower cover x 4.
guides.
Pushrod cover spring cap x 4.
Pushrod cover spring x 4.
Pushrod upper cover x 4.
Spring cap retainer x 4.
Anti-rotation pin x 2.
Hydraulic lifter x 4.
Breather valve x 2.
Breather filter element x 2.
Valve seal x 4.
Valve spring x 4.
Valve spring collar x 4.
Valve spring collar retainer x 8.
Rubber mounts x 2-3.
Tie rods.