Q-1: what is wastewater engineering?

Answer:
Wastewater engineering is the branch of engineering in which the basic principle of science
and engineering our applied to solving the issue associate with the treatment disposal and
resource of wastewater.

Q-2: what is the ultimate goal of wastewater engineering?

Answer:
The ultimate goal of wastewater engineering is the protection of public health in a manner
commensurate with environmental economical social and political concern.
Q-3: what is the necessary knowledge required of wastewater engineering?
Answer:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Constituents of concerns in wastewater.

Impacts of these constituents when wastewater is disposed into the environment.
The transportation and long term safe of these constituents untreatment process.
Treatment method that can be sued to remove or modify the constituent found in
wastewater
e) Method for beneficial use or disposal of solids generated by the treatment system.
Q-4: what are the important terminologies used in wastewater engineering?
Answer:
a) Bacteria (aerobic, anaerobic, facultative)
b) Invert
c) Refuse ( garbage, sewage, storm water, subsoil water, sullage)
Sewage => combined, sewage, crude / raw sewage dilute/ weak sewage,
domestic/ sanitary sewage.
Dry weather flow, fresh sewage industrial sewage septic sewage wet weather
flow.
Sewer => branch/ submain sewer combined sewer common sewer, depressed
sewer, intiseptic sewer lateral sewer main sewer outfall sewer relief/ outer
flow sewer.

Q-5: draw the schematic diagram of a wastewater management.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a wastewater management

Department of Civil Engineering

Assignment No.: 01

Course No.: CE-431

Course Title: Environmental Engineering-ii

Assignment on: Environmental sanitation
Date of issue: 23.11.2013

Date of submission: 028.11.2013

Submitted To:

Submitted By:

MD. Saydure Rahman

MD. Majnu Miah

Department of Civil Engineering.

Shahajalal University Science
&Technology

Registration No.: 1003060002

Semester: (4/1) @ Fall 2013
Day Shift: 2nd Batch
1

Question-1: What is Environmental sanitation?

Answer:
Environmental sanitation may be defined as the science and practice of effecting
healthful and hygienic condition and it also refers to proper maintenance of trash and garbage
to support a healthy environment use of hygiene and involve the study measured such as
a. Safe, reliable water supply
b. Proper drainage of wastewater
c. Proper disposal of all human waste
d. Prompt removal of all refuse

Question-2: Show the interrelationship between water, sanitation and health education.
Answer:
Interrelationship between are water, sanitation and health education. The importance
of health education in improving health has been clearly demonstrated in water supply and
sanitation situation of Bangladesh. Despite tremendous success in improving access to safe
water during the International Drinking Water Supply and sanitation decades, water and
excreta related diseases remaining the major cause of mortality and morbidity in Bangladesh.
The health situation in Bangladesh however is gradually improving with the infant mortality
rate decline to 77per 1000 live births in 1996, with the gradual important of the sanitation
coverage (33% of rural population and 42% of urban population in 1993) and more
importantly with the introduction of an integrated approach of water, sanitation and hygiene
education.

Sanitatio
n

Water
supply

Improveme
nt of health

s
Health
Education

Figure: Interrelationship between water, sanitation and health education

2

Question-3: Discuss the environmental classification of excreta related disease in

tabular form.
Answer: Environmental classification of excreta related diseases
Category

Environmental
transmission features

Example of infection

Environmental
transmission focuse

1.Non-bacterial faecal- Non-latent low to

oral diseases
medium
persistence
unable to multiply high
infectively
no
intermediate host

Viral: hepatitis A&E Personal domestic

rotavirus diarrhoea
Protozoan: amoebiasis
Crystosporidiasis
Giaediasis Helminthic:
Enterobiasis
Hymenolepiasis

2. Bacterial faecal-oral Non-latent

diseases
Medium
to
high
persistence
Able
to
multiply
Medium
to
low
infectivity
no
intermediate host
3.Geohelminthiases
Latent very persistent
unable to multiply very
infectivity
no
intermediate host

Campylobacteriosis
Personal
cholera
pathogenic water crops
E.Coil
infection
salmonellosis
shigellosis
Typhoid
Yersiniosis
Ascarisis hookworm. Peri-domestic
Strongyloidiasis
crops
Trichuriasis

domestic

field

4.Taeniases

Latent persistent able Taeniasis

to multiply very high
infectivity intermediate
host-cow-or pig

Peri-domestic
crops

field

5.water-based
helminthiases

Latent persistent able Schistosomiasis

to multiply very high clonorhiasis
infectivity intermediate fasciolopsiasis
aquatic host

Water flash
species
vegetables

aquatic
aquatic

6.Excreta
related
insect-vector diseases

Infections
1-3 Peri-domestic water
transmitted
Peri-domestic
mechanically by files
and
crockroaches
bancroftian
filariasis
transmitted by culex
quinquefasciatus
Infections1-3
water
Transmitted
mechanically
by
rodents leptospirosis

7.Excreta
related
rodent-vector diseases

Question-4: Draw the flow diagram of disease transmission and sanitation.

Answer:

Tubewells/wate treatment

water

Excreta
Food sanitation

S
a
ni
ta
ti
o
n
fa
ci
lit
ie
s

Sanitari letrines

Hands
Sanitari letrines

Insectcs
Food sanitation

personal hygn

Milk
food
vegeta
ble

New
Host

Sanitari letrines

Soil
Foot wear

Figure: Diseases Transmisssion and sanitation

Question-5: What is sanitation system?

Answer:
A sanitation system involves all arrangment necessary to store, collect, proces and dilivered
human waste or other form of waste back to nature in a manner.
Irrespective of the santation system as a whole, the performance of the toilet of the latrine
itself is very important, as it is the crucial issue for the users regarding diseases transmition
4

aesthetics and comfort. It is also important that the letrine is connected to a proper collection
and disposal system. The primary objective of sanitation would not be achieved with
someone using a toilet whice is not cleaned regularly, in which the flushing cistern isnot
working or the waterage not functioning properly, even if his toilet is connected to waterborn
sewerage the most expensive of all sanitation system. On the other hand, a clean latrine if not
connected to a proper collection and disposal system, would not bring any benefit to the
users. In both the cases the main purpose of sanitation will be defeated.
Suitability of sanitation system is also very sensitive to the level of water supply. For
instance, on-site dry pit ;atrine system would not be appropriate with yard tap or multiple tap
in-house piped water supply system. On the other hand, waterborn sewerage system is not a
feasible option with bucket carried or hand pump water supply. Choece of a sanitation being
more appropriate for low density rural settingand off-site systemfor high density urban
centres.

Environmental Engineering II
Course code: CE - 431

Chapter Name: Environmental Sanitation

Question: 06 Write down the name of proper sanitation system, discuss them briefly.

Solution:

The knowledge of proper sanitation system is essential for a better health & hygiene. There are
four types of proper sanitation system.
On-site system
Off-site system
Dry system
Wet system

On-site system:

On-site system is a sanitation system where the wastes are collected, treated & disposed at the
point of generation. In example, pit latrine & septic tank systems. This system is widely used in
rural area where absence of costly sewerage system in both developing & developed countries.
The simplest on-site sanitation system is pit-latrine where a manually dug pit covered by
concrete, wooden, bamboo or concrete slab with a squatting hole. A superstructure is erected
over the pit to ensure privacy. In this system the solid retained on the pit but the waters get
infiltrate.
Meanwhile this system is suitable for rural area with low density of population because in highly
populated area the liquid portion of excreta may infiltrate and causes a potential pollution of
ground water. Also it is not feasible for low infiltration rate of soil and high water table.

Fig: On-site Pit latrine

Fig: Off-site septic tank

Off-site system:

Off-site system is a sanitation system where the wastes are collected & transported to somewhere
else for treatment & disposal. Such as bucket latrine systems & conventional sewerage system.
This system can be found in urban area of developing and developed countries but the tradition
of bucket latrine system is vanished nowadays.
In this system the waste is collected either through house sewers and transported through sewer
system to the treatment plant for further treatment & then disposed or reuse.
The collection & transportation of the wastes through a sewer reticulation system requires that
the waste to be diluted by water so it is essential that the pipe water system is available. This
system is most satisfactory system of waste disposal but costly in construction and maintenance.

Dry system:

Dry sanitation system is known as eco-sanitation system. This approaches usually requires the
separation of urine & solid. Such as pit-latrine system & bucket latrine systems. In dry sanitation
systems no water is used for dilution of waste. They are usually applied in unsewered areas
where no pipe water supply is available. Several types of dry sanitation systems have been used
in China, central America, Sweden & elsewhere.

Wet system:

Waste is diluted with flushes of water is known as wet sanitation system. These systems are
suitable where piped water supplies are available. Such as septic tank systems (on-site) and
conventional sewerage systems (off-site). This is a mostly used system in urban area of
developing country & developed area.
A sanitation system can be classified as either permeable or confined depending upon whether
the system allows infiltration. In confined systems the infiltration do not allow to infiltrate in the
ground, e,g., aqua privies, septic tanks etc. In permeable system water is permitted to infiltrate,
e.g., pit latrine.

Wet system is quite good for health and hygiene but pit latrine system is not feasible if the water
table is higher. For instance, septic tank can be disposed of into a soakage pit for on-site
treatment & disposal.

Question : 07

Show the various sanitation system based on water consumption level

and population density.

Solution:

The figure belows shows various sanitation systems based on water consumption level and
population density. (Source : Veenstra et. Al., 1997)

The graph shows that the use of dry off-site, on-site & wet off-site, on-site sanitation systems in
terms of population density and level of water supply. From the graph it is visible that the water
supply in rural area is less & high for urban area and that is the possible reason for dry on-site
sanitation system in rural area & wet off-site sanitation system in urban area. In rural area the

sewer line is not available but urban area has that facility. Thats the reason wet off-site
sanitation is adopted in urban area with higher population density.

Question : 08

What are the important factors for sanitation that are considered in
Bangladesh, discuss them briefly.

Solution:

There are several important factors which are considered for sanitation in Bangladesh. There is a
brief discussion given below.
Housing Density:

Single pit latrines are suitable for use in rural areas or urban areas with low density
up to about 300 peoples per hectare.

At higher densities alternating double pit-latrine can be feasible.

Small bore sewers and community latrine cum biogas plant can be more appropriate
solution.

Water supply service level:

In areas where water use is low (less than 30 l/c/d) or where water has to carried from
public standpost, tubuwells or communal wells, pit latrines are feasible sanitation
system option.

Difficulties associated with pit latrines:

Digging pits in loose and unconsolidated soils are difficult.

Pit latrines can be vulnerable in areas subjected to annual flooding or where water
tables rise during monsoon.

Flooding causes damage to durability of latrines & contaminate the surrounding water
bodies.

Its expensive to setup pit latrines in rocky ground.

Operation and maintenance:

Cleanliness is of utmost importance for latrines.

Fouled & unhygienic latrines can be found all over the country which transmit the
diseases.

The water seal often breaks down & pan blocks due to garbage thrown.

Soil Permeability:

Soils with permeability below 2.5mm per hour are unsuitable for pit latrines as liquid
fraction of excreta unable to infiltrate into the soil leading overflow of pits.

Ground water pollution:

The disposition of excreta may pollute water sources.

The danger increases when the pit dug down to water table or pond located nearby.

The bacterial contamination may spread as far as the distance travelled by the ground
water in ten days.

It is important to locate pits at-least 10m away from tubewells.

Question : 09

Discuss the difficulties associated with the usual pit latrine.

Solution:

Difficulties associated with the usual pit latrine:

There are many difficulties for setting a pit latrine which are stated below.

Single pit latrines are not suitable for high density populated per hectare.

Digging pits in loose and unconsolidated soils are difficult.

Pit latrines can be vulnerable in areas subjected to annual flooding or where water tables
rise during monsoon.

Flooding causes damage to durability of latrines & contaminate the surrounding water
bodies.

Its expensive & difficult to setup pit latrines in rocky ground.

A fouled & unhygienic pit latrine transmits the diseases.

The water seal often breaks down & pan blocks due to garbage thrown.

Soils with permeability below 2.5mm per hour are unsuitable for pit latrines as liquid
fraction of excreta unable to infiltrate into the soil leading overflow of pits.

The disposition of excreta may pollute water sources.

The danger increases when the pit dug down to water table or pond located nearby.

There is a frequent and cleaning is needed for pit latrine.

Its needed to change the location of pit if it is full.

Prepared by:
Md. Musfiqur Rahman
I.D : 1003060009 (4/1)
Department of Civil Engineering
Leading University, Sylhet.

Leading University
Department of Civil Engineering

Assignment No: 01
Assignment Name: Health, Hygiene & use of facilities(Q:01-03)
Course code: CE-431
Course Name: Environmental Engineering II

Submitted To,
Prof. Muhammad Shahidur Rahman
Lecturer
Department of civil Engineering,(SUST), Sylhet

Submitted By,
Name: Humayun Asad Tapadar
ID.No: 1003060005
Department: Civil Engineering
Semester: 4/1.
Date of Submission: 28/ 11 /2013.

01. Classify the water related disease with description in a tabular form.
Answer: Classification of water related diseases:
Transmission route
01.Water- borne or
water- washed

02.Water- washed

03.Water-based

04.Water-related

Description
Transmission by
consumption of
contaminated water
or person to person
transmission due to
lack of water and
domestic cleanliness
Person-to-person
transmission due to
lack of water and
domestic cleanliness
Transmission via an
intermediate host,
which lives in water
Transmission by
insects which breed
insects vector in
water or bite near
water

Disease Group
Feco-oral

Example
Diarrhoeal disease,
Dysentery Typhoid.

Skin and eye

infections for
personal

Trachoma scabies

Water-based

Schistosomiasis

Water-related insects
vector

Malaria, Filariasis

02. Draw the faecal-oral routes of disease transmission.

Answer:
Water

Fingers
Food

Faeces

Flies

Soil

Figure: Faecal-oral routes of disease transmission.

Mouth

03. Describe the transmission patterns and preventive measure for water and sanitation related
disease in tabular form.
Answer:
Infection
Various types of
diarrhoea,
dysenteries,
typhoid and
paratyphoid

Roundworm
(Ascariasis),
Whipworm
(Trichuriasis)

Hookworm

Beef and pork

tapeworms

Schistosomiasis
(bilharzia)

Transmission patterns
From human faeces to mouth
(faecal-oral) via multiple routes of
faecally contaminated water,
fingers and hands, food, soil and
surface. Animal faeces may also
contain diarrhoeal disease
organisms.
From faeces to mouth: Worm eggs
in human faeces have to reach soil
to develop into an ineffective stage
before being ingested through raw
food, dirty hands and playing with
things that have been in contact
with infected soil. Soil on feet and
shoes can transport eggs long
distances. Animals eating human
faeces pass on the eggs in their
own faeces.
From faeces to skin (especially
feet): Worm eggs in the faeces
have to reach moist soil, where
they hatch into larvae which enter
the skin of people's feet.
From faeces to animals to humans:
A worm eggs in human faeces are
ingested by a cow or pig where
they develop into ineffective cysts
in the animals muscles.
Transmission occurs when a person
cats raw or insufficiently cooked
meat.
From faeces or urine to skin: Worm
eggs in human faeces or urine have
to reach water where they hatch
and enter snails. In the snails they
develop and are passed on as free
swimming "Cereariae" which
penetrate the skin when people

Major preventive measure

b
c
d
e

Guinea worm

Scabies, ringworm,
yaws

Trachoma,
conjunctivitis

Louse-borne
typhus, louse borne
replacing fever

Malaria, yellow
fever, dengue
Bancroftian
filariasis

come into contact with infested

waters. In the Asian version of the
infection. Animal faeces also
contain eggs.
From skin to mouth: The worm
discharges larvae from a wound in
a person's leg while in water. These
larvae are swallowed by tiny
"water fleas" (cyclops), and people
are infected when they drink this
contaminated water.
From skin to skin: Both through
direct skin contact and through
shearing of clothes, bedclothes and
towels.
From eyes to eyes: Both direct
contact with the discharge from an
infected eye and through contact
with articles soiled by a discharge,
such as towels, bedding, clothing,
wash basins, washing water. Flies
may also act as transmission
agents.
From person to person: Through
bites of body lice which travel from
person to person through direct
contact and through shearing
clothes and bedclothes, particularly
when underwear is not regularly
washed.
From person to person through the
bite of an infected mosquito. The
mosquito breeds in standing water.
From person to person through
a
numerous bites by infected
mosquitoes. The mosquitoes breed
in direct water.

Here ,
a=Safe human excreta disposal ; b=Personal hygiene; c=Domestic hygiene(an animal
management); d=Food hygiene; e=Water hygiene, safe water consumption; f=Waste water
disposal and drainage.

Environmental Engineering II
Question No- 04

what is Hygiene education? Why is it important?

Answer:
Hygiene education: Hygiene education can be define as a process which promotes
conditions and practices that prevent water and sanitation related diseases.
Hygiene education is an important component of water supply and sanitation programmers
because it:
Helps users to appreciate the need for proper water supply and sanitation facilities.
Maximizes the potential health benefits of improved water supply and sanitation
facilities.
Helps users to appreciate the need for proper operation and maintenance of improved
water supply and sanitation facilities.
Creates a willingness to contribute to the operation and maintenance costs.

Question No- 05:

Describe the difference between conventional and promising hygiene

education approaches.

AnswerConventional hygiene education approaches are:

Universal hygiene education massages, not targeting specific groups.
No prioritization of massages, too many massages dilute the potential impact.
Unrealistic messages that cannot be followed.
Use of methods like one-way mass media which are often unsuitable for creating
behavioral change.

Promising hygiene education approaches are:

Based on present behaviors, prevalent diseases, beliefs and knowledge of a specific
group of people.
Take gender differences into account.
Target behavioral change which is highly likely to be achieved.

 Use participatory methods to facilitate behavioral change.

Question No- 06

Draw the diagram describing behavioral change.

Answer-

Positive
views from
others

Positive
attitude to
change

Behavioural
Change

Skill
Time
Means
Examples

Question No- 07

Mention the preventive measures helpful in intercepting diseases

transmission.

AnswerThere are some important steps, which helps to prevent intercepting diseases transmission:
Safe human excreta disposal.
Personal hygiene.
Domestic hygiene.
Food hygiene.
Water hygiene / consumption of safe water.
Safe waste water disposal and drainage.

Simple pit Latrines

The pit latrines are the most common and simplest form of excreta disposal in many
developing countries. These are almost universally acceptable in rural areas and are also
widely used in low-income urban communities, although often not appropriate. They are,
however, the cheapest system possible and the system most appropriate for individual
householders responsible for there own sanitation.
A pit consists of a manually dug or bored hole into the ground, an appropriate seat or
squatting slab, and a super structure erected over it. The pit is simply a hole in the ground into
which excreta fall. Urine and other liquids soak into the ground and solid materials are
retained and decomposed in the pit.

Figure 1 Conventional simple pit latrine.

General design considerations for pit latrines;

The pit should be as large as possible. However, it should not more than 1.5m wide,
other wise construction of the cover slab will be more expensive.

Soils with low permeability are unsuitable for pit latrines as the liquid of excreta is
unable to infiltrate into the soil.

Pits in unstable soil must be fully lined, otherwise there is risk that the pit will
collapse and the superstructure may fall into it. A wide variety of materials can be
used to lone the pit.

Safe distance between the latrine pit and a source of drinking water e.g., tube well
should be provided in order to allow foe sufficient residence time for the pathogens to
be eliminated.

Pit latrine design;

Effective pit volume: The effective pit volume depends on the solids accumulation rate, the
number of users and the desired life of pit. The effective volume can be calculated as

Where,

V=Effective volume of the pit in m3

C=Solids accumulation rate in m3/person/year
P=Number of persons who will be use the latrine
N=Design life in years.
The total pit size for a pit latrine can exceeding 4.0m in depth can be determine, as suggested
by Kalbermatten et al.(1980), by the following relationship:
= 1.33

Advantages and disadvantages of pit latrines:

The main advantages of a simple pit latrine are:

Least costly

Easily constructed and maintained.

Structurally safe and therefore free from the risk of the children falling into it, and
thus less frightening for children.

Prevents hookworm transmission.

Offers a better solution than open defection and unhygienic hanging latrines.

The most serious disadvantage of a simple pit latrine is:

Flies lay their eggs in faces within poorly built latrines. Increase in the fly population
increases spread of diseases caused by the faecal pathogens they carry:

odor nuisance

Improper lining of pits may lead collapse of the superstructure.

VENTILARED IMPROVED PIT (VIP) LATRINES:

Ventilated improved pit latrines, commonly known as VIP latrines, are an improvement to
overcome the disadvantage of the simple pit latrines. The main associated with traditional
simple pit latrines i.e. fly and mosquito nuisance and unpleasant odours, are effectively
minimized by the action of a vent pipe, fly screen and a squatting cover in the VIP latrines.
The whole system is properly engineered as an effective sanitation option for both rural and
urban areas by designing the pit either as a single pit or an alternate twin-pit system
permitting safe manual removal of the digested solids may be installed.
Elements of VIP latrines:
The basic elements of a VIP latrine are:

The pit, which can be either a single pit or an alternating twin-pit; in either case, the
pit should be lined with open joint brickwork or prefabricates concreted rings; the
lining prevents soil collapse during emptying operation or during heavy rains, and the
open joints allow liquids allow liquids to allow liquids to infiltrate into the soil:

A cover slab, usually of reinforced concrete, which covers the pit and has two holesthe squat hole and the other for the vent pipe:

A superstructure for privacy and protection from rain and sun, which can be built
according to the choices of the users;

The vent pipe and the fly screen which keep the latrine free from files, mosquitoes,
and unpleasant odours.

Figure 2: The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine

Single-pit latrines;
Single pit VIP latrines are consist of one pit, a vent pipe and a superstructure and are suitable
where mechanical emptying is possible when the pit is full. Manual emptying is not
recommended, as the excreta at the top are fresh and potentially dangerous for the emptier.
Usually they are designed for a longer life (e.g, ten years) and act as permanent structures.
Alternating twin-pit VIP latrines;
Alternative twin-pit VIP latrines have two separate pits, each with their own vent pipe, and
the superstructure is located centrally over the off-set pits. The slab covering the pits has two
squat holes, one over each pit. Only one squat hole and pit are used at a time, the squat hole
over the other pit being closed by a concrete plug. when this pit is full, say, after 1-3 years,
when the second pit is full, the contents of first pit are removed and it is put back into service.

Figure 3: Alternating twin-pit VIP latrine.

Design considerations for VIP latrines;

Design life: For single pit latrine the design life should be as long as possible: at least 10
years is desirables. The longer the design life it is good.
Dimensions; usually the pit cross section area should not be more then 2m2 in order to avoid
cover slabs with large spans.
Vent pipe; vent pipe of a wide variety of materials are used, for example polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), unplasticized PVC (uPVC), bricks, etc.
Flyscreen specification; the purpose of the fly screen is to prevent passage of flies and
mosquitoes.
Relocation and empty of pits: When single pit VIP latrines become full, there are two option:
1) construct of a new latrine on an adjacent site, or 2) Empty the existing pit.
Soakaway; A VIP latrine with adjacent Soakaway increases the pit life. The latrine pit is
completely sealed with cement mortar or mortared brick work and a PVC pipe of 75mm dia
which leads to the adjacent Soakaway is attached at a height of about 2.25m above the pit
base.
Advantages and disadvantages;
The major advantages of VIP latrine technology are as follows;

Controls odour and insects;

Minimum health risk;

Low cost;

Easy construction and maintenance;

Minimum water requirement;

Twin-pit VIP latrine system offers a long-term solution.

The main disadvantage of a VIP option may as follows:

Potential for ground water pollution

Lack of space for relocating the pit in densely populated areas:

Difficulty of construction in rocky and high water table areas.

REED ODOURELESS EARTH CLOSET (ROEC):

The reed odorless earth closet is a variation in the ventilated improvement pit latrine. With
ROEC, the pit is fully off-set from the superstructure and is connected to the squatting plate
by a curve chute.
The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control odour and insect nuisance. It is claimed that
the chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack, encourages vigorous air circulation down
the latrine, thereby removing odours and discouraging flies. This latrine is common in south
Africa. The design considerations and design principles of ROEC are similar to those of a
single pit VIP latrine.

Figure 4: The reed odourless earth closet (ROEC)

Advantages and disadvantages of ROEC:

The important advantages of ROECs are as follows:

ROEC pit can be made larger as the superstructures are fully off-set and thus can have
a longer life than VIP latrine.
Pit can be easily empted without disturbing the superstructure and it can be a
permanent facility;
There is no danger of users, particularly children, falling into it.
It may be more acceptable to users because the excreta cannot see.

The main disadvantages are as follows;

The ROEC chute easily becomes fouled with excreta, thereby providing a possible
site for fly breeding and odour nuisance:
The chute has to be regularly cleaned with a along-handled brush or a small amount
of water.

COMPOST LATRINES;
The basic principle of a compost latrine is that aerobic decomposition of faeces generates
sufficient heat to destroy the pathogens and forms a good soil conditioner/fertilizer for
subsequent use. Necessary conditions for the compost process include an appropriate carbon
to nitrogen (C/N) ratio, a low moisture content and access to air to ensure aerobic conditions.
There are two types of compost latrines with variations in details:

Continuous compost latrine

Batch compost latrine

Continuous compost latrine:

Continues compost latrines are extremely sensitive to the degree of user care because the
humus has to be removed at the correct rate, organic matter has to be added in correct
quantities, and only a minimum of liquid can be used. Human excreta and vegetable wastes
are added to a receptacle which is commonly made of fiberglass.
Batch compost latrine:
The most common type of compost latrine is the batch or double vault system. It has two
watertight chambers or vaults used alternately which may be constructed either above or
below ground and may have sealed or impermeable bases. One vault is until nearly full the
remaining space is filled with dry soil or organic matter, such as leaves or grass, and then it is
sealed while the second vault is used.

Figure 5: Features of continuous compost latrine.

Advantages and disadvantages:

The following are the major advantages of compost latrines:

Appropriate for use in areas where there is a tradition of using human excreta on the
land.
Can be useful in areas where there is a need for soil conditioner.
Need no water for flushing because composting is most efficient if the materials is
moist but not wet.

The disadvantages are follows:

Need organic waste to correct the C/N ratio of the excreta and a substantial amount of
biodegradable organic matters must be locally available.
Need care in their operation, and should be applied where users are keen to operate
the system carefully to obtain compost for fields or gardens.
This type of latrine is not very suitable for areas where people prefer water for anal
cleansing.

If correct measures are not taken, the contents of the latrine can easily become too wet
and fly breeding will result.
If the wastes are not stored for a long enough period of time.

Figure 6: Double vault compost latrine.

Figure 7: The direct pit pour-flush latrine.

POUR- FLSAH SANITATION TECHNOLOGIS:

Pour flush sanitation technologies is a future improvement to the simple pit latrine in that it
offers better odour and insect control by a water seal and is widely acceptable as a low-cost
sanitation alternative. The most vital part of the pour-flush sanitary latrine is the water seal
incorporated between the squatting plate or seat and the pit, which essentially prevents
unpleasant odoures and insects from entering the latrine compartment. The pour -flush latrine
has three major components parts: a) the superstructure, b) the latrine pan with its water seal,
and c) a single or alternating twin leach pits. There are two basic types of pour flash latrines.

Direct pit pour-flush latrine.

Off set pit pour flush latrine.

Direct pit pour-flush latrine: The first is a modification of the simple pit latrine in which the
squatting plate is provided with a 25mm water seal and is placed directly over the pit as show
below.

Figure 8: Single off set pit pour-flush latrine.

Off-set pit pour flush latrine:

The second type has a completely off-set pit connected to the pour-flush pan by a
short length of 100mm diameter pipe. The type can be termed an offset pit pourflash latrine which can even be installed inside house, as it is free from faecal odour
and insect problems, thus avoiding the need for a separate superstructure. This can
further be classified as single off-set pit pour-flush latrine.
Advantages and disadvantages of pour-flush technology:
The main advantages of pour-flush latrine are given below.

Less expensive compared to conventional latrines.

Offer appropriate and hygienic solution of excreta disposal.
Required low volume of water for flushing.
Can be upgraded to connect to a sewer system or septic tank system.
Eliminate odours, insects and fly breeding.
Safe for children.
Can be located, if desired, inside the house.
Potential for resource recovery using the sludge as soil conditioner.
Easy construction and maintenance of single pit pour-flush latrine.

The disadvantages are follows:

Required separated sullage disposal facilities.

Water must be available throughout the year.
Water seal may be clogged easily if garbage is through into it.
Construction is difficult and expensive in areas with high groundwater and shallow
soil overlying hard rock.
Risk of polluting nearby nearby water sources.

Assignment
On
On Site Human Waste Management: Technological Option (Ques: 2-5)
Course Title: Environmental Engineering - 2
Course Code: CE-431
Submitted To:
Muhammad Shahidur Rahman
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
SUST, Sylhet.

Submitted by:
MD. RASEL-UL-ALAM
ID: 1001060004
Department of Civil Engineering
Leading University, Sylhet.

Date of Submission: 26th November 2013

Page 1 of 8

02. What are the general design considerations for pit latrine?
Answer:
General design consideration for pit latrines:

The pit should be as large as possible. However, it should not be more than 1.5m
wide; otherwise construction of the cover slab will be more expensive.

Soils with low permeability (below 2.5mm/hours) are unsuitable for pit latrines as
the liquid portion of excreta is unable to infiltration into the soil.

Pits in unstable soils must be fully lined, otherwise there is risk that the pit will
collapse and the superstructure may fall into it. A wide variety of materials can be
used to line the pit; for example, concrete rings, bricks, cement-stabilized soil
blocks, masonry, perforated oil drums, etc. The pit can also be strengthened
against collapse by putting a ring beam around the upper part.

Safe distance between the latrine pit and a source of drinking water e.g., tube
well, should be provided in order to allow for sufficient residence time for the
pathogens to be eliminated. In absence of at least 10.0m should be provided.

03. What are the general design considerations for VIP latrine?
Answer:
General design considerations for VIP latrine:

Design Life: for single-pit VIP latrines, the design life should be as long as
possible; at least 10 years is desirables. The longer the design life, the longer the
interval between relocating or emptying the latrine. For alternating twin-pit VIP
latrines the design life should be 1-3 years.

Dimensions: Usually the pit cross-sectional area should not be more than 2

in

order to avoid cover slabs with large spans. In practice, VIP latrines serving one
household commonly have a diameter of 1-1.5m or, in case of square or
rectangular pits, a width of 1-1.5m.

Page 2 of 8

Vent Pipe: Vent pipes of a wide variety of materials are used, for example,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), unplasticized PVC (uPVC), bricks, etc. Whatever
material is used, its durability (including corrosion resistance), availability, cost
and ease of construction are important factors. The vent pipe should be
sufficiently long so that the roof does not interfere with the action of wind across
the top of the vent pipe. For flat roofs, top of the vent pipe should be at least
500mm higher than the roof, and in case of sloping roofs the vent pipe should be
500mm above the highest point of the roof.

The internal diameter of the vent pipe depends on the required venting velocity
necessary to achieve the recommended ventilation rate of 20

/hr. This is turn

depends on factors like internal surface roughness of the pipe, its length (which
determines the friction losses), the head loss through the fly screen and wind
directions. Current recommendations for minimum internal size of vent pipes are
as follows:

PVC

150 mm diameter

Bricks

230 mm square

Others

230 mm diameter

Flyscreen specification: The purpose of the fly screen is to prevent passage of

flies and mosquitoes; therefore, the mesh aperture must not be larger than 1.2mm
x 1.5mm. The fly screen must be made of corrosion-resistance a material that is
able to withstand intense rainfall, high temperatures and strong sunlight. It is
preferable to use stainless steel screens.

04. Discuss the various important processes that take place in a septic tank?
Answer:
Although a septic tank is simply a sedimentation basin with no external or internal
moving parts or added chemicals, the natural processes that take place within the tank are
complex, and interact with each other. The most important processes that take place

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within the tank include separation of suspended solids, digestion of sludge and scum,
stabilization of the liquid, and growth of micro-organisms.
Separation of suspended solids is a mechanical process which results in the formation of
three distinct layers in the septic tank - a layer of sludge at the bottom, a floating layer of
scum on the top and a relatively clear layer of liquid in the middle.
Anaerobic bacteria degrade the organic matter in the sludge as well as in the scum and as
a result of this bacterial action, volatile acids are formed at the first instance and
eventually are converted mostly to water, carbon dioxide and methane. The formation of
gases in the sludge layer causes irregular floatation of sludge flocs that resettle after the
release of the gas at the surface.
Organic materials in the liquid are also stabilized by anaerobic bacteria, which break
down complex substances into simpler ones in a process similar to the one that take place
in the sludge layer.
A large variety of micro-organisms grows, reproduced and dies during the biodegradation
processes that take place in the tank. Most of them are attached to organic matter and are
separated out with the solids. Although there is an overall reduction in the number of
micro-organisms, a large number of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes survive
the processes in the tank and remains active in the effluent, the sludge and the scum.
05. Briefly describe the design procedure of a septic tank.
Answer:
The septic tank design procedure presented here is based on the Brazilian septic tank
code, which takes a more rational approach to design than others. In this approach, the
tank is considered to be made up of four zones, as shown in figure, each of which serves
a different function:
Inlet

Scum storage Zone

Outlet

Sedimentation Zone
Sludge digestion Zone
Digested sludge storage Zone

Page 4 of 8

Scum storage zone

Sedimentation zone

Sludge digestion zone

Digested sludge storage zone

Scum storage:
Scum accumulates at approximately 30-40% of the rate at which sludge accumulates so
the tank volume for scum storage (
storage (

) can be taken as 0.4 times the volume for sludge

),

Sedimentation:

. .,

= 0.4

(1)

The time required to allow sedimentation of settleable solids decreases with the number
of people served according to the following equation:

Where,

= 1.5 0.3 log(

) (2)

= minimum mean hydraulic retention time for sedimentation, days

= contributing population
= wastewater flow per person, l/day.

Retention times in septic tanks are longer than those normally employed in raw sewage
sedimentation tanks. This is because of the fact that septic tanks are required to intercept solid
that enter the tank with waste inflow as well as solids, which rise up from the sludge layers
through flotation by the gases produced due to anaerobic digestion. Often a minimum mean
hydraulic retention time of one day is used. The value of

used should not be less than 0.2

days.
The tank volume for sedimentation
= 10

) is given by:

(3)

Page 5 of 8

Digestion:
The time needed for the anaerobic digestion of the settled solids (
temperature (T,

C) and is given equation:

= 1853

Alternatively, the value of

, days) varies with

(4)

can be obtained by considering the process growth kinetics

of a completely mixed anaerobic digester (Mara 1996).

The minimum retention time for the anaerobic biomass (

, days) depends on how fast

the bacteria can utilize their food supply, and on how much food is needed to generate
additional biomass. If food is taken to be organic matter, or BOD, then:

Where,

(5)

Y = yield coefficient, mg cells produced per mg BOD utilized

= maximum BOD utilization rate, per day.
The value of Y is around 0.04 for high lipid wastes. In the temperature range 20-35

C,

varies with temperature as follows:

= 6.67(1.035)

(6)

Combining equation (5) and (6) with Y = 0.04, gives:

= 3.75(1.035)

(7)

However, it is necessary that a large factor of safety be applied to equation (7) to allow
for the difference between a well-controlled anaerobic reactor and a septic tank (which is
basically uncontrolled by comparison), so that
= 30 (1.035)

is given by:

(8)

Page 6 of 8

The volume of fresh sludge is around 1.0 liter/person/day. This is digested in

days

when it passes to the sludge storage zone. So the average volume of digesting sludge
present during the period
(

), is given by:

is 0.5 lcd. Thus the volume of the sludge digestion zone,

= 0.5 10

Sludge storage:

(9)

The volume of the sludge storage zone depends on the rate of accumulation of digested
sludge (C,

per person per year) and the interval between successive desludging

operations (N years). Design values for sludge accumulation rates are taken as:
= 0.06

/person year for N < 5

= 0.04

/person year for N < 5

The sludge storage volume,

=

(in

) is given by:

(10)

Overall design capacity:

The overall design capacity of the septic tank is the sum of the volumes required for scum
storage, sedimentation, digestion and sludge storage, i.e. the total septic tank volume:

Since

=
=

0.4

+
+

+
+ 1.4

(11)

(11)
:

(12)

Page 7 of 8

Clear space depth:

The clear space depth, which is the minimum acceptable depth of the sedimentation zone
just prior to desludging, comprises the submerged scum clear depth and the sludge clear
depth.
The submerged scum clear depth is the distance between the underside of the scum layer
and the bottom of the outlet tee, and should be at least 75mm.
The sludge clear depth is the distance between the top of the sludge layer and the bottom
of the outlet tee.
The minimum value of the sludge clear depth is related to the tank surface area, A, as
follows:
= 0.82 0.26

Subject to a minimum value of 0.3 m.

(13)

Thus the minimum total clear space calculated as (0.075+

depth required for sedimentation. i.e., (

) must be compared with the

/A), and the greater depth chosen.

Page 8 of 8