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Sport for development:

The potential value and next steps
Review of policy, programs
and academic research 1998-2013
Van Eekeren, F., K. ter Horst & D. Fictorie (2013),
s-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: NSA International,
KNVB, Right To Play Netherlands

Summary

SportforDevelopment(SfD)aspirestoachievesocialimpactbyusingsport,playandphysical
activity.TheDutchorganizationsNSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation
(KNVB)andtheDutchofficeofRightToPlay,implementingpartnersoftheDutchMinistryof
ForeignAffairsinthefieldofSfD,wishtofurtherimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirSfD
programs.Forthissoundevidenceandmoreinsightinworkingmechanismsbetweensportand
developmentareneeded.TheyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademic
documentinresponsetothequestion:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentand
howtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Toanswerthisquestion,UtrechtUniversityhas
doneathoroughpolicyandacademicliteraturereview,includingtheanalysisofmorethan200
articles,booksandpolicydocumentsoverthe19982013period.

Origins
TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90sen00sislargelyduetotwofactors.First,therehas
beenanincreasedrecognitionofthesocietalmeaningofsportbypoliticiansandpolicymakers.
Beforethe1990ssportwasconsideredaluxury.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportscan
notonlybeasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.National
andinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarationsconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositive
meaningstosport.Thetenorseemsthatatleastsportcanplayaroleasatoolfordevelopmentor
evenbuildabetterworld.Second,thefactorwhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfor
developmentmovementistheaidparadigmshiftindevelopmentcooperation.Criticson
traditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditional
developmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries.New
insightsintheconceptofdevelopmentledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisislaidon
socialdevelopmentandcreationofsocialnetworks.Thisopeneddoorsforneworganizations,such
asSfDorganizations.Theirsportorientedapproachisconsideredrefreshingandoffersnew
possibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.

PositionoftheNetherlands
Since1998,theDutchgovernmenthaspublishedanumberofconsecutiveSfDpolicydocuments,
whichhavehadaninfluenceinternationally,bothatpolicylevelandinpractice.However,each
policydocumenthadanexpirationdate.Themainreasonfortheseshortlivedpolicydocuments
hasbeenthefluctuatingpoliticalattentionandaccompanyingresourcesforSfD.ThecurrentSfD
policyandprogramonlyallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocal
embassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.Thecurrentimplementingpartnersofthe
DutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantrole
inthecontinuityoftheDutchparticipationinSfD.AdistinctDutchapproachhasnotbeen
developed,buttherearesimilaritiesintheapproachesofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightTo
Play,suchasafocusonsoftware,thetransferofknowledgeandskills,developmentofcurricula,
trainingcoursesandmanuals,localcapacitybuildingthroughmultistakeholderapproach,local
coachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels,knowledgedevelopment,andavarietyoflocal
implementingpartners.

Academicresearch
Theincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamount
ofclaimsmadeonthepowerofsportfordevelopment,suchasindividualdevelopment,health
promotionanddiseaseprevention,promotionofgenderequality,socialintegrationandthe
developmentofsocialcapital,peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution,post
disaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife,economicdevelopmentandsocialmobilization.
Since2000,academicinterestandoutputonsportfordevelopmentissuesincreasedsignificantly
andthepolicyclaimshavebeentestedandoftenchallengedinmorethan2,000studies.
Basedonthesestudies,itcanbestatedthatsporthassomeuniquefeaturestocontributeto
development,especiallyincomparisonwithotherinterventions.Individualsandgroupsalloverthe
worldareinterestedinsports,regardlessofbackground,age,race,religion,genderorstatus.
Therefore,sportcanattracttargetgroupsthatareusuallyhardtoreach.Theycaneasilybe
involved,sportisvisibleandaccessible,sportoffersrolemodelsanditcontainsintrinsicvaluesthat
playanimportantroleinsociety.Particularsportactivitiesandsocialprocessesofparticipationcan
bekeytoreachcertaindevelopmentgoals.
Nevertheless,manyclaimsofthepowerofsportinpolicyandpracticecannotbemetaccordingto
empiricalresearch.Researchanalysishasmadeclearthatsporthasthepotentialtocontributeto
developmentgoals,butsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtothedesireddevelopmentaloutcomes.
Accordingtotheacademicliterature,healthistheonlyoverarchingoutcomethatshowsadirect
relationshipwithphysicalactivity.Forallotheroverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesitishardto
proveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportfordevelopmentactivitiesanddevelopmentoutcomes.
Thisalsocountsforyouthandeducation,genderequalityandpeaceandreconciliation
developmentgoalsthatarefociinDutchfundedSfDprograms.
Atthesametime,academicresearchoffersclearsuggestionstousesportasavehicletocontribute
tothesegoals.Itisimportanttoapproachsportassiteforsocializationexperiences,notcausesof
socializationoutcomes.Itisnotsportinitselfthatleadsautomaticallytodevelopment.Sporttakes
placeinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofasportfor
developmentprogram.

AbasicSfDmodel
Toprovideinsightinthepotentialofsportfordevelopmentandhowtocontributetodevelopment
inthebestpossibleway,wedevelopedabasicSfDmodel.Thismodeltakesintoaccountthatthe
relationbetweensportanddevelopmentoftenisindirectandthattheoutcomesofSfDprograms
dependon,sometimeshardtoaffect,variables.Themodelstartswithsportasasitefor
socializationexperienceandthendistinguishesnecessaryconditions,supportingconditions,the
momentoftruth,intermediateoutcomesandoverarchingoutcomestakingintoaccountexternal
variablesaswell.
Anecessaryconditionforanyoutcomeisparticipationinsport.Supportingconditionsreferto
processesandorganizationalandprogramcomponentsthatshouldleadtotheachievementof
desiredoutcomes.Frequentlymentionedsupportingconditionsarerelatedtotheorganizationof
theactivitiesandprograms,theroleofcoachesorleadersandthesocialenvironmentinwhichthe


activitiestakeplace.SomeconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject,while
othersaremorecontextspecific.Ifconditionsaremet,sportmayresultinintermediateoutcomes.
Examplesofintermediateoutcomesarethedevelopmentoflifeskills,increasedsocialinteraction,
butalsodevelopmentofleadershipandcommunitybuilding.Theseintermediateoutcomes,often
referredtoas(aspectsof)socialcapital,areanessentialelementintheachievementofthe
overarchingdevelopmentaloutcomes,likechildandyouthdevelopment,genderequality,conflict
resolutionandpeace.Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatintermediateoutcomesarenot
alwaysdesiredorpositiveoutcomes.Sportcanleadtoinjuries,toexclusionandtoantisocial
behavior.Thevalueofsportfordevelopmentiscreatedduringthemomentoftruth,i.e.theactual
interactionbetweenasportcoachorleaderandtheparticipants.Theexactmechanismsduringthe
momentoftruth,whichresultineitherpositiveornegativeoutcomes,arestillunclear,including
thebestwayforSfDorganizationstofacilitatethemomentoftruth.Whatisrequiredisa
developmentalapproachbasedonarealisticviewonthemeaningofsport,andanunderstandingof
thesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmayleadtodesiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsor
organizationsincertaincircumstances.Fromthisperspective,monitoringandevaluationneedto
pursuethisunderstandingviaparticipatory,processcenteredandformativeevaluation.

Nextsteps
Theacademicliteraturelearnsthat,tomaximizetheoutcomes,SfDorganizationsshouldaccept
thatadirectrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopmentishardtoproveandthattheyshould
focusontheintermediateoutcomesinstead.AccordingtothepresentedSfDbasicmodel,SfD
organizationsshouldtakecarethatthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremettoincreasethe
chanceofachievingthedesiredoutcomes.Intheyearstocomeoneofthemainchallengesforthe
SfDsectoristoinvestinqualityofprogramsandsustainabilityofresults.Dutchorganizationscan
playavaluableroleindealingwiththesechallenges,makinguseofthefindingsand
recommendationsofthisreview.Theycanincreasetheirimpactusingsportfordevelopmentbya
strongerfocuson:

Facilitatingthemomentoftruth:ThismeansthatSfDorganizationsoperatefromaservice
managementperspectivetofacilitateandbesubservienttointeractionbetweenthecoach
andparticipants,whichdeterminestoalargeextenttheoutcomesofaprogram.
Investinginlocalinvolvement,capacityandpartnerships:ThismeansthatSfDinvolveslocal
civilsocietyorganizations,i.e.sportorganizationsand/orotherorganizations,whichcan
supportthemomentoftruth.Furtherinvestmentinlocalpartnershipsandorganizational
capacitywillbecrucialtodeliversustainableprogramswithimpact.
Programsatmicrolevel,structurallysupportedatmesoandmacrolevel:ThismeanstheSfD
organizationseitherlocalorforeignhavetostructurallycooperatewithcivilsociety
organizationsandhavetomakesurethattheyhaverelationswithgovernments,
multilateralinstitutionsand(i)NGOs,whoaresupportivetotheSfDprogramsat
grassrootslevel.
Integrationofpractice,policyandresearch:Thismeansthatprogramscanbeimprovedif
systematiccooperationbetweenSFDorganizationsandlocalpartnersandacademic
institutionsisstimulatedandfacilitated.Thiscooperationshouldleadtosmartintegration
ofscientificresearchandevidencebesidesmonitoringandevaluationwithinSfD
programs,especiallywithregardtotheorganizationofpartnershipandcapacitybuilding.

Index

Summary ...........................................................................................................................2
Preface...............................................................................................................................7
1.

Originsanddefinitions ...................................................................................................9
1.1

2.

3.

Recognitionofsportfordevelopment .............................................................................. 9

1.1.1

Recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport ..................................................................10

1.1.2

Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation ................................................11

1.2

Claims .............................................................................................................................12

1.3

Definitions.......................................................................................................................14

1.3.1

Sport ...........................................................................................................................14

1.3.2

Development...............................................................................................................15

1.3.3

Sport(for)development ..............................................................................................16

Policies,programsandapproaches..............................................................................18
2.1

PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands ..........................................................................18

2.2

Internationalpolicyandprograms .................................................................................. 22

2.3

Dutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspective .............................................. 26

2.3.1

Donorcountrypolicies ................................................................................................ 26

2.3.2

Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches .............................................................. 28

Academicresearch:towardsamodel ........................................................................... 31
3.1

Theexpansionofacademicinterest.................................................................................31

3.1.1

Quantity ......................................................................................................................31

3.1.2

Quality ........................................................................................................................34

3.2

Towardsabasicmodelforsportfordevelopment ...........................................................38

3.2.1

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes...........................................................................38

3.2.2

Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 40

3.2.3

Necessaryandsupportingconditions ......................................................................... 42

3.2.4

Themomentoftruth ...............................................................................................43

3.2.5

Uniquenessofsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 44

3.2.6

Amodelforsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 45


4.

Specificdevelopmentissues........................................................................................ 47
4.1
4.1.1

Intermediateoutcomes .............................................................................................. 48

4.1.2

Conditions .............................................................................................................. 49

4.2

Childandyouthdevelopment:Behaviorchange ............................................................. 50

4.2.1

Intermediateoutcomes............................................................................................51

4.2.2

Conditions ...............................................................................................................51

4.3

Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment..................................................... 54

4.3.1

Intermediateoutcomes ...............................................................................................55

4.3.2

Conditions .............................................................................................................. 58

4.4

5.

Childandyouthdevelopment:Education ........................................................................47

Peacebuildingandconflictresolution .............................................................................61

4.4.1

Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 62

4.4.2

Conditions ...............................................................................................................63

Conclusionandnextsteps........................................................................................... 67
5.1

Sportspotentialtocontributetodevelopment ...............................................................67

5.1.1

Claimsvs.empiricalresearch .......................................................................................67

5.1.2

Dutchpolicyandpractice............................................................................................ 68

5.2

ValuablenextstepsforDutchSfDorganizations ............................................................ 69

Literature ......................................................................................................................... 71

Preface

Inrecentyears,thefieldofSportforDevelopment(SfD)hasgrownexponentially,withhundredsof
initiativesaroundtheglobe.Allinitiativesaspiretohavesocialimpactbyusingsport,playand
physicalactivity.Whereasfiveyearsago166organizationscouldbefoundontheInternational
PlatformonSportforDevelopment(Kidd,2008),today484initiativesarelisted1.Theamountof
programsisalmostimpossibletooverseeandsportisclaimedtobeauniversallanguageandthe
ultimatetoolforsocialchangeanddevelopmentbyavarietyofactors,suchastheUNOfficeon
SportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP),theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)and
nationalgovernments.
ThisemergeofSfDisremarkable.Untilthe1990s,sportwasdismissedasaluxuryandfunding
sportsprogramsindevelopingcountrieswasnotatallanoptionworthreconsideringfor
governmentsandinternationaldevelopmentagencies(VanEekeren,2006).Majorshiftsand
developmentshavetakenplaceovertheyears,bothatthenationalandinternationallevel.
WhereastheNetherlandswasoneofthepioneersinthefieldforalongtimeandoneofthefirst
countriestoformulateformalpolicyregardingsportfordevelopmentin1998,todayvariousother
(international)organizationsandcountrieshaveemergedtopickuptheball.Simultaneously,UN
Agencies,internationalsportfederations,internationalandnationalnongovernmental
organizations(NGOs)andnationalgovernmentsstartedincorporatingsportastoolfor
developmentintheirpoliciesandagendas.
Essentially,sportisincreasinglybecomingacceptedbothasagoalinitselfandasamediumto
achievedevelopmentobjectives.Asaresult,relevantquestionsarise,suchas:Whenandhowcan
sportbeameaningfulinstrumentfordevelopmentoradevelopmentgoalinitself?Whatarethe
possibleoutcomesofsportinspecificsituationsforspecificdevelopmentgoals?Whichconditions
arenecessarytoachievethesepositiveoutcomes?Whatarethelimitsofsportfordevelopment
programs?Howcansportfordevelopmentorganizationsadequatelyusetheknowledgeavailablein
theirprogramdesignandexecution?Howshouldtheyorganizethemselves,andwithwhomshould
theycooperate?
Thesequestionshaveledtotheacademiccommunitytakinganinterestinsportfordevelopmentas
anobjectforresearch.Nowadays,academicsareinvolvedinmonitoringandevaluatingSfD
programs,andthenumberofcriticalfollowersofthesectorisgrowing.Thesecriticsclaimthatthe
beliefinthepotentialofsportisoftenbasedonthecommonsenseofadvocateswhoalreadyare
convincedofthepowerofsport.TheirbeliefisreflectedinUNphraseologyandvariouscountry
policiesthatsoundwonderfulandpromising,butareoftenthinandpoorlyfounded.Withouta
soundfoundation,thereisariskthatsportfordevelopmentisbasedupontheclaimsofsport
evangelists(Coalter,2010).

www.sportanddev.orgJuly2013.Thisnumberoforganizationsmightbethetipoftheiceberg,sincemany
oftenlocalbasedSFDorganizationsarenotregisteredattheplatform.


Amorecriticalandacademicapproachwillhelptoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoffuture
projectsandtofirmlyestablishtheissuefortheyearstocome.Thisentailsbeingwillingandableto
learn.Increasingthelearningcapacityofthesectormaybethebiggestchallengeintheyearsahead
(VanEekeren,2006).
NSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation(KNVB)andRightToPlayhave
addressedthischallenge.Overthepast15years,thesethreeorganizationshavebeenthemain
Dutchactorsinthesportfordevelopmentlandscapesettingupprogramsindifferentcountries
worldwide.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayapproachsportasameansforaddressing
socialissuesandachievingdevelopmentgoals.Theyaimtoaddresssocialissuessuchaschildand
youthdevelopment,peacebuildingandconflictresolutionandwomenempowerment.Thethree
organizationscollaborateintheprogramSportforDevelopment20122015,initiatedandfunded
bytheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairs.Themainobjectiveoftheorganizationsistodevelopand
executewelldesignedprogramsatgrassrootslevelineightdevelopingcountries,whichareall
focuscountriesinDutchforeignpolicy:Kenya,Mali,Egypt,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,
SurinameandthePalestinianTerritories.
NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayrealizethatasoundevidencebaseandinsightin
workingmechanismsareneededtoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirfutureprograms.
Therefore,theyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademicbackground
document,whichprovidesanunderpinninganalysisofsportfordevelopment.
Themainquestionofthisdocumentis:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentand
howtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Thequestionisansweredthroughathorough
policyandacademicliteraturereview,forwhichmorethan200articles,booksandpolicy
documentsoverthe19982013periodhavebeenanalyzed.Withthefollowingchapterswe
endeavortoformulateananswer:
ChapteronedescribestheoriginsofSportfordevelopmentandwhatisunderstoodbythe
concept,asmanystakeholdersdefinethesignificanceofsportintheirownway.
Chaptertwoprovidesahistoricaloverviewofthefieldofsportfordevelopmentinternationally,in
whichtherelevantpoliciesandmilestonesaffectingthematurationandgrowthofthesectorwillbe
outlined.Inthisoverview,theNetherlandsisthepointofreferenceandacomparisonwithother
countriesandstakeholdersinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentwillbemade.
Chaptersthreeandfourelaborateonthecurrentbodyofacademicknowledgeinthefieldofsport
fordevelopment.First,wewilloutlinehowtheamountofacademicpublicationshasincreased
since1998.Subsequently,wewillprovideinsightinwhatisscientificallyknownaboutthepotential
ofsport,withspecialattentionforthethematicareas,whichareparticularlyrelevantforDutch
policyandtheworkofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.Thiswillresultinabasicmodel
forthepotentialvalueofsportfordevelopment.
Chapterfiveformulatesananswertothecentralquestion.Byconcludingwhattheaddedvalueof
sportfordevelopmentis,thelimitsofsportwillbediscussedaswell.Futurechallengesand
opportunitiesforpractice,researchandpolicydevelopmentareoutlined.

1Originsanddefinitions

Thischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductionoftheconceptof
sportfordevelopment.Itdescribestheoriginsofusingsport
toachievedevelopmentalgoals(onthenationaland
internationallevel).Thesecondpartofthechapterprovides
anoverviewofthemostusedclaimsanddefinitionsofsport
fordevelopmentinordertoreachacommonperspectiveon
whatSfDentailsandhowdifferentprogramscanbe
classified.

1.1

TheemergenceofSfDasa
sectorinthe90sen00sis
largelyduetotwofactors:
1)Therecognitionofthe
socialmeaningofsport
2)Changesintheapproachto
developmentcooperation

Recognitionofsportfordevelopment

Thelegitimacyofsportfordevelopmentisnowadaysbasedonlongstandingtraditionalassertions
aboutthenatureandcontributionofsporttosociety.Dunning(1999)simplystates:Sport
matters.Sportrevealscharacteristicsaboutasociety;throughthetypesofsporttheydo,through
theimportancetheyattachtosport,throughtheamountofpeople,aboveallwomen,whodo
sportsandthroughthewaytheydosports.Sportcanbeseenasamirrorofsocietywhichreflects
andinfluencescontemporaryissues,or,asformulatedbyBriene,Koopman&Goessen(2005):
Sportispartofsocietyandsocietyispartofsport.
Inhistoricalterms,theideathatparticipationinsportoffersautility(otherthanbeingenjoyedfor
itsownsake)canbetracedtothemidnineteenthcenturyUnitedKingdom.Middleclassreformers
intheareasofeducationandurbanwelfarebegantodeveloptheideathatsportparticipation,
whenappropriatelydirected,couldbeinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcharacter,workdiscipline,
teamwork,fairplay,andothersociallyapprovedcharacteristics(VanBottenburg,2004).Inthe
UnitedKingdom,sportbecameincreasinglyusedineducationalsettings,intheformofphysical
educationandtheorganizationofgames.Furthermore,sportwasbeingusedbycommunity
organizationsanddetentioncenters,wheresportwasapproachedasatoolforcharacterbuildingor
changing.Subsequently,theseideasspreadtootherfirstworldcountriesandtheircolonies.
ThisisoneofthereasonswhyCoalter(2013)arguesthatsportfordevelopmentisnotanewfield,
asisproclaimedbymany(e.g.Kidd,2008).Inindustrializedcountries,sportshavebeenatopicin
publicpolicyforalongtimenow.Inthefirstplacetoextendsocialrightsofcitizenship,whilealso
emphasizingthepresumedwidercollectiveandindividualbenefitsofsport,referredtoas
externalitiesbyeconomists(Coalter,2007).DespiteCoaltersclaimthatSfDisnotnew,therewas
marginalattentionforsportastoolorcatalystfordevelopmentindevelopingcountriespriortothe
1990s.Althoughsomeindividualcountrylevelinitiativeswereundertaken,sportwasmainlyseen
aseitherluxuryorleisure.
TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90sen00sislargelyduetotwofactors:
1)The(renewed)recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport
2)Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation.

1.1.1 Recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport
Sportsandpoliticshavebeen(artificially)separatedfora
Gradually,theconviction
longtime.Bothpoliticiansandsportadministratorsstuckto
emergedthatsportsisnot
theadageofformerIOCpresidentAveryBrundageof
onlyasourceofinspiration,
almostsixtyyearsago:[s]portiscompletelyfreeofpolitics
butalsoaneffectivetoolin
(ascitedinCashmore,1990).IntheNetherlands,
combatingsocialproblems.
governmentinterferedaslittleaspossibleinsportsaffairs.
Sportwasseenasaprivatedomain,wheregovernment
intervention(andfunding)wasunnecessaryand
inappropriate.Acombinationofsportanddevelopmentwasoutofthequestion.Development
cooperationpolicywasfocusedon'hard'povertyissues,includingagriculture,infrastructureand
waterandsanitation.Sportwasseenasluxury.
Theperspectiveonsporthaschangeddramaticallyinrecentyears.Inhindsightthischangebegan
intheNetherlandsin1992.Atthetime,areportwaspublishednamedSportasasourceof
inspirationforoursociety(ATKearney/NOC*NSF,1992).Thereportmadegovernmentsreflecton
therelationshipbetweensportspolicyandthesocialsignificanceofsport(VanBottenburg&
Schuyt,1996).Gradually,publicfundscameavailabletoachievesocialgoalssuchaseconomic
growth,socialinclusionandhealththroughsport(Boessenkooletal.,2008).Itisintheseareasthat
sporthasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinthepublicdomainandpartofthepublicdebate.
Thisnewthinkingonthevalueofsportcoincideswithideasaboutpublicvalueandthe
governmentsroleinsocietyingeneralandisconsistentwithbroadersociopoliticaldevelopments:
Dutchgovernmentsinthe1990sand2000sincreasinglyreliedonthepersonalresponsibilityof
citizensandprivateorganizations.Thereseemedtobeanewideaonsocialengineering,although
thistimeitisnotthegovernmentbutcitizenswhohavetoimprovesociety.Citizensmust
demonstrateactivecitizenshipinadvocatingforpublicinterests(Verhoeven&Ham,2010).
Addressingsocialissuesisnolongerthedomainofgovernmentalone,itisalsoaroleoftheprivate
sector,civilsocietyandindividuals(albeitincooperationwithgovernment).Sportorganizationsare
oftenregardedascivilsocietyorganizationsandtherefore,politiciansandpolicymakersencourage
sportorganizationstotakeonasocialrole.SportsorganizationsintheNetherlandstapintothis
development,claimingtheirsocialpositionandarguingacausalrelationbetweensportandsolving
socialproblems.Whereclassiccareorwelfarepathwayshavenotledtothedesiredsolution,thisis
nowexpectedfromthesportsector.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportsisnotonlya
sourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.
Abriefinventoryofnationalandinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarations(EU,UN,
governments,internationalsportfederations)showsthat,alsooutsidetheNetherlands,policy
makersandpoliticiansconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositivemeaningstosports.Thetenor
seemsthatatleastsportcanplayausefulroleasatoolfordevelopment(EuropeanParliament,
2005)orevenbuildabetterworld(IOC,2013).Nowadays,itishardtoimaginethatsportisnot
usedtoaddressallkindsofsocialissues.Developingandinvestinginthesporthasintheeyesof
manynotonlysportingvalue,butalsovalueforotherdomains.Or,asformerNOC*NSFpresident
EricaTerpstratendstosay:Sportisgoldforsociety.

10


Thisrecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsporthasopeneddoorsforsportswithindevelopment
cooperation.Anno2013,theUnitedNationsstate:Sportcannolongerbeconsideredaluxury
withinanysociety,butisratheranimportantinvestmentinthepresentandfuture,particularlyin
developingcountries(UN,2013).

1.1.2 Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation
Otherfactorswhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfordevelopmentmovementaretheaid
paradigmshiftandtheemergenceofthefourthpillarindevelopmentcooperation.
Thereismuchdebateamongthegeneralpublic,politicians
andacademicsaboutthecurrentroleofdevelopmentaid;
Thefourthpillar,including
whatithasaccomplishedaftermorethanfiftyyearsof
SfD,offersanalternativefor
developmentwork,itseffectiveness,anditsprospectsfor
thepublicthathaslost
thefuture.Perspectivesonthesequestionsarediverse.
confidenceintraditional
Assessmentsrangefromclaimsthatdevelopmentaidhas
developmentcooperation.
hadquitelimitedsuccess(Easterly,2006);thatitservesto
promulgatetheneomercantilisttendenciesoftheWest
(PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002);or,thatwhilebeingmodestly
successful,areframingofpurposesandgoalsisnowinordertomatchtheneedsofachanging
world(Sen,2006).
Criticsontraditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditional
developmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries,despite
ofthebillionsofeurosthatwereinvestedoverthelast50years.Theircritique,amongother
comments,focusesontheemphasisoneconomicandmaterialdevelopmentinthetraditional
developmentcooperationsector(cf.PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002).Newinsightsintheconceptof
developmentledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisisputonsocialdevelopmentand
creationofsocialnetworks.
Traditionally,officialdevelopmentcooperationhasbeentheplayingfieldofgovernments,
multilateralinstitutionsandestablisheddevelopmentNGOs.DeveltereandDeBruyn(2009)call
themthethreepillarsofdevelopmentcooperation.Inthelastdecadehowever,otheractors(such
asbusinesses,migrantorganizations,tradeunions,professionalgroups,groupsoffriends,schools,
etc.)insocalleddonororNortherncountrieshaveactivelyshowninterestindevelopment
relatedactivities,andindevelopingandimplementingdevelopmentorientedinitiativesin
developingcountries(theSouth).Thishasledtotheemergeofthefourthpillarandthe
involvementofcivilsocietyorganizationsindevelopmentcooperation.
Thefourthpillaroffersanalternativeforthepublicthathaslostconfidenceintraditional
developmentcooperationandforthosewhosupportadevelopmentapproachthatfocuseson
socialdevelopmentandthecreationofsocialnetworks.Politicalappreciationofthefourthpillaris
ontheriseandtheircredibilityisgrowingattheinternationallevel.Representativesofthefourth
pillarcanincreasinglybefoundininternationalnetworksandatforums,wheretheyhaveearned
theirplacenexttoUNexpertsandotherdevelopmentspecialists(Develtere&DeBruyn,2009).

11


Sportfordevelopmentorganizations,suchasNSAInternationalandRightToPlay,orprivatesport
organizationswhogotinvolvedinsportfordevelopment,suchasKNVB,canbeconceivedas
representativesofthefourthpillar.Theirsportorientedapproachisrefreshingandoffersnew
possibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.Theirinvolvementisalsowelcomed,sincepolitical
supportfordevelopmentcooperationisdecreasingintheNetherlands.Developmentbudgetsare
cutrigorously,newwaysoffundingareneededandsupportofthegeneralpublicisnecessary.Sport
mayhelptoprovideamorerecognizableandvisible
imagetodevelopmentcooperation.Furthermore,
governmentsarelookingforcooperationwithprivate
Theincreasingpopularityof
organizations,insocalledpublicprivatepartnerships.
sportastoolfordevelopment
Cooperationwithsportsorganizationsfitsinwell,
comesalongwithan
becausesports(withitsfamousrolemodels)opensdoors
increasingamountofclaims
tobusinessesandotherpotentialpartners.
madeonthepowerofsport
fordevelopment.
Atthesametime,sportsareimmenselypopularinmost
developingcountries,whichcontributestolocal
involvement.Also,largesportingeventsincreasinglytake
placeindevelopingcountriesandcities(thinkoftheFIFA
WorldCupinSouthAfricaandBrazil,CommonwealthGamesinNewDelhiandtheOlympicGames
inBeijing,SochiandRiodeJaneiro).Inaddition,manysportsorganizations,suchasKNVB,FIFA
andIOC,areawarethattheycannotlimittheirworktotheorganizationofsports,andrealizethat
theymustshowbroadersocialcommitment,forexamplewithacorporatesocialresponsibility
(CSR)strategy.
Allthismeansthatgovernmentsaremoreopentointegratesportintotheirdevelopmentpolicies
andstrategies.ThiswasillustratedbytheEuropeanParliamentin2005,whodrewadirectline
betweensportandtheMilleniumDevelopmentGoals,bydeclaring:()physicaleducationand
sportsprojectsmayhelptoattaintheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,especiallywithregardto
themessuchashealth,education,socialmobilization,genderequality,environmentandpeace
amongpeople.Nowadays,supportingsportsbaseddevelopmentprogramsandprojects,through
earmarkedbudgets,islegitimateindevelopmentpolicies.

1.2

Claims

Theincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamount
ofclaimsmadeonthepowerofsportfordevelopment.Theseclaimsconcerndifferentsocial
issuesandaffectdifferentlevelsinsociety(micro,mesoandmacro).TheSfDsectorusesdifferent
conceptstoindicatewhatismeantbysportfordevelopment.Anoftenuseddefinitionistheuseof
sporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,
thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andon
fosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution(Sugden,1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;
Lyras&WeltyPeachey,2011).
AccordingtotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG,2007),
sportisseentohavethemostbenefitsin:

12


Individualdevelopment
Healthpromotionanddiseaseprevention
Promotionofgenderequality
Socialintegrationandthedevelopmentofsocialcapital
Peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution
Postdisaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife
Economicdevelopment
Communicationandsocialmobilization.

AselectionofclaimsbySfDactorscanbefoundinBox1.

Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment
PlayisNOTaluxury;itisatoolforeducationandhealth.Itcanbringentirecommunitiestogetherand
inspireeveryindividual.Agameoffootballcanteachchildrenabouttoleranceandpeace,andagameof
tagcanteachaboutmalaria.Playhelpsteachimportantlifelessonsanddevelopskillslikecooperation,
leadershipandteamwork.(RighttoPlayInternational,2013)
()footballismorethanasport.Footballdevelopsindividuals.Itincreaseslifequalityandencourages
participationwithinthecommunity.Fordisadvantagedareas,developingcountriesandtheyoungpeople
whowouldotherwisestandonthesidelinesoflifelivingthere,footballisadevelopmenttool.(KNVB,
2013)
Sportcanstrengthentheconfidenceandlifeskillsofyoungpeoplefromdisadvantagedbackgroundsto
drivetheirownfuture,becomeactivecitizensandcommitthemselvestobuildinguptheircommunity.
Theybecomeagentsofchange,andassuchbreaktheviciouscycleofpoverty,injustice,violenceand
inequalitythathaskeptthemandtheirfamiliesatthemarginofsociety.(NSAInternational,2013)
Sportisbecauseofitspopularity,visibilityandsocialsignificanceacatalystforachievingspecific
developmentgoals.Sportinthiscontextisatoolforhealthpromotion,peacebuildinginfragilestates
andconflictprevention,reconciliationandrehabilitationin(post)conflictcountries.(MinistriesofForeign
AffairsandHealth,WelfareandSport(VWS),2008)
Byitsverynaturesportisaboutparticipation.Itisaboutinclusionandcitizenship.Sportbringsindividuals
andcommunitiestogether,highlightingcommonalitiesandbridgingculturalorethnicdivides.Sport
providesaforumtolearnskillssuchasdiscipline,confidenceandleadershipanditteachescoreprinciples
suchastolerance,cooperationandrespect.Sportteachesthevalueofeffortandhowtomanagevictory,
aswellasdefeat.Whenthesepositiveaspectsofsportareemphasized,sportbecomesapowerfulvehicle
throughwhichtheUnitedNationscanworktowardsachievingitsgoals.(UnitedNations,2005)

Box1:Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment

SporthasbeenlinkedtotheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Inthepast,sporthasbeen
mostcommonlylinkedto:eradicationofpovertyandextremehunger;achievinguniversalprimary
education;respondingtothepsychosocialneedsofvictimsofdisastersandemergencies;
promotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomen;andcombatingHIV/AIDS,malariaandother
diseases(www.sportanddev.org,2013).
Therelationshipbetweensportanddevelopment,however,isnotasobviousasitseemsatfirst.
Besidesallpositiveoutcomesassociatedwithsport,likeimprovedfitnessandhealth,inclusionand

13


fairplay,thereissufficientevidenceofthedarksideofsport,suchasinjuries,exclusion,violence,
hooliganismandfoulplay.Chapter3willanalyzetheclaimsofthepowerofsportfordevelopment
onthebasisofacademicliterature.

1.3

Definitions

TheconceptofSportforDevelopmentseemsselfevidentandindisputable:thereisalinkbetween
sportontheonehandanddevelopmentontheother.However,oftenitisnotexplicitlydefined
whatismeantbytheusedconceptsofsportanddevelopment.Forinstance,alongtermsportfor
developmentprogramaimingtocontributetopeacebuildingisverydifferentfromanoneday
grassrootssporteventthataimstobringjoy.Whenclaiminga(positive)causalrelationship
betweensportanddevelopment,itiscrucialtooperationalizeandconceptualizethemain
concepts.

1.3.1 Sport
Manybookshavebeenwrittenonwhatisexactlyunderstoodassport,tryingtoformulatean
answertoquestionssuchas:Doweonlytalkaboutorganizedsportsordowealsocoverleisure
activities?Isplayingchessasportanddoweincludeindigenousgames?Sportisrelativefrom
culturetoculture,accordingtoEichberg(1984):Itoscillatesbetweengame,dance,competition,
fight,gymnastics,festivities,ritual,carnival,theatre,healthtechniques,magic,eroticpresentation
andotherformsofphysicalculture.EliasandDunning(1970)argue:Sportactivitiesandgames,
particularlyintheirtraditionalnationalforms,reflectculturalconfigurationsandstablepatterns.
IntheareaofSport&Development,sportisgenerallyunderstoodtoincludephysicalactivities
thatgobeyondcompetitivesports(www.sportanddev.org,2013).TheUnitedNationsInteragency
TaskforceonSportforDevelopmentandPeace(2012)states:Incorporatedintothedefinitionof
sportareallformsofphysicalactivitythatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwellbeingandsocial
interaction.Theseinclude:play;recreation;organized,casualorcompetitivesport;andindigenous
sportsorgames.

UNICEF(2004)expandsthisdefinition:Sportinvolvesrulesorcustomsandsometimescompetition.
Playespeciallyamongchildrenisanyphysicalactivitythatisfunandparticipatory.Itisoften
unstructuredandfreefromadultdirection.Recreationismoreorganizedthanplay,andgenerally
entailsphysicallyactiveleisureactivities.Play,recreationandsportareallfreelychosenactivities
undertakenforpleasure.
Thisconceptualizationofsportsisverycomprehensivebyincorporatingallformsofsport,physical
activityandexercisethatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwellbeingandsocialinteraction.
Sincesportmanifestsitselfinmanydifferentformswithinsportfordevelopmentprograms,
reachingaverydiversetargetpopulation,sportcannotbelimitedtoformalorganizedactivities.
Whereasfootballisoftenbeingusedtoattractatriskyouthincommunities,traditionalsportsand
indigenousgamesareregularlybeingusedtopromoteunityandculturalheritageortotargethard
toreachpopulationswhicharenotattractedbypopularsports.Differentformsofphysicalactivity
areusedfordifferentobjectives.

14


Furthermore,theambiguousandsometimesparadoxicalnatureofsportshouldnotbeneglected.It
isimportanttoseesportasasocialconstructionwhichismalleableaccordingtothesocialforce
(Sugden,2010).Sporthasbothpositiveandnegativeaspects,itdoesnothaveoneface.Moreover,
itisimportanttonotethatsportsandelementsofsportsarebeingdiscussedatdifferentlevelsand
fromdifferentperspectives(Allison,1986).

1.3.2 Development
Theconceptofdevelopmentisnoteasytodemarcate;agenerallyappealingterm,however
deeplycomplicatedandmultidimensional.Developmentmeansmanythingstomanypeople(see,
forexample,Escobar,1995;Cooper&Packard,1997;Crewe&Harrison,1998;Black,2010).The
levelofdevelopmentofanationwasinitiallyconsideredonlyineconomictermsandconcernedthe
extenttowhichitseconomydependedontheagricultural,industrialand/orservicesectors(the
latterbeingconsideredthemostdeveloped).Thelevelofdevelopmentwasmeasuredintermsof
thegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)orgrossnationalproduct(GNP)(SDPIWG,2007).But,
developmentisnotonlyaneconomicissue,asithaspolitical,socialandculturalimplicationsaswell
(Schulpen,2001).Often,adistinctionismadebetweensocialandhumandevelopment.
Socialdevelopmentisabroadtermthatdescribesactionsthataretakentobuildpositiveoutcomes
andpreventnegativesocialoutcomesthatcanadverselyaffectacommunity. Theaimofsocial
developmentistoimprovetheavailabilityofsupportsystemsinthecommunity,whichprevent
negativeoutcomesbeforetheyoccurorbuffer(lessen)theirimpact.Therefore,socialdevelopment
focusesonthesocialorganizationthatenablestoachievethegoalsofsociety.
Humandevelopmentfocusesonindividualstodeveloptheircapacitytoachievethegoalsthey
aspirefor.Humandevelopment,accordingtotheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP,
2006),maybedefinedasaprocessofenlargingpeopleschoices.UNDParguesthatatalllevelsof
development,thethreeessentialchoicesforpeoplearetolivealongandhealthylife,toacquire
betterknowledgeandtohaveaccesstoresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.The
UNDPusestheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)tomeasureimprovementsinthequalityoflifeof
humans,basedonanindexwiththreecriteria:

Alongandhealthylife,asmeasuredbylifeexpectancyatbirth;
Knowledge,asmeasuredbytheadultliteracyrate(2/3weight),andthecombinedgross
enrolmentratioinprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducation(1/3weight);
Adecentstandardofliving,asmeasuredbytheGDPpercapitainpurchasingpowerparity
(PPP)terms(measuredinUS$)(HumanDevelopmentReport,2006,p.394).

Ingeneral,developmentisconcernedwithincreasinghealthandlongevity;improvingknowledge
andeducation;ensuringanadequatestandardofliving(UNDP,2006);andprovidingavenuesfor
humanrights,justiceandcitizenshipforthosewhohavebeenexcludedanddisenfranchisedfrom
publiclife(Small,2002).
Mwaanga(2013)warnsthatthesedevelopmentconceptsaretheoutcomesofahegemonic
Northerndevelopmentparadigm,indicativeofthehegemonicpositionofNortherncountriesinthe
SfDmovement.Hearguesthatmodernizationistheonedominantdevelopmenttheory:Such
developmentthinkingimpliesabinaryunderstandingoftheworld,distinguishingbetweentheless

15


desired(developing,traditional)andthemoredesired(modern,civilized)society.Accordingto
Mwaanga,thisviewondevelopmentcompelsNotherncountriestoproactivelyassistthepoor
countriesintheirattempttobecomemodern.Heproposesalternativedevelopmentdiscoursesfor
SfD,suchaspostcolonialtheoryandtheUbuntuphilosophy,inwhichthenotionofagoalfor
developmentcanbereachedonlythroughatrulydemocraticallyimbuedprocess,wherebythoseat
thereceivingendnegotiatetheirowninitiatives.
Itisimportanttonotethat,underallpresenteddefinitionsorconcepts,nocountryeverachievesa
finalstateofbeingdevelopedastheUNDeclarationnotes,developmentisaprocessof
constantimprovement.However,keyquestionsremain:whodeterminestheformof
developmentinacountry?andwhataretheappropriaterolesforforeignersinthedevelopment
ofanothercountry?(SDPIWG,2007).

1.3.3 Sport(for)development
Theconceptualizationofsportfordevelopmentnotonlyfacesdifficultiesinacademiccircles,in
practicetheuseofunambiguousconceptsremainsachallengeaswell.Thetermssportfor
development,developmentthroughsport,sportindevelopment,sportanddevelopment,sport
forchangeandsportsdevelopmentareusedinterchangeablytorefertoprogramsandprojects.
Variousclassificationsarebeingusedinliteratureandinthefieldtoclarifythespecificnatureof
differentsportprogramsandinordertoclarifythedifferencebetweensportdevelopmentand
developmentthroughsport.
Kidd(2008)suggeststhreebroad,overlapping,approaches:firstly,traditionalsportsdevelopment
inwhichtheprovisionofbasicsportscoaching,equipmentandinfrastructurearethecentral
concern.ThisisforinstancehowtheKNVBinitiallystarteditssportprogramsindeveloping
countries.Later,theytookawiderapproach,andstartedaddressingsocialissuesinthetrainingof
coaches.Secondly,humanitarianassistanceinwhichfundraisinginsportisusedtoprovideforms
ofaidassistance,frequentlyforrefugees.SomeoftheRightToPlayprojectsfallintothiscategory.
Thethirdcategoryistherathergrandioselynamedsportfordevelopmentandpeacemovement,
whichcoversawidevarietyoforganizationsandloosecoalitions.Theseorganizationsand
coalitionsfocusonbroadsocialdevelopment,suchasNSAInternationalandKickingAIDSOut.
Levermore(2008)proposesanotherclassificationbasedonamoredisaggregatedapproachtothe
desiredoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentorganizations:conflictresolutionandintercultural
understanding;buildingphysical,socialandcommunityinfrastructure;raisingawareness,
particularlythrougheducation;empowerment;directimpactonphysicalandpsychologicalhealth
andgeneralwelfare;economicdevelopmentand
povertyalleviation.
Themostusedanduserfriendlyclassificationisthe
distinctionbetweensportplusandplussport
approach(MinistriesofForeignAffairsandVWS,1998;
Coalter,2007).Sportplusmeans:programsand
projectswithafocusonthedeliveryofsport,which
may(also)resultindevelopmentoutcomes.Plussport

Bothsportdevelopmentand
sportfordevelopmentare
aimedatmakinglifemore
meaningfulthrough
interactionwithoneother.

16


takesacertainsocialordevelopmentissueasstartingpointandusessportasatooltoaddressthat
issue.Thisclassificationisratheracontinuumonwhichprogramscanbeplacedthanastrict
classification.
Engelhardt(2013)arguesthattheoverarchingaimofsportdevelopment/sportplusorsportfor
development/plussportmayseemverydifferent,butthatisnottosaythattheycannotwork
togetherwithmutualbenefits.Shestates:Bothsportdevelopmentandsportfordevelopment
focusondeliveringqualityinterventionsandactive,plannedparticipationontheground.Wewould
perhapsdowelltoviewthembothasvariationsofthesameidea,interventionsinsocietyaimed
towardsthemosthumanofgoals:makinglifemoremeaningfulthroughinteractionwithoneother
(www.sportanddev.org,2013).

17

2Policies,programsandapproaches

Thischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductiontothefieldofsportfordevelopmentonanationaland
internationallevel.Itdescribeshowsportfordevelopmenthasbeenintegratedininternationaland
nationalpolicies.TheNetherlandsandtheyear1998,whenthefirstDutchformalpolicyhasbeen
formulated(SportinDevelopment:TeamworkScores!),willserveaspointofreference.Thechapter
analyzeswhatcanbesaidabouttheroleandapproachoftheNetherlandsintheinternationalfield
ofsportfordevelopment.

2.1

PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands

19801998
ThehistoricalrelationshipbetweentheNetherlandsandSouthAfricaplaysanimportantroleinthe
emergeofsportfordevelopmentpolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands.Duringthe1980s,the
sportboycottagainsttheApartheidsysteminSouthAfricawasthefirstpoliticalinvolvementofthe
Netherlandsinsportindevelopingcountries.Afterthefirstnonracialelectionsin1994,Dutchsport
organizationsopenedtalkswiththeirSouthAfricancolleagues,variousNGOsstarteddevelopment
programsinthepostApartheidcountryandtheDutchgovernmentwaswillingtoinvestinthe
buildupofthenewSouthAfrica.Varioussportfor
developmentinitiativesemerged,suchasthecooperation
betweenSCORE,aSouthAfricansportbasedNGO,andthe
Varioussportfor
NetherlandsOlympicCommittee/NetherlandsSports
developmentinitiatives
Federation(NOC*NSF)andbetweentheSouthAfrican
emergedinpostApartheid
FootballAssociation(SAFA)andtheNetherlandsRoyal
SouthAfricaandtheDutch
FootballAssociation(KNVB).
governmentwaswillingto
investinthebuildupofthe
Variousotherprivateinitiativesemergedinresponseto
newSouthAfrica.
requestsfromlocalgovernments,sportingorganizations
andindividualsfromthesouthnotonlyinSouthAfrica.For
example,thesportleadersprogramoftheNetherlands
CatholicSportsFederation(NKS,oneofthepredecessorsofNSAInternational)inBurkinaFaso,
andvolleyballprogramsrelatedtodealingwithtraumainRwanda.Sportorganizationsand
passionateindividualswerepioneeringonvariousfronts.Subsequently,thesepioneersincreasingly
turnedtothegovernmentforsubsidiesfortheirprojects.
Atthetime,sportfordevelopmentfundingbytheDutchgovernmentwasmerelyincidental.The
firsttimefundingfromtheDutchgovernmentwasusedforsportfordevelopmentwasafterthe
planecrashinwhichtheZambiannationalfootballteamperishedin1993.Thethenministerof
DevelopmentCooperation,JanPronk,madefundsavailabletorebuildtheZambianfootballteam,
whichhadlostalmostallitsplayersintherunuptothe1994WorldCupintheUSA.Theminister
acknowledgedthatgoodperformancebythenationalteamwasimportanttoadevelopingnation.
Dutchparliamentcalledtheministertoaccountforthisinitiative.

18


ThenewpoliticalsituationinSouthAfrica,thevariousprivateinitiativesandchangesinpolicy(due
theearliermentionedparadigmshiftseeChapter1),gavewaytoamorestructuredapproach(and
budgets)bytheDutchgovernment.In1998,theMinistryofSportandtheMinistryofForeign
Affairsdevelopedacombinedmemorandumwhichexplicitlylinkedsportastoolfordevelopment
tointernationaldevelopmentcooperation(entitledTeamworkScores![Samenspelscoort],
1998).ThememorandummotivatedandbroughttogetherDutchorganizationsandannounced
structuralplanstoencourageandsupportsportindevelopingcountries.Itsofficialgoalwas
formulatedasfollows:Topromotethebestpossibleuseofphysicaleducation,sport,games,and
activitiesinvolvingphysicalexerciseindevelopingcountrieswiththeaimofincreasingbothindividual
healthandwellbeingandsocialcohesionanddevelopment.Oneofthegoalswastointegratesport
andphysicalexercisewithotherdevelopmentactivities,suchasruraldevelopmentprojectsand
programsforstreetchildren,therebyencouragingtheintegrationofsportinawiderangeof
sectors,whichwastotallynewatthattime.

19982008
TypicalfortheDutchorganizationofsportfor
developmentistheinvolvementoftwodifferent
Thenewpolicydocument,
ministries,whichrequiresthoughtfulcoordinationand
theMoUsandtheNCDO
managementoftasksandresponsibilities.The
SportandDevelopment
memorandumfrom1998appointedtheMinistryof
programsparkedoffa
ForeignAffairsasresponsibleforallNGOsand
numberofnewlargescale
multilateralagenciesworkingindevelopment
projects.
cooperation,whiletheMinistryofSporthadthe
responsibilityforliaisingwiththeInternationalOlympic
Committee(IOC),sportbasedNGOs,localsportassociations,andothersportoriented
organizations.
TheSfDmemorandumgavetheMinistryofSporttheabilitytosignMemorandaofUnderstanding
(MoU)withvariouscountries.TheseMoUsweredesignedtoexchangesportknowledgebetween
countries.TheKNVBbecameanimportantpartnerfortheMinistryofSportinimplementingthe
MoUs.DutchfootballcoachesrancoursesinZambia,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,BurkinaFasoand
Surinam.Also,NKSgainedtheopportunitytosustaintheirprograminBurkinaFasoandstartoffin
Surinam.
Moreover,thegovernmentsubsidizedaSportandDevelopmentprogram,runbytheNational
CommitteeforInternationalCooperationandSustainableDevelopment(NCDO),anindependent
administrativebody.Thisorganizationsetupaplatformforsportanddevelopmentorganizations
toregularlymeetandexchangeinformation.NCDOalsodevelopedawebsite
(www.sportdevelopment.org)makingrelevantinformationaboutprojects,organizations,funding,
andsoonaccessible.Inaddition,NCDOpublishedSupporter,aquarterlyaboutsportin
developingcountries,whichensuredthattheissuewasbroughttotheattentionoftheDutch
public.
Althoughthebudgetforprojectsindevelopingcountriesremainedlimited,thenewpolicy
document,theMoUsandtheNCDOSportandDevelopmentprogramsparkedanumberofnew
largescaleprojects.SomeDutchsportorganizations,amongwhichKNVBandNSA,formally

19


incorporatedsportanddevelopmentintotheirmissionandevenappointedaspecializedemployee.
Itprovedhardertoinvolvethetraditionaldevelopmentcooperationsector.Incidentally,NGOssuch
asTerredesHommes,Cordaid,IKVPaxChristiandOxfamNovibcooperatedinsportfor
developmentprojects,butitwasnotsystematicallyincludedintheirprogramsandstrategies.
Thepolicymemorandumof1998wasfollowedbyajointpositionstatementfromtheMinistryof
ForeignAffairsandtheMinistryofSportin2000.WhiletheMinistryofSportsresponsibilities
remainedthesame,theMinistryofForeignAffairsadoptedalargesectorapproach.Development
cooperationpolicyshiftedfromtheuncoordinatedsupportontheprojectlevelinalargeamountof
countriestoafocusonsupportatprogramlevelinasmalleramountofcountries.Smallersectors
likesport,youth,andinclusionofpeoplewithdisabilitieswereintegratedintoabroader,
overarchingpolicyfocus,suchashealth,educationandruraldevelopment,aswellasgood
governance.Furthermore,theDutchembassieswereassignedadifferentrole,astheynolonger
receiveddirectsupportforsportfordevelopmentprojects.
ThispolicyshiftmadeitdifficultforsmallerNGOstoobtainfundsforsportfordevelopment
projects.Atthesametime,globaloperatingsportfordevelopmentorganizationssuchasRightTo
Playfitinwellinthenewpolicy.TheDutchForeignAffairsministrywassoimpressedbytheRight
toPlayprojects,particularlythosefocussingonhealthpromotionandrefugees,that,in2002,it
announcedtosupportRightToPlaytoconductalargemultilateralprogram.RighttoPlay
NetherlandsbecameamemberoftheInnovationPlatformDevelopmentCooperationandin2008;
itwasassignedagrantof1.2millionEuroforprogramsinSudanandBurundi.
Manysportfordevelopmentprogramschangedsubstantivelyinthisperiod.From2004,itwas
madepossibleforDutchsportsorganizationstojoinPSO,amemberorganizationwithalargebody
ofknowledgeinthefieldofdevelopmentcooperation.ThePSOmembershipofNOC*NSFwasa
turningpointthatmadevarioussportfordevelopmentorganizationsthinkdifferentlyabouttheir
approach.ItstimulatedNKS(later:NSAInternational),forinstance,tofocusoncapacitybuilding.In
theNKSprogramshumanresource,organizationalandinstitutionaldevelopmentbecamekey.
Moreover,newfundingpossibilitiesforDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizationsarosethrough
PSO.

20082013
On11February2008,thethenDutchMinisterforDevelopmentCooperationBertKoendersandthe
StateSecretaryforHealth,WelfareandSportMaritteBussemakerpresentedthepolicy
memorandumentitledThepowerofsportindevelopmentcooperation.Anopengoal[Eenkansvoor
opendoel.Dekrachtvansportinontwikkelingssamenwerking].Thispolicymemorandumhadthe
intentiontostimulateDutchinvolvementandcommitmentinthefieldofsportanddevelopment
cooperation.
Thevisionbehindthismemorandumwastoenabledevelopmentcooperationbodiesand
organizationstomakeoptimalandsustainableuseofthepowerofsportandplayprograms.
Furthermorethestartingpointwasafocusoncooperationinwhichsportcanmakeacontribution
todevelopmentgoals.Therefore,thepolicywasbuiltaroundthefollowingthreeelements:

20

CommitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbyDutch
organizations(alsoknownasSportscoalitionsinaction,viaNOC*NSF);
Commitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbylocal
organizations(viaEmbassies);
Commitmenttoreinforcingthesupportfortheuseofsportwithininternational
developmentcooperationintheNetherlands(viaNCDO).

Theprogramaimedtoimprovethepositionofyoung
people,girlsandwomen,andthedisabledin10selected
Themostimportantsuccesses
countries(partially)throughtheapplicationofDutch
wereformulatedasnew
sportsknowhow.TheselectedcountrieswereSouth
networkrelationsand
Africa,Suriname,Kenya,BurkinaFaso,Zambia,
collaborationswithdomains
Mozambique,Senegal,Bhutan,Indonesiaand
outsidesport.
Guatemala.Asidefromthesecountries,specialprojects
weresetupinthreefragilestates:Burundi,Sudanandthe
PalestinianTerritories.
Theprogramfocusedspecificallyonthethemesofhealth,educationand
emancipation/participationandwasimplementedbysocalledmaincontractors:NSA,KNVB,
Todos,RespoandBhutanandPartners.TheycooperatedwithRightToPlay,WomenWinand
variouslocalorganizations,mainlycommunitybased.TheexplicitroleofDutchembassiesinthis
memorandumwasnew.Intheyearsbefore,embassieswereincidentallyinvolvedinsportfor
developmentprograms,forexampleinZambiaandSouthAfrica.Theirinvolvementheavily
dependedonpersonalinterestbyembassystaffmembers.Now,withthenewmemorandum,
embassiesin10countrieshadtointegratesportfordevelopmentintheiractivitiesandprograms.
Thebudgetmadeavailablefortheperiodbetween2008and2011was16millionEuro.Thismoney
waspartlyallocatedtofundthecommitmentbyDutchsportand/ordevelopmentorganizations.An
evaluationbyNCDO(2011)providedinsightinthequantitativeandqualitativeresultsofthe
program.Themostimportantsuccesseswereformulatedasnewnetworkrelationsand
collaborationswithdomainsoutsidesport.Forexample,NSAcreatedalargenetworkof
grassrootscommunitybasedorganizationsinKenya,whereitrunsprogramsfocusedonpeace,
security,educationandlivelihood.Also,knowledgeexchangethroughjointtrainingprogramsand
cooperationwithuniversitieswasmentionedasayieldoftheprogram.Theevaluationalso
providedvariousrecommendations,suchasmorefocusonknowledgeexchangethroughthere
useofproductsandexchangeofbestpracticesandprovideframeworks(suchasguidance
indicators)formonitoringandevaluation.
The2010FIFAWorldCupinSouthAfricaprovidedaboosttosportfordevelopmentactivities.Inthe
contextofthisWorldCup,theKNVBrenamedtheirglobalcoachthecoachesprograminto
WorldCoachesandrepositionedtheirprogramwiththeexplicitintegrationoflifeskillsinfootball
courses.TheWorldCoachesprogrambecamelessdependentongovernmentsubsidiesthanksto
theinterestandinvolvementofprivateorganizations,suchasNike.Also,theWorldCoaches
programofferedvariousopportunitiesforpublicprivatepartnerships(socalledPPPs),whichwas
acknowledgedbythewater,sanitationandhygiene(WASH)sector.In2011,aPPPbetweenKNVB,
theWASHsectorandtheMinistryofForeignAffairsemerged,resultinginaFootballforWater
programinGhana,KenyaandMozambique.

21


Becausethe2008policymemorandumonsportfordevelopmentexpiredin2011,anewprogram
wasdevelopedin2012.Thistime,theprogramwascomposedsolelybytheMinistryofForeign
Affairs.TheMinistryofSporthassportfordevelopmentnotformallyinitsportfoliosanymore,since
itsfocusismoreondomesticissuesnow.WithinthenewlyinitiatedprogramSportfor
Development20122015themainthemesaresustainabledevelopmentandpeace.Disadvantaged
groupsyouth,children,women,girlsanddisabledpeopleagainhaveacentralpositionwithinthe
program.
Furthermore,theprogramislessfocusedonraisingpublicsupportandknowledgesharingthan
beforeandhasshiftedtothesupportofsportnetworksforsocialentrepreneurship.Whereasinthe
period20082011abudgetof16millionEurowasavailable,forthisprogramabudgetof6millionis
allocated,duetooverallbudgetcutswithindevelopmentcooperation.Thenumberoftarget
countriesalsowentdownfrom10to8.Atthesametimenewtargetcountrieshavebeenappointed
aspartofthose8selectedcountries.NSAInternational,KNVBandRighttoPlayarethe
implementersoftheprogram.

Paradigm
Sportasprivatedomain;
1980s
traditionaldevelopmentcooperation
Sportasasourceofinspirationforsociety;
1990s moreemphasisonsocialdevelopment

DutchSfDpolicy
Nopolicy

FirstformalpolicyonSfD:SportinDevelopment:
TeamworkScores!(MinistryofSportandMinistryof
ForeignAffairs,1998)
Sportasaneffectivetoolfordevelopment; NewcountryprogramSfD:Anopengoal.The
th
emergeof4 pillarindevelopment
powerofsportindevelopmentcooperation
2000s
cooperation
(MinistryofSportandMinistryofForeignAffairs,
2008)
Sportasacontributortodevelopmentand Program:SportforDevelopment20122015(Ministry
2010s
socialentrepeneurship
ofForeignAffairs,2012)
Table1:SportfordevelopmentinpolicyintheNetherlands

2.2 Internationalpolicyandprograms
Briefhistory
SportforAllwasthenameofprobablythefirstsportfordevelopmentprogramandwas
implementedinTanzaniabytheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)
in1983.InNorway,athleteinvolvementplayedalargeroleintheemergenceofsportasa
developmentinstrumentandstill,nationalsportrolemodelshavealargeinfluenceonthepublic
opinionofsportfordevelopment.RightToPlay(formerly:OlympicAid),headedbyerstwhile
NorwegianOlympicspeedskatingchampionJohannOlavKoss,becamethelargestinternational
NGOforsportanddevelopmentandusespopulareliteathletesastheirambassadors.
AnothersportfordevelopmentearlyadaptorisCanada.FormalinvolvementoftheCanadian
governmentwasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsofGovernment(CHOM)meeting.
Since2000,CanadaisaccommodatingtheheadquartersofRightToPlayinToronto.Intheearly
2000s,theNetherlandstogetherwithNorwayandCanadawereabletocallthemselvesthe
frontrunnersofthemovement,withRightToPlayasastronglobbyistforthesportand
developmentissueinternationally.

22


Norway
TheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)wasabletoimplementasports
developmentaidprojectbecauseofthechangesinNorwegiandevelopmentaidstrategiesinthe1990s.These
changesmadefundsavailableforprivateorganizations.Inordertobefunded,certaindemandswere
proposedbyNORAD,whichwasNorwayspublicimplementingaidagencyatthetime.Overtheyearspublic
supportforsporthasbeenanimportantfactoraswell.Manygovernmentsindicatedthatindividual
champions,likeJohannOlavKoss,wereinvaluableinmobilizinggovernmentsupportforsportfor
developmentandpeacebydemonstratingthepowerofsportinhighlypersonalandcompellingways
(Straume&SteenJohnsen,2012).

Canada
FormalinvolvementofthegovernmentinCanadawasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsof
Government(CHOM)meetingandsincethenCanadahasbeenwellknownwithinthesportfordevelopment
sector(Hayhurst&Frisby,2010).Internationally,Canadaplaysaninfluentialrolebystructuralcooperation
withmultilateralpartnersastheforumofCommonwealthSportsMinistersConference,theCommonwealth
AdvisoryBodyonSport,theConferenceoftheYouthandSportsMinistersofFrenchspeakingCountries
(CONFEJES)andtheUnitedNationsGroupofFriendsforSportforDevelopmentandPeace.
Box2:policydevelopmentinNorwayandCanada

DuringtheOlympicWinterGamesinSaltLakeCity(2002),RightToPlayorganizedaroundtable
conferenceonSfD.TheSaltLakeCityconferenceresultedinthefoundingofaspecialtaskforceon
SportsforPeaceandDevelopmentandtheappointmentofmr.AdolfOgiasthespecialUN
ambassadorin2003.ThetaskforceevolvedintotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternational
WorkingGroup(SDPIWG)whoaimedatachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).
RightToPlayservedasSecretariattoSDPIWGfrom2004to2008.TheSDPIWGwasahighlevel
policyinitiativemobilizing59nationalgovernmentsandkeystakeholdersfromUNagenciesand
civilsociety.ThefocusonusingsportfortheachievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals
hasbeenpresentintheapproachoftheUNsincethe2003UNTaskForceReportSportfor
DevelopmentandPeace:TowardsAttainingtheMisllenniumDevelopmentGoals.Subsequently,
manygovernmentsrefertotheMDGswhenstatingtousesportastoolfordevelopment.
In2003,theUNsetuptheOfficeofSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP)inordertofurther
contributeinamoresystematicandcoherentwaytothepromotionofsportasacosteffective
developmenttool.Sincethen,theUNMemberStates,gatheredintheGeneralAssembly,have
repeatedlydemonstratedcommitmentandsupporttotheuseofsportasavehicleforhuman
developmentandpeacebuildingbyadoptingaseriesofresolutions.
SportandUnitedNations
Asearlyas1922,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)andtheUnitedNationsInternationalLabor
Organization(ILO)alreadyestablishedinstitutionalcooperation,resultinglateroninpartnershipswithother
UnitedNationsagenciesandprograms.Furthermore,therightofaccesstoandparticipationinsportandplay
haslongbeenrecognizedinanumberofinternationalconventions.In1978,UNESCOdescribedsportand
physicaleducationasafundamentalrightforall.However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirected
atachievingdevelopmentgoalstendedtobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2001,
formerUNSecretaryGeneralKofiAnnannominatedAdolfOgiashisSpecialAdviseronSportfor
DevelopmentandPeace,whowassucceededinApril2008byWilfriedLemke.
Box3:SportandUnitedNations

Theincreasedinterestfromdonorcountries,suchasAustralia,theUK,SwitzerlandandGermany
andtheEU,stimulatedariseinrequestsfromthedevelopingcountries,especiallyfromAfrica,and
atthesametimetheserequestsfromtheSouthcouldbemoreadequatelytargetedbyspecific

23


organizations.UKSportandCommonwealthCanadaorganizedadonorconferenceinLondonand
arecipientconferenceinJohannesburg.Themainissueofdebateattheseconferenceswas
cooperationbetweenNorthandSouth.Here,thefirststepsweretakentoformulateacodeof
conductforcooperationbetweenNorthernandSouthernorganizations.SCORE,aSouthAfrican
NGO,wasthecoordinatingorganizationforrecipientcountriesinandplayedinimportroleinthe
formulationofthecodeofconduct.
AtthefirstMagglingenconferenceinFebruary2003,
manyinternationalorganizationsandgovernments
Whatwasmissing,wasa
signedtheMagglingendeclaration,expressingtheir
systematicapproachtoan
commitmenttosportanddevelopment.Justlikeits2005
importantsectorincivil
edition,thisconferencewasorganizedbytheAdvisorto
society:sport
theUNSecretaryGeneralonSportforDevelopmentand
Peace,theSwissAgencyforDevelopmentand
Cooperation(SAD)andFederalOfficeofSport
Magglingen(BASPO).InNovember2003,theNetherlandsspecificallyNCDO,theMinistryof
Health,WelfareandSport(VWS)andNOC*NSForganizedaninternationalmeetingofexperts,
entitledTheNextStep.Here,practitionersfromboththeNorthandtheSouthgatheredforthe
firsttimetodebatethevalueofsportandtodecidewhatstepstotake.TheNextStepConference
inAmsterdamwasfollowedbyeditionsinZambia(2003),Namibia(2007)andTrinidad&Tobago
(2011).Afterthoseconferences,newnetworkorganizationsarose,suchasKickingAIDSout.
However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirectedatachievingdevelopmentgoalstended
tobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2005,whichwasdeclaredbytheUNasthe
YearofSportandPhysicalEducation(IYSPE),thishasbeenrecognizedbystating:Whatwas
missing,wasasystematicapproachtoanimportantsectorincivilsociety:sport(UN,2005).
Consequently,theUnitedNationsisturningtotheworldofsportforhelpintheworkforpeaceand
theefforttoachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.
TheIYSPEwasforvariousgovernments,bothintheNorthandtheSouth,thestartingpointfor
allocatingbudgettosportfordevelopmentprograms.Internationalumbrellasportorganizations,
suchastheIOCandFIFA,cametorealizethatsportscouldcontributesignificantlytodevelopment,
andasaresulttheyformulatedtheirownpolicies,strategiesandprograms,suchasFootballfor
Hope.Also,theinterestofdevelopingcountriesinorganizingmegaevents,suchastheOlympic
GamesandthefootballWorldCup,andaccompanyingpressureofpublicopinionnottoorganize
suchexpensiveeventsattheexpenseofthepoor,forcedIOCandFIFAtopursueasociallegacy
throughtheorganizationofsuchevents.In2008,IOCandtheUNagreedonanexpanded
frameworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsoftheUN.
In2013,thesportanddev.orgplatformcelebratesits10thanniversary.Theplatformisahubfor
sharingknowledge,buildinggoodpractice,facilitatingcoordinationandfosteringpartnerships
betweenandwithindifferentstakeholdersinsportanddevelopment.TheInternationalPlatformon
Sport&Developmentiscurrentlysupportedbyadiversityoforganizations,fromtheprivatesector
(Nike),thesportssector(InternationalSportandCultureAssociation;UEFA),multigovernmental
(theCommonwealthsecretariat),charity(LaureusFoundation),toorganizationsofnational
representation(AustralianSportsCommission,NorwegianOlympicCommittee,UKSport).In2012,

24


sportanddev.orgorganizedanexpertmeetingheldattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelop
guidelinesonSportforDevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

rd

2013

3 UNIOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2012

ExpertsMeetingattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelopguidelinesonSportfor
DevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

UNICEFRoundtableonchildprotectioninsport

2011

4thconference'TheNextStep',heldinTrinidad&Tobago.
2ndUNIOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2010

2010FIFAWorldCup

2009

FirstUNIOCForumonSportforDevelopmentandPeaceheldinLausanne

OnlineedebatewithSfDexperts,convenedbysportanddev.organdNCDO

2008

UNSecretaryGeneralBanKiMoonestablishesatrustfundonSportforDevelopmentand
Peace.

Mr.W.LemkeappointedasthenewSpecialAdviseronSportforDevelopmentandPeace
IOCandtheUNagreeonanexpandedframeworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsof
theUN.

2007

EuropeanCommissionpublishesaWhitePaperonSportstatingitwillpromotetheuseof
sportasatoolfordevelopmentininternationaldevelopmentpolicy.

3rdconferenceTheNextStep,Windhoek,Namibia

2005

Magglingen2005Declaration

EuropeanParliamentResolutiononSportandDevelopment

2ndconferenceTheNextStep,Livingstone,Zambia

UNICEFWorkshoponMonitoringandEvaluation,NewYork,USA

CouncilofEurope:TheContributionofSporttoInterculturalDialogue,Istanbul,Turkey

2004

2003

RoundtableForum:HarnessingthePowerofSportforDevelopmentandPeace,Athens,
Greece

UNResolution58/5
TheNextStep:'InternationalExpertMeetingonDevelopmentInandThroughSport',
Amsterdam,TheNetherlands
EstablishmentofSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG)
EstablishmentofInternationalplatformwww.sportanddev.org

InternationalDonorMeeting,London,UK

InternationalRecipientMeeting,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

UNTaskForceReport

Appointmentofmr.A.OgiasUNSpecialAdvisoronSportforDevelopmentandPeace

2002

DeclarationandRecommendations:MagglingenConferenceonSport&Development,
Magglingen,Switzerland

RoundTableConferenceSaltLakeCity,USA

Box4:SelectionofInternationalandNationalMilestones

25

Arena
Overtheyears,aSfDsectoremerged.Thesectorischaracterizedbyitsbroadengagementof
actingplayers;governmentalandnongovernmental,sportandnonsport.Alsoprivate
organizationsgetinvolvedinSfD.Sportrelatedbusinesses,likeNikeandAdidas,choose
cooperationwithorganizations,projectsorprogramsthatmatchwiththeirmarketingorcorporate
socialresponsibly(CSR)strategy.Thesameappliesforsoftdrinkmanufacturers,telecomsuppliers
andhealthinsurancecompanies,whoshareaninterestinimagebuildingandawarenessin
developingcountries.EventheEnglishPremierLeagueclubsexpandtheirsocialactivitiesfrom
deprivedareasintheirownhometowntolessprivilegedcountriesintheSouth.
TheSfDsectorcanbecharacterizedasanarena(VanEekeren,2006).Thisarenaisformedby
diverseactors:targetgroups(intheSouth),recipients(governments,NGOsandcommunitybased
organizationsintheSouth),intermediaryorganizations(SfDorganizationsandtheirimplementing
partners)anddonors(governments,UN,EU,sponsors).Thearenagetsmoreandmorecomplicated
becauseoftheincreasingnumberofactors,agreatvarietyofrolesandformsofcooperation,and
conflictinginterest.Furthermore,theactionsbytheactorsareinfluencedbysoftandintangible
powers,suchas(international)politics,publicopinion,lobby,relationshipsandaccessof
information.

2.3

Dutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspective

Anno2013,theNetherlandsisnolongeroneofthefrontrunnersoftheSfDmovementasitused
tobeintheearly2000s.Thisisduetonationalpolicychanges(infinances,contentandcapacity)
andthemassiveexpansionofSfDinothercountries.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatthe
Netherlandsplaysaninsignificantrole.

2.3.1 Donorcountrypolicies
Notinalldonorcountriesaselfstandingpolicyonthisthematicareaexist.TheUnitedKingdomfor
instance,asignificantactorinthesector,hasnooverarchingorselfstandingpolicy.IntheUK,sport
fordevelopmentisintegratedinalessstructuredwayintotheirinternationaldevelopmentand
internationalsportefforts.Departmentswithinthegovernmentareworkingtogetherinformally.
Canadaalsolacksanoverarchingpolicyonitsinternationalapproachtosportfordevelopment.Its
involvementischaracterizedbytheengagementofdifferentdepartmentsandagencies.Sporthas
beenlinkedatvariouspointsintimetoCanadasforeignpolicy,internationaldevelopmentand
internationalsportpolicyobjectives.
Anothersignificantactor,Switzerland,hastakenamainstreamingapproachsince2007by
embeddingsportasadevelopmentthemewithintheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation
onparwithotherdevelopmentthemes(suchaseducation,health,water,sanitation,etc.).This
meanssporthastocompeteforfundingwithothermethodsandinstrumentsandtherecognition
ofsportasvaluabletoolbecameincreasinglyimportant.Before,sportfordevelopmentusedtobea
freestandingprogramwithitsownbudget.
NorwayandAustraliaseemtohavethemostcentralizedanduniformedapproach.Norwegian
governmentformulatesoneofitsmainlessonslearnedovertheyearsasfollows:Longterm
commitmentisimportantinsportfordevelopment.Unlessthegovernmentanditspartnersare

26


preparedtoworkinacountryforaprolongedperiodoftime,itwillbedifficulttoachievepositive
resultsandtoestablishtruecollaborationamongmultiplestakeholders(SDPIWG,2007).Atthe
moment,oneofthemostambitiousSfDpoliciesbydonorcountriesseemstobedeliveredby
Australia.Recently,itlauncheditsDevelopmentthroughsport20132017strategy,whichcanbe
describedaselaborate.Itidentifiesdevelopmentobjectivesfirstandthenidentifieshowwell
plannedsportbasedactivitiescancontributetotheseobjectivesviaajointstrategybetweenthe
AustralianSportsCommission(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment
(AusAID).

UnitedKingdom
Thenationalgovernmentsupportssportdevelopmentandhumandevelopmentthroughsportunderthe
InternationalDevelopmentAssistanceProgram(IDAP).UKSport,asemiindependentagencyofthe
DepartmentofCulture,MediaandSport(DCMS),isleadingtheactivitiesoftheUnitedKingdom.

Switzerland
TheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(SDC),aspartoftheForeignMinistry,istheleadingbodyfor
SFDwithintheSwissgovernment,inclosecooperationwiththeFederalOfficeofSport(FOSPO).

Canada
CanadianHeritage(PCH)andtheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA),theDepartmentof
NationalDefence(DND),andForeignAffairsandInternationalTradeCanada(DFAIT)allmakeandhavemade
significantinvestmentsinsportfordevelopmentovertheyears.

Norway
TheMinistryofForeignAffairs(MFA)isresponsiblefortheNorwegianStrategyforCultureandSports
Cooperation.MFAandNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(NORAD)arejointlyinvolvedin
SFD.NoradprimarlyworkswithNGOsandprovideslongtermdevelopmentassistance.NIFisanimportant
implementingpartner.

Australia
TheDevelopmentthroughsport20132017strategyisajointeffortoftheAustralianSportsCommission
(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AusAID).

Box5:internationalpolicy

NationalDutchpoliciesonSfDhavebeeninfluential,butnotverystableovertheyears.This
fluctuationcanbetracedbacktoseveralfactors,suchasthevaryingpoliticalattentionand
accompanyingresources.Overtheyears,theDutchpoliticallandscapeanddevelopment
cooperationpolicychanged,influencingtheMinistryofForeignAffairsinvolvementinsport.At
times,sportandinternationalcooperationbecameeithermarginalizedorstimulated,ashasbeen
describedin2.1.
RemarkableintheDutchorganizationofSfDovertheyearsisthattheprogramisnotimplemented
byoneortwocentralparties,butratherbyanumberofmutualreinforcingpartners.Theseareboth
localactivepartnersaswellasvariousDutchorganizations.Thecurrentimplementingpartnersof
theDutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportant
roleinthecontinuityandenforcementofSfDintheNetherlands.NSAInternational,KNVBand
RightToPlaydevelopedtheirprogramspartlybecauseofthepossibilitiesofDutchnationalpolicy,
partlybecauseoftheliberty(andsometimesneed)totakeowninitiative.

27


AnotherremarkablenotionisthewayinwhichtheNetherlandsselectsitstargetcountries.All
governmentfundedprogramstakeplaceindevelopingcountrieswhichhaveahistorical
relationshipwiththeNetherlandsand/orareafragilestate.Sincethiscriterionisdecisivefor
receivingfunding,thishashadamajorimpactonthecountryselectionbyDutchSfDorganizations.

2.3.2 Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches
ThecurrentSfDprogramcanbecharacterizedasapolicyframeworkthatallowsalimitednumber
ofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfD
interventions.Pointofdeparturefortheimplementationistobundleforcesandtoavoid
fragmentationinordertostrengthenownership,quality
andefficiency.Thereforeaprogrammaticapproachis
beingused,whichisneedsbased,cohesiveandbased
Changeinknowledge,
uponacontextanalysisineachcountry.Thismeansthe
attitudeorbehavioristhe
Dutchapproachisnotcharacterizedbyonesizefitsall,
mainobjectiveofNSA
butbytailormade.Theprogramaimstoconnectthe
International,KNVBand
operationsatmicro(grassroots)levelwiththecooperation
RightToPlay.
atmeso(organizational)levelandadvocacyatmacro
(nationalandinternational)level.
NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaycanbe
characterizedbytheirstructuralinvolvementinSfD,longtermrelationshipsinboththeNorthand
theSouth,andtheirspecificapproaches.Intheend,allthreepartnerswanttousethepowerof
sporttoimprovethelivesofpeopleindevelopingcountries.Changeinknowledge,attitudeor
behavioristheirmainobjective.Atthesametime,theydifferinthewaytheywanttoachievethis
objective.Theyfocusondifferentapproaches,targetgroups,socialissuesandcountries,as
illustratedinTable2:

28

Goals

Mainfocus

Social
issues

Countries

NSAInternational
Capacitybuildinginsportand
peaceprogramsand
organizations.
IncreasingsupportforSfD
Youthdevelopmentthrough
humanresourcesdevelopment
(sportleadership),
organizationalenforcement,
institutionaldevelopment.
Influencing(national)SfD
policies
Securityandsafety
Health
Economicempowerment
Gender
Kenya,Uganda,SouthSudan,
Surinam,BurkinaFaso,Mali,
Egypt,Indonesia,The
Netherlands

Selectionof YouthDevelopment/Country
programs
programs
InternationalSportLeaders
Exchange
PeaceBeyondBorders
Activecitizenship
DutchmovementSfD

Website
www.nsainternational.nl
Table2:DutchSFDpartners

KNVB
Educatingfootballcoaches
Developinglocal
communities

RightToPlay
Educatingyouthleaders
Implementingsportand
playprograms

Footballskillscombinedwith
lifeskills
Localcapacitybuilding

Behavioralchange:
physical,social,emotional,
cognitive
Localcapacitybuilding

WASH
Gender
HIV/AIDS
Crime
Addiction
NetherlandsAntilles,
Surinam,Brazil,Senegal,
BurkinaFaso,Ghana,Kenya,
Zambia,Mozambique,South
Africa,India,Indonesia,
Morocco,Tunisia,Egypt,
Jordan

Education
Health
Peacefulcommunities

FootballforWater
SOSChildrensVillages
LightingUpCommunities
ClubLinking
ArabicSpring

www.worldcoaches.nl

Benin,Burundi,Ethiopia,
Ghana,Kenya,Liberia,
Mali,Mozambique,
Rwanda,SouthSudan,
Tanzania,Uganda,China,
Jordan,Lebanon,Pakistan,
PalestinianTerritories,
Thailand,Peru
Countryprograms

www.righttoplay.nl

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaydiffer,butareinmanywayscomplementary.Whereas
RightToPlayistoalargeextentanimplementingorganization,NSAInternationaldoesnotexecute
sportandplayprojectsitself,butfocusesonstructuralcapacitybuildingoflocalorganizationsand
itsinstitutionalsurroundingsinordertodelivervaluableandsustainableprogramsforyouths.
KNVBandRightToPlaybotheducatesportcoaches.KNVBtakessport(i.c.football)asastarting
pointfordevelopment,whereasRightToPlayandNSAInternationalregardsportandplayasatool
fordevelopment.Allorganizationshavedevelopedcurriculaandmanualsforsport/football
trainers/coaches.
Also,similaritiesinapproachescanbeanalyzed.TheDutchSfDpartnersareallaimedatsoftware
intheformofcapacitybuilding(i.e.transferofknowledgeandskills)insteadofhardware(i.e.
buildingsportfacilities).Thiscomesalongwiththedevelopmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesand
manuals.ThisapproachiscomparablewiththeAustralianone,recentlypresentedintheirstrategy

29


for20132017,butitcontrastswithapproachesfromFIFAforexample,whoseprogramsfloaton
buildingsportgrounds.
Furthermore,theDutchapproachcanbecharacterizedbyitsattempttosetuplocalnetworks,or
closelycooperatewithlocalorganizations,inordertocontributetolocalcapacitybuildingand
sustainableprograms.TheDutchSFDorganizationsconsiderlocalcoachesorcommunityleadersas
themosteffectiverolemodelsandchangeagents.Again,similaritieswiththeAustralianapproach
arise.AlsoDeutscheGesellschaftfrInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)fromGermanyandNorges
Idrettsforbund(NIF)fromNorwayinvestinlocalsoftstructures.Others,suchasUKSports,focus
onstrengtheningthenationalsportssystemswithindevelopingcountriesworkingwithministries,
sportsfederationsandNGOs,andnotsomuchincooperationwithcommunitybased
organizations.CanadianHeritageinvestedalargeextentoftheirsportfordevelopmentfundsin
advocacyandsupportofinternationalnetworks.
ThethreeDutchpartnersemphasizeknowledgedevelopmentandsharing.NSAInternationalworks
closelytogetherwithvariousuniversitiesofappliedsciencesintheNetherlands,KNVBhasalong
termrelationshipwithUtrechtUniversityandRightToPlaycooperateswiththeUniversityof
Toronto.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenSFDorganizationsandscholarscanbeseeninAustraliaand
theUK.TheAustralianAIDandAustralianSportCommissionhavefoundedtheirSfDstrategyon
variousacademicreportsandUKSportshashadstudiescarriedoutbytheUniversityofStirling.At
thesametime,thecooperationbetweenacademicsandSfDorganizationsinothercountriesis
oftenlimitedtoincidentalmonitoringandevaluation(M&E)studies.
Ingeneral,itcanbearguedthatthereisnotaspecificDutchapproachnorthatDutchorganizations
dosomethingcompletelydifferentthanotherSfDorganizations.Nevertheless,theDutch
organizationsdohavecertainfeaturesthatcharacterizetheirwayofworking.SeeBox6.
CommonfeaturesofDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizations

Focusonsoftware:transferofknowledgeandskills
Developmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals
Localcapacitybuildingthroughmultistakeholderapproach
Localcoachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels
Knowledgedevelopment
Varietyofimplementingpartners
Box6:FeaturesoftheDutchapproach

30

3Academicresearch:towardsamodel

ThischapterdescribestheexpansionofacademicinterestinSfD.Thiswillbeillustratedbythe
growingnumbersofconferences,journals,education,andpublications.Inthesecondpartofthis
chapterweexploreindepthwhathasbeenstudiedby
thisgrowingnumberofinterestedscientists.Thisresults
intheintroductionofabasicmodelofsportfor
Sportfordevelopmentisthe
development.
useofsporttoexertapositive
influenceonpublichealth,the
3.1 Theexpansionofacademicinterest
socializationofchildren,
Asstatedinthepreviouschapter,sportfordevelopment
youthsandadults,thesocial
istheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublic
inclusionofthe
health,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,
disadvantaged,theeconomic
thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomic
developmentofregionsand
developmentofregionsandstates,andonfostering
states,andonfostering
interculturalexchangeandconflictresolution(Sugden,
interculturalexchangeand
1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;Lyras&WeltyPeachey,
conflictresolution.
2011).Inrecentyears,thenumberofnewprogramsand
projectshasincreased,justastheattentionbypolicy
makersforsportfordevelopment.Subsequently,
scientistsfromdifferentacademicdisciplinesdelveincreasinglyintothetopicofsportfor
development(Hognestad&Tollisen,2004;Coalter,2007,2010;Kidd,2008,2011;Levermore&
Beacom,2009;Straume&SteenJohnsen,2012;Donnelly&Coakley,2013).Scientistsbecome
interestedinthissocietalphenomenon,theywanttoresearchtheclaimsthatareformulatedin
policyand/orareaskedbypolicymakersandpolicycontractorstostudytheimpactofprojectsand
programs.

3.1.1 Quantity
Itisnoteworthythattheincreasinguseoftheconceptsportfordevelopmentinstudiessuggestsa
significantchangeinperspectiveonthisfieldasanacademicdisciplinehasoccurred.Untilthe
1990s,sportfordevelopmentseemedtohavealowstandingacademicstatus(VanEekeren,2006).
Studyingsportfordevelopmentwasapproachedasahobbygottenoutofhand,andnotasafactor
contributingtoaseriousacademiccareer.Now,wecanarguethatacademicoutput(suchas
conferences,educationandpublications)hasincreasedsignificantly.

Conferences
Adecadeago,oneortwoannualinternationalconferencesweretakingplacewhereallpossible
topicswithinsportfordevelopmentwerediscussed(e.g.theNextStepConferences,meetings
betweenpractitionersandacademicswithaverypracticalapproach,andtheMagglingen
conferences,withpolicymakers,academicsandpractitionersandafocusonpolicyformulation)or
sportfordevelopmentwasasmallpartofabroadersummit(e.g.WorldConferenceonSport,
EducationandCulture).Nowadays,wellattendedinternationalconferencesandnetworking

31


meetingsaretakingplacethewholeyearround,bothinFirstWorldcountriesandinthedeveloping
countries,oftenfocusingonjustonespecificthemewithinsportfordevelopment.Anoverviewof
recenteventsonwww.sportanddev.org(2013)showsthatfromFebruaryuntilJuly2013,37
conferences,seminarsanddebateswereheldallovertheworld.

Journals
JournalsliketheInternationalReviewfortheSociologyofSport,SportinSociety,Sociologyof
SportJournal,SportManagementReview,JournalofSportandSocialIssuesandSoccerand
Societypublisharticlesaboutsportfordevelopment.InApril2013,thefirstacademicjournal
exclusivelyfocusingonsportfordevelopmentwaspublished.TheeditorialteamoftheJournalof
SportforDevelopment(JSFD)conceivedtheideainNovember2011.Theywerefrustratedbythe
paucityofpublishedevidencesupportingthepositiverhetoricthatcontinuedtofuelthegrowthof
SportforDevelopmentprograms(Richardsetal.,2013)andnotedthatmanypractitionersdidnot
haveaccesstothefewsubscriptionbasedjournalsthatwerepublishingrelevantcontent.Therefore
theycameupwiththeideatodevelopapeerreviewed,openaccessjournaldedicatedentirelyto
sportfordevelopment.

Education
Academicinstitutionsareofferinganincreasingnumberofbachelor,masterandPhDcoursesand
degreesintheareaofSportforDevelopment.Someexamplesofacademicprograms:Sportand
InternationalDevelopment(UniversityofBrighton,UK),InterdisciplinaryTrainingandResearchin
SportandDevelopment(TheFirstCitizenSportFoundation,theUniversityofWestIndies,Trinidad
andTobago;TheInterdisciplinaryCentreforSportandDevelopment(ICESSD),Universityofthe
WesternCapeSouthAfrica),SportsCoachingSciencewithDisabilitySport(Universityof
Worcester,UK),SportforSocialCoexistenceandConflictResolution(OpenUniversityofCatalonia,
UNESCO,andFutbolClubBarcelonaFoundation,Spain),PhDinSportforDevelopmentandPeace
(UniversityofUlster,Ireland),SportsPolicyandSportManagement(UtrechtUniversity),Sportand
Development(UniversityofJohannesburg,SouthAfrica).Thisdevelopmentisalsodetectablein
otherregions,likeAmericaandAustralasia.

Publications
Theincreasedacademicinterestisbestreflectedinthenumberofscientificpublicationsoverthe
lastcoupleyears.SearchinginWebofScience,traditionallyregardedasthemostusefulandtrustful
academicdatabase(Mikki,2009),givesanimpressionoftheincreasedamountofarticlespublished
inpeerreviewedjournals.SearchingonthekeywordsSportfordevelopment,Sportand
developmentandDevelopmentthroughSportintheperiodbetween1998and2012,resultsin
44articles.Mostofthosearticleswerepublishedsincetheyear2010,asillustratedinthefollowing
graph:

32

ArticlesinWebofScience
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Figure2:Numberofarticlesperyearaboutsportfordevelopment,sportanddevelopmentandsportthrough
developmentinWebofScience

AnimportantremarkisthatWebofScienceislimitedtoarticleswhicharepublishedinjournals
whichhavepassedathoroughselectionprocessbasedonpublicationstandards,expertjudgments,
regularappearancesandqualityofcitationdata(Garfield,1990;Mikki,2009).
GoogleScholar,anotheracademicdatabasereferredtoasanewparadigminacademicresearch
(Drewry,2007),coversawidervarietyofpublicationsthanWebofScience.Nexttojournaland
conferencepapers,italsoincludesthesesanddissertations,academicbooks,preprints,abstracts,
technicalreportsandotherscholarlyliteraturefromallbroadareasofresearch2.Intheperiod
before1998,141articleswiththesekeywordsareidentified.124ofthemwerepublishedinthe15
yearsbetween1982and1997.Intheperiod19982012theforegoingkeywordsresultedin2,050
publications,asillustratedbythefollowinggraph:

PublicationsinGoogleScholar
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Figure3:Numberofpublicationsperyearaboutsportfordevelopment,SportandDevelopmentandSport
throughDevelopmentinGoogleScholar

ImportantsidenoteisthatinGoogleScholar,comparedtoWebofScience,lessdegreeofcontrolisoffered
forperformingsystematicallysearches.Moreoveritiscriticized,contentlacksimportantsourcesandthe
amountofnoisemakestheservicelessusefulforthoroughliteraturesearching(Mikki,2009).However,the
amountofqualifiedscholarlycontenthasincreasedconsiderablyinGoogleScholarsinceitslaunchin2004
anditisthereforearelevanttooltoprovideinsightintheincreasedinterestinthetopic.

33


Thisgraphshowsundoubtedlythatthenumberofscientificpublicationsaboutsportfor
developmentisrapidlyincreasing.Everyyear,morearticlesandbooksarewrittenaboutthis
subject.Theincreasemightbefuelledbymegaeventstakingplaceindevelopingcountries,suchas
FIFAWorldCupsandtheOlympicGames.Severalorganizationsstartedforexamplenewprojectsin
thecontextoftheWorldCupinSouthAfricain2010.Thismighthavedrawntheattentionof
academicsaswell.

3.1.2 Quality
Ananalysisofthepublishedscientificarticlesoverthelastyearsmakesclearthatnotonlyquantity
haschanged,thequalitativeaspectofthesepublicationsaswell.Intheearlyyearsofsportfor
developmentasanacademicdiscipline,mostpublishedstudiesconcernedsinglecasestudies.They
gavevaluableinsightsintheprojects,buthadtwodisadvantages:notallkindsofprojectswere
coveredandtheymainlyhadafocusonsubSaharanAfrica.Moreover,theresultswerenotalways
comparable.Nowadays,moreoftenamultiplecasestudymethodisusedandthosestudieshavea
longertimespanthanbefore.Thelargeststudyeverconductedinthefieldconcernsanevaluation
ofsixsportbasedprojectsinvariouspartsofworld(fundedbyComicReliefandUKSports)overa
fiveyearperiodbyCoalterandTaylor(2010).Nonetheless,theneedformorelongitudinalstudies
remains,sincethemajorityofstudiesisbasedonashorttimeframe.

Themes
Differentthemesarecoveredinthescientificpublications,asshowninfigure4.Theycanbedivided
inthemesrelatedtotheimplementationofprojects,likevolunteerism,coachingandtraining,and
themeswhicharerelatedtooutcomes,likehealthandsocialcapital.Moststudiesarewrittenabout
sportfordevelopmentinrelationtohealth,butingeneraltheimplementationrelatedthemesare
themoststudied.Manyarticlesmentionevaluations,partnerships,andcoachingandtraining.
Volunteerismis,toalesserextent,alsofrequentlystudied.Articlesaboutsportmegaeventslike
theOlympicGames/OlympicsandtheWorldCuparealsofrequentlypublished.

Popularthemes

ICT
Personaldevelopment
ofchildren

Socialcapital

Lifeskills

WorldCup

Resolution

Race

Sportparticipation

Volunteerism

Peace

Olympics

Coachingtraining

Evaluation

Partnership

Health

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

Publications

Figure4:NumberofpublicationsinEnglishaboutacertainthemeandsportfordevelopment,Sportand
DevelopmentorSportthroughDevelopmentinGoogleScholar,19982012

34

Authors
Moststudiesareconductedbyresearchersfromdonorcountries.Thisisnotatrulysurprisingfact,
howeveritemphasizesthemutualoftentermedunequalrelationbetweendonorenreceiving
countries.TheconductedliteraturereviewisfocusedonacademicpublicationsintheEnglish
language,becauseofthelanguageproficiencyofresearchersandthepotentialglobalreachof
publications(seefigure5).

Publications
English

4%

Spanish

5%

French

Arabic

7%

84%

Figure5:NumberofpublicationsinacertainlanguageaboutSportforDevelopmentinGoogleScholar,1998
2012

ItisrelevanttotakealookaswellatresearchpublishedintheSpanishlanguage,because
developmentalworkalsotakesplaceinCentralandSouthAmericaandisimplementedbySpanish
speakingorganizations.Aquickscan(usingthekeywordsdeporteparaeldesarrollo;deportey
desarrollo;desarrolloatravsdeldeporte)madeclearthatthisamountisstillquitelimited.In
WebofSciencenoarticleswerefound,inGoogleScholarthissearchresultedin100uniquearticles
intheperiodbetween1998and2013.Furthermore,wealsolookedatpublicationsinFrench,since
thesemaycaptureresearchundertakeninFrenchspeakingcountriesinAfrica(usingthekeywords
sportpourledveloppement;sportetdveloppement;dveloppementparlesport).Again,no
resultsinWebofScience,whileGoogleScholarprovided125uniqueresults.
InlightoftheupcomingamountofprogramsinArabiccountries,researchpublishedinArabichas
beenreviewed.AsearchinArabic(,literally
translatedmeaningtherelationshipbetweensportsanddevelopmentintheArabicWorld)in
GoogleScholarresultedin176publications.Mostofthemarewebsitesleavingtheamountof
scientificarticlesrelativelylow.Recurringthemesinthesepublicationsarethepromotionof
participationinsportfordisabledpeopleandhealthrelatedthemes.AsearchinEnglishforarticles
aboutsportfordevelopmentinArabcountriesresultedinabout66articles.Popularthemesare
femalerolemodelsinsport,peacebuildingandsportasamediatorbetweencultures(mostprojects
areschoolbasedcoexistenceprojectsforJewishandArabchildren),andtheroleofthemedia
(especiallyintheUnitedArabEmirates).

35


WhenlookingattheresearchfromtheSouth,researchersfromSouthAfricaarepresentin
internationalacademiccircles.ResearchersfromotherSoutherncountriesarescarce.Nichollsetal.
(2011)arguethatthelackofevidenceinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentcanbepartlyexplained
bythesubjugationoflocalknowledgeandknowledgeofsportfordevelopmentpractitioners.They
suggestthatacknowledgingandprivilegingthecontributionstypicallymadetothefieldbythe
female,young,blackAfricansportfordevelopmentgrassrootspractitionersknowledge,havethe
potentialtoresultinamorerobustevidencebaseandchallengethelackofevidencediscourse.This
isaninterestingperspective,sincecurrentevaluationofprogramsiftherealreadyexistsanyform
ofsystematicevaluationisoftendonordrivenandprovidesinmanycasesmainlyrelevant
informationforfunders.Thisknowledgeisnotaddedtothecurrentacademicknowledgebaseand
insomecasesisnotevenbeingusedforprogramdevelopment.

Academicdisciplines
TheorderingofkeywordsoftheacademicarticlesfoundinWebofScienceresultsinthewordcloud
depictedbelowinFigure6.Remarkableisthatmostconceptsareintheangleofdevelopment
studies(social,moral,youth,communities,education,social,rightsanddecolonization)andcanbe
lessassociatedwithpurelysportsciences.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatjustasmallpartof
researchisdonefromasportsscienceperspective.Themainresearchareasinwhichsportfor
developmentstudiesareconducted,areinpublicadministration,socialsciences,sociologyand
psychology.

Figure6:WordcloudbasedonordeningofkeywordsoftheacademicpublicationsfoundinWebofScience

Sportfordevelopmentcomparedtocreativeactivities
Severaldevelopmentalorganizationsusecreativeactivitieslikedrama,music,theateranddancein
acomparablewaytotheuseofsportfordevelopment.Frequently,discussionsariseaboutthe
addedvalueofeachactivity:whichactivityismosteffective?Questionedisalsowhether
organizationsindifferentfieldscanorshouldlearnfromeachother.Figure7showsthatacademics
havepublishedlessaboutthesecreativeactivitiesthanaboutsport.Withinthecreativeactivities,
academicshavewrittenmorescientificpublicationsaboutdramaandmusicthanabouttheaterand
dance.Butevenifallthoseactivitiesarecombined,theconclusionisthattheacademicattention
forcreativeactivitiesislessthantheattentionforsportfordevelopment.

36

Publicationsaboutcreativeactivitiesfordevelopment
Sport

Drama

Music

Theater

Dance

2%
6%
9%
11%

72%

Figure7:NumberofpublicationsinEnglishaboutacertainactivityanddevelopmentinGoogleScholar,1998
2012

Researchmethods
GrattonandJones(2004)describeseveralpossibleresearchdesignsforsportsstudies:from
experimentaldesignstosurveysandfromcasestudystolongitudinalapproaches.Thechoicefora
researchdesignisbasedontheresearchquestionandtheobjectivesofthestudy,butisalso
influencedbypracticalissuesandthebackgroundoftheresearcher.Whereassincerecentyears
withindevelopmentstudiesquantitativemethods(householdsurveysincombinationwith
regressionanalysis)areincreasinglybeingused,thiskindofresearchishardlydonewithinsportfor
development.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatmostresearchconductedinthefieldofsport
fordevelopmentisdoneinacademicdisciplinessuchaspublicadministration,socialsciences,
psychologyandsportsciences.
Economistsandstatisticsadvocatesareunderrepresented,andsoarehealthscientists.Mosthealth
relatedresearchinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentisfocusedonthepreventionofHIV/AIDS,
sincethisinvolvesawarenessandeducationinterventionsandrequiresbehavioralchange.
Behavioralchangeismostresearchedbypsychologistsandsociologists.Atthesametime,the
academicdebateonsportmegaeventshasattractedtheattentionofeconomists,whichoften
focusonamacrolevelapproach.
Theoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentprogramsareoftenhardtoexplicitandsubsequentlyto
measure.Therefore,themainquantitativedataisonoutput,suchasparticipationinsports(number
ofparticipants,numberoftrainedcoaches,numberoftrainingsessionsetc.)andnotonthe
subsequenthigherdevelopmentgoals.Atthesametime,politiciansandpolicymakersfeelthe
necessityandtendencytoquantifyoutcomesandtosuggestacausalrelationbetween
interventionsandoutcomes,inlightofaccountabilityissues.Thiscanresultinaclashwiththe
perceptionsofgrassrootspractitioners.
Recently,anacademicaltitudehasbeenreached,whenLyras(2009)advancedaSportfor
DevelopmentTheory(SFDT)groundedinempiricalevidencefromthefield,whichadvocatesan

37


interdisciplinaryapproach.Althoughothertheoreticalapproacheshavepreviouslybeenexplored
withintheglobalsportfordevelopmentliterature,SFDTistheoneofthefirstattemptstoprovidea
theoreticalfoundationforthemanagementofsportinterventionseffectivelypromotingsocial
change,peace,anddevelopment(Lyras&WeltyPeachy,2011).Morespecifically,SFDTwas
designedtoaddressthegapbetweentheoryandpracticebyusingscientificprocedurestoassess
threecomponentscontent,process,andoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentprograms.

3.2

Towardsabasicmodelforsportfordevelopment

InlightoftheincreasedamountofresearchandinspiredbytheSFDT,inthisparagrapha
theoreticalmodelwillbeexploredthatdescribeshowsport(not)contributestodevelopment.One
ofthemostrelevantquestionsis:Whatclaimscanandcannotbemadeaboutsportfor
developmentbasedonthecurrentexistingacademicliteratureandunderwhatcircumstancescan
sportcontributetodevelopmentgoals?

3.2.1 Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes
Asthefirstchaptersrevealed,foryearshighexpectationshavebeenimposedonsportfor
development:sportwassupposedtobringpeace;povertyandracismwoulddiminish;healthcare
andeducationwouldimprove.Sportfordevelopment
programsareoftenexecuted,evaluatedandfundedwith
theexpectationofreachingoneoftheseoverarching
Itishardtoproveadirect
developmentoutcomes.Inacademicstudies,the
causalrelationbetweensport
outcomeshealthandsocialcapitalhavefrequentlybeen
andoverarchingdevelopment
objectofresearch.
outcomesexceptforhealth,
becauseallother
Fundamentaltomanysportfordevelopmentprograms,is
relationshipsareindirectand
thedesiretoinfluencethebehaviorofpeople.ViaSfD
correlatewithavarietyof
projects,developmentalworkerstrytotransferknowledge
otherfactors.
(forexample,abouttheconsequencesofnotwashingyour
hands).Thisknowledgeissupposedtoinfluencethe
attitudesofpeople(e.g.,abouttheimportanceofhygiene)
andleadtoachangeintheirbehavior(e.g.,towashtheirhandsmoreoften).Fishbein&Azjen
(1975)explainedintheirtheoryofplannedbehaviorhowpeoplebasetheirbehavioronknowledge
andattitude.Accordingtothem,itiscomplicatedtoreachthedesiredbehavioralchange,because
manyfactorsinfluencethischange,likeperceivedcontrolandsocialnorms.Theirtheorymakes
clearthatitisnoteasytoreachtheoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomeswhicharesometimes
claimedbySfDprojectsortheirfunders.
Itishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomes,
exceptforhealth,becauseallotherrelationshipsareindirectandcorrelatewithavarietyofother
factors(Coalter,2013).Sporttakesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactors
influencethefinaloutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.Therefore,SfDprojectsshouldbe
seenassitesforsocialexperiences,notcausesforsocialoutcomes(cf.Coakley,1998).Similarly,
Sugden(2006)suggestedthatsportislikeallcollectivehumanendeavors,itisasocialconstruction
whichisinfluencedbythesocialforcesthatsurroundit.Thismeansthatthesuccessofsportin

38


doinggooddependsonthecontextandthemanagementofasupportive(social,cultural,political,
resourceandsport)environment.Itisnotsimplysportwhichachievespossiblepositiveornegative
outcomes,butthewaythatsportisprovidedandexperienced(Catalanoetal.,2004;Coalter,2006;
Sugden,2010;Coalter,2010;Lyras&WelthyPeachey,2011).
Surveyingtheresearch,healthistheonlyoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomethatshowsadirect
relationshipwithphysicalactivity.Theassumptionthatsportandphysicalactivitycanleadto
improvedhealthisincontestablenowadays(WHO,1995).
Intheliteratureadualrelationshiphasbeenproven:good
SfDprojectsshouldbeseen
healthistheoutcomeofsport,butagoodstateofhealth
assitesforsocialexperiences,
isalsoapreconditiontopracticesport(Gldenpfennig,
notcausesforsocial
1996).Sportinterventions,likeprogramsand
outcomes.
playgrounds,canplayanimportantroleinstimulating
peopletoparticipateinsport,eventhosewhowould
usuallyrefrain.Empiricalevidenceexistsonthebeneficial
outcomesofsportondifferentlevels:individual,communityandnation/society(SDPIWG,2007).
Nexttostudiesthatpointatimprovedhealthorbetterfitnessingeneral,morespecificstudieshave
beenpublished.Forexample,areductionasaresultofphysicalactivityhasbeenproveninnon
communicablediseases,suchascardiovasculardiseases(Warburtonetal.,2006;WHO,2007),some
formsofcancer(Holmesetal.,2005;Haydonetal.,2005),osteoporosis(Warburtonetal.2006),
andsportleadstoalowerriskonheartdisease,chronicrespiratorydisease,earlydeath,strokeand
highbloodpressure(SDPIWG,2007).PeoplewhoplaysportshavealowerBodyMassIndex(BMI).
Therefore,sporthelpstopreventobesity(Currie,2011;Blair&Church,2004;Rock,Valle&
Grabman,2013)andcertaintypesofdiabetes(Warburtonetal.,2006).
Alesstangibleeffectisthatsportleadstomentalhealthandpsychologicalwellbeing(Biddleet
al.,2000;Fox,1999,Valoisetal.,2004).Sportsupportsthepreventionofdepression(Stubbe,2006)
andhelpstocopewithstress(Berger,1996).Sportmightdecreasethelikelihoodofunhealthy
practices,suchasillegaldruguse(Taliaferro,Rienzo&Donovan,2010).Researchalsosuggeststhat
sportandphysicaleducationmayplayaroleinthefightagainstHIV/AIDS,byprovidingapopular
siteforpreventiveeducationandsomeretardationintheprogressofthevirus(Mustafaetal.,1999;
OBrienetal.,2004;Delva&Temmerman,2006;Delvaetal.,2010;Maro,Roberts&Srensen,
2009;Lindsey&Banda,2011;Njelesani,2011;Banda&Lindsey,2011).Amoreoverarching
outcomeisthatregularphysicalactivitymayreducethedaysindividualsaresickduringtheyear.
Thishaspotentialforreductionsinhealthcarespendingaswellasincreasednationalproductivity.
Itisimportanttopayattentiontotheexistenceofhealthobjectivesvaryingfromcountryto
country.Whereasindevelopedcountriesmoreemphasisisputonspecifichealthobjectivesforan
agingpopulation(suchasosteoporosis),thiscanbedifferentfordevelopingcountries,wherehealth
objectivesarefocusedonthereductionofcommunicablediseases(e.g.HIV/AIDS).Oneshouldalso
beawarethattherecanbeseveralconditionsindevelopingcountries,suchasashortageof
medicinesorconflictingculturalbeliefs,thatmakeitmoredifficulttoreachdesiredoutcomes.Itis
alsoimportanttowarnagainstanoverlypositivejudgmentofsport,becausesportalsohasamore
darkside.Eveninthefieldofhealth,wheremanypositiveoutcomeshavebeenproven,negative
outcomesarefrequent.Sportcanresultininjuries,andlosingagamecanproducenegativefeelings
likedepressionoranger(Berger,1996).

39


Basedontheliterature,itcanbearguedthatinandofitself,sportisofnointrinsicvalue:itisneither
naturallygoodnorirrevocablybad(Kidd,2008).Coalter(2010)warnsforthedangerofde
contextualized,overlyromanticized,communitariangeneralizationsaboutthepowerofsportfor
development.Itisnotsimplesportsparticipationthatcanhopetoachievemostdesiredoutcomes.

3.2.2 Intermediateoutcomes
Inthepreviouspartofthischapter,itbecameclearthatthedesireddevelopmentoutcomesforSfD
programsareoftentooambitious.Althoughadirectrelationbetweensportandoverarching
developmentoutcomesarehardtoprove,ifcertainconditionsaremet,sportmightresultin
intermediateoutcomesasanessentialelementintheproductionoftheoverarchingdevelopmental
outcomes,likesocializationofyouthandeconomicdevelopment.
Academicliteratureshowsalonglistofpossible
intermediateoutcomes,whichare(also)valuableinitself,
suchasimprovedsocialskills,increasedselfesteemand
increasedconfidence.Examplesofintermediate
outcomesofsportfordevelopmentare(cf.Jarvie,2003;
SDPIWG,2007;Coalter,2010):

developmentoflifeskills
increasedsocialinteraction
newrelationshipsandrolemodels
increasedselfesteemandselfconfidence
leadershipdevelopment
increasedunderstandingofsocialissues
communitybuilding.

Sportcanproduce
intermediateoutcomesthat
arevaluableinitself,suchas
improvedsocialskills,
increasedselfesteemand
increasedconfidence.These
intermediateoutcomesarean
essentialelementinthe
productionoftheoverarching
developmentaloutcomeslike
socializationofyouthand
economicdevelopment.

Alsolessdesiredoutcomescanoccur.Forexample,sport
programscanleadtomoreselfesteem,butalsoto
arrogance.Sportcanleadtoteambuilding,butalsoto
exclusionofothers,whoarenotpartoftheteam.Sportleadstohealthbenefits,butprolonged
exercisesmayincreasetheriskonupperrespiratorytractinfections(Nieman,2001).Socialcapital
canbeseenasanoverarchingtermthatcomprisesseveralpossibleintermediateoutcomesofa
sportfordevelopmentprogram.Ausefulgeneraldefinitionofsocialcapitalisthatitreferstosocial
networksbasedonsocialandgroupnorms,whichenablepeopletotrustandcooperatewitheachother
andviawhichindividualsorgroupscanobtaincertaintypesofadvantage(Coalter,2010).Inother
words,socialcapitalemphasizesandreferstothevalueofsocialnetworks.Likeotherformsof
capital,socialcapitalmakestheachievementofcertainendspossible.Itisassumedthatanincrease
ofsocialcapitalwillhaveapositiveimpactonsocialissues,suchasgenderrelations,HIV/AIDS,
crimeandalcoholanddrugaddiction.Fukuyama(1999)statesthatsocialcapitalcanhavean
economicandasocialeffect.Economically,socialcapitalincludesnormsandvaluesthatfacilitate
exchanges,lowertransactioncosts,reducethecostofinformation,permittradeintheabsenceof
contractsandthecollectivemanagementofresources.Socially,socialcapitalencourages
responsiblecitizenship.Socialcohesionbetweenpeopleinthecommunity,besidesphysicalquality,
cancontributetoasaferlivingenvironment.Inacommunitywithhightrust,itislikelytohaveless

40


crime,lessantisocialbehaviorandlesssocialfragmentation(Jarvie,2003).Intheend,however,
socialcapitalremainsquiteintangible,becauseitexistsinrelationships(Coleman,1988).
Socialcapitalisseenasessentialforacommunity,though.Communitieswithhighlevelsofsocial
capitalarecharacterizedbythreemaincomponents(Coalter,2010).Firstly,theyhavestrongsocial
networksandcivicinfrastructure.Secondly,theyarecharacterizedbystrongsocialnorms.Thirdly,
thesenormsbothsupportandreinforcemutualtrustandreciprocityamongmembersofa
community.Thesethreecomponentsareillustrativeforthepotentialofsocialcapitalfor
developmentends.Twomaincomponentsofsocialcapitalarebondingsocialcapitalandbridging
socialcapital.Bondingreferstothevalueassignedtointragroupconnectionsorsocialnetworks
betweenhomogeneousgroupsofpeople.Thebridgingcomponentofsocialcapitalismorediverse
andinclusiveofpeopleofdifferentbackgrounds,buttendstobeweaker.Schulenkorf(2013)added
athirdcomponent:linkingsocialcapital,whichreferstotherelationshipsofindividualsandgroups
withpeopleinpositionsofinfluencewithinformalinstitutions.Thekeypointoflinkingsocialcapital
isitsnotwhatyouknow,itswhoyouknow.
Sportshaveextensivelybeenrelatedtosocialcapitalanditsconsequences.Forexample,several
studieshavementionedthatsportleadstomoreselfconfidence,selfapprovalandselfefficacy,
andtolifeskillslikediscipline,responsibilityandperseverance(e.g.VanBottenburg&Schuyt,
1996;Berger,1996;Malloyetal.,2003;Bailey,2005),buttherearealsoexamplesofstudiesthat
showthatsportcanleadtonegativeconsequences.Forinstance,sportdoesnotautomatically
providebridgesfordisparatecommunities,butsportmayinfactserveasalocusforintergroup
division.Membersofmarginalizedgroupshaveusedsportclubsasanoutletinwhichthey
exclusivelyconfirmtheirethnicidentitythroughhomogeneousactivities.Thus,asportprojectcan
alsoleadtotheexclusionofoutsiders(Portes,1998;Vermeulen&Verweel,2009).
Thepositiveconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapitalaresummarizedintable3.
Consequences
Developmentofhumancapital:
Socialandemotionalskills
Education
Expertise
Higheraccesstoemployment
Meso
Socialinclusionandcommunitybuilding
(community/group)
Strongrelationships/networks
Reciprocalserviceprovision:peopleareofferinghelpandreceivingadviceor
supportinotherareas
Sharednorms
Energeticcommunities
Higherlevelofcivicandvoluntaryactivity
Macro
Strongercivilsociety
(nation/society)
Morecivicpride
Enhanceddemocracy
Table3:Positiveconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapital(basedonJarvie,2003;Schulenkorf,2013;SDPIWG,
2007;Verweel&Anthonissen,2006)
Level
Micro
(individual)

41


Jarvie(2003)alsogivesanoverviewofthenegativeconsequencesthatmightbeassociatedwith
socialcapital.Theseconsequencesaresummarizedintable4.
Consequence
Restrictionsofpersonalfreedomandautonomybecauseofconformitywithinthe
grouporcommunity
Theexclusionofoutsiders
Grouporcommunityclosurewhichinhibitstheeconomicsuccessofitsmembers.
Freeridingonthepartofsomegroupmembers.
Macro(nation/society)
Downwardlevelingnormsbecauseofconformitywithinthegrouporcommunity
Table4:Negativeconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapital(basedonPortes,1998andJarvie,2003)
Level
Micro
(individual)
Meso
(community/group)

Schulenkorf(2013)warnsthattheabilityofshortterminterventionstocreatesocialcapitalneeds
tobecriticallyassessed,especiallyregardingclaimsabouteventslastingcontributionstosocial
capital.Despitethestrongtheoreticalandanecdotalsupporthighlightingthatsportandevent
programscanhaveapositiveimpactoncommunities,littleempiricalevidencesupportsthisclaim
particularlyinrelationtoculturallyorethnicallydividedsocieties.Aneedremainsfor
empiricalevaluationsofprograms.Coakley(2002)addsthat,despitethemanystudiesonthe
importanceforsportandcharacterbuilding,adirectinfluenceishardtoprove,theimpactofsport
cannotbeseparatedfromtheimpactofcontextualfactors.Heconcludesthatsportismainly
importantasaplaceforsocializationexperiencesthatmightinfluencethecharacterofan
individual.

3.2.3 Necessaryandsupportingconditions
Kay&Dudfield(2013,p.5)argue:Sportisnotapanaceaforglobalsocialandeconomicchallenges,
butusedappropriatelyitisavaluablecrosscuttingtoolthatcansignificantlystrengthenestablished
developmentapproaches.Now,thequestionis:Whatisappropriateuse?Itisclearthatcertain
conditionshavetobemetinordertobeabletocreateintermediateoutcomes.Academicliterature
givesinsightinsomeofthenecessaryandsupportingconditions.
Takingpartinsportcanbeseenasanecessaryconditionfordesiredoutcomestobeachievedand
increasedparticipationisaclearobjectiveofallprograms(MahoneyandStattin,2000).Sportcan
beseenasatoolforengagementandmobilization:peopleshowupatasportseventbecausethey
areattractedbytheprograms.ThisoffersSfDorganizationstheopportunitytoreachthem,to
informthemortoeducatethem(Kay&Dudfield,2013).Inlinewiththebroadpossibilityofpossible
outcomes,theeffectsofsportfordevelopmentcangobeyondtheparticipantsinasportfor
developmentprogram.Sportalsocontributestothedevelopmentofthespectators(forinstance,if
theyseethatdisabledpeoplecanplaysports),oftheleadersthatareinvolved(e.g.vialeadership
skillsforcoaches),tothefamilyoftheparticipants(forexample,childrentelltheirparentsabout
hygiene)andforthecommunityasawhole(e.g.whenorganizationsareformedandmorechildren
attendschools)(VandenHeuveletal.,2007;Kay&Dudfield,2013).Atthesametime,itcannotbe
assumedthatallthosewhotakepartinsportexperienceitthesamewayandobtaintheintended
benefits.

42


Supportingconditionsrefertothenatureofprocessesand
thevariousorganizationalandprogramcomponentswhich
leadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes,suchasthe
organization,theroleofcoaches,andthecontextor
environment.Theseconditionsapplymainlyonalocal
level,buttheyarestronglyinfluencedbythepolicyand
organizationonahigherlevel(Kay&Dudfield,2013):the
programsandpoliciesfordevelopmentalworkorthewaya
SfDorganizationworks.

Supportingconditionsreferto
thenatureofprocessesand
thevariousorganizationaland
programcomponentswhich
leadtotheachievementof
desiredoutcomes,suchasthe
organization,theroleof
coaches,andthecontextor
environment.

Somesupportingconditionsaregeneralandapplyto
almosteverySfDproject.Forinstance,withoutthe
provisionof(basic)sportfacilitiesandequipment,
informationabouttheactivitiesandanorganizedeventorcompetition,itishardtorunasportfor
developmentprogram.Kay&Dudfield(2013)arguethatprogramsshouldbedesignedonthebasis
ofevidencebasedmodels,andthattheSfDorganizationshouldtakecareofconductingprograms
withsystematicmeasurementofprogressandappropriatemonitoringandevaluation.More
researchneedstobedonetoanswerthisquestion.
Also,awellorganizedorganizationisessentialfortheachievementofdevelopmentthroughsport
(Mahoney&Stattin,2000).VariousstudiesarguethatsuccessfulSfDorganizationsareconsciously
andsystematicallyorganizedtomaximizethepossibilityofachievingsocialcapital.Thetypeand
strengthoftheoutcomeswilldependonthesizeandtypeoforganization(e.g.isolatedor
connected,singleormultisport,urbanorrural,competitiveorrecreational,singleormixedsex)
andtheirrelationshipswiththecommunity(bothlocalandsporting)theradiusoftrust.
However,bothCoalter(2010)andMahoneyandStattin(2000)arenotclearwhichformsof
organizationsleadtowhichoutcomes.
Animportantsupportingconditionisthetrainingofthecoaches,whoshouldhavethepossibilityto
transformthemselvesintoleadersandtoimprovetheirleadershipskills.Asportcoachneedstobe
morethanjustatrainerinthesportheorsheshouldalsobeacoachinlifeskills.Goodcoaches
becomementorsoftheparticipants.Thisisinlinewiththetheoryofplannedbehavior,where
Fishbein&Azjen(1975)alsoexplainthatsubjectivenorms,thebeliefsofpeopleinthesocial
environmentandofexperts,areimportantforbehavioralchange.Requirementstothe
environmentcanbephysical(liketheavailabilityofapitch),butalsosocial(e.g.,themoral
acceptanceofgirlsplayingsports)(Sallisetal.,2004).AnimportantconditionforthedeliveryofSfD
programsistoinvolvethesocialenvironment,suchasthecoaches,parentsandotherlocal
stakeholders,inthedesign,implementationandreflectionoftheprogram.Toensurethatleaders
andparticipantsaresafeguardedatalltimes,Kay&Dudfield(2013)arguethatdecentralized
programsinvolvingtheintendedbeneficiaries,andtakingtheircommunitiesintoaccountinthe
planningprocess,andconsideringthelocalneedsandassets,areusefultomaximizepositive
outcomesandminimizenegativeconsequencesintheorganizationofSfD.

3.2.4 Themomentoftruth
Theextenttowhichthefulfillmentoftheconditionseventuallyleadstothedesired(intermediate)
outcomesdependsonthewaytheprogramisexecuted.Coalter(2008etc)makesastrongcasein

43


arguingthatoutcomesareverymuchdependentonthespecificlocalcontextsinwhichtheprojects
takeplaceandontheprocessesbetweenparticipantsthathappenwithinthesecontexts(seealso
Hartmann&Kwauk,2011;Coakley,2011).Themagicboxofsportfordevelopmentprojects
containscomplexsituationalprocessesthatneedtobeunderstoodinmoredepthinordertobe
betterabletoassess/contextualizetheoutcomesandtomakecontributionsforimprovement.
AccordingtoCoalter(2010),weareleftatthemomentwithquestionsabouthowtounderstandthe
relationshipsbetweenformsofsport,formsof
organization,typesofsocialcapitalandformsof
development,ortheextenttowhichsuchrelationships
Theinteractionofthesport
canexist.Onceagain,thestatementisconfirmedthat
leaderwithparticipantson
socialinterventionsarealwayscomplexsystemsthrust
thepitch,notablytheyouths,
amidstcomplexsystems.
isthemomentoftruthinSfD
projects.
AccordingtoCoakley(2011:309)outcomesofsportfor
youthdevelopmentaredependentoncombinationsof
multiplefactorsincludingtheorientationsandactionsof
coaches.Theroleofcoachandsportleaderisconsideredcrucialintheprojects:findingthatquality
coachingiscriticalforensuringthebeneficialeffectsofyouthsportsparticipation(Hedstrom&
Gould,2004:9).Thesportcoachorsportleadercanbeanidentityagentbyparticipatinginthe
identityformationofchildren(VanEekeren&Vermeulen,2011).Itcanbearguedthatthe
interactionofthesportleaderwithparticipantsonthepitch,notablytheyouths,isthemomentof
truthinSfDprojects.Theconceptofthemomentoftruthiswellknowninmanagementand
organizationalstudiesandisusuallydefinedasaninstancewhereinthecustomerandthe
organizationcomeintocontactwithoneanotherinamannerthatgivesthecustomeran
opportunitytoeitherformorchangeanimpression.TheoriginaltheorywasintroducedbyRichard
Norman(1991).Value,inNormansview,iscreatedduringtheactualinteractionbetweenthe
contractoronbehalfoftheorganizationandtheclient.
Althoughliteraturetellsusthattheroleofsportcoachesiscrucial,qualitativeinsightinhisorher
performanceonthesportfield,andtheactualmomentoftruth,isscarce.Littleisknownabout
whattakesplaceonthesportfieldoraboutthevoicesoftheparticipantsonthefield,inorderto
assesstheoutcomesofSfDprojects.Asaconsequence,littleisknownaboutthewaySfD
organizationscanfacilitatethemomentoftruthandthesportcoachesinordertocreatevalueand
contributetodesiredoutcomes.

3.2.5 Uniquenessofsportfordevelopment
Beforeintegratingallthisintoacomprehensivemodel,thefollowingquestionwillbeanswered:
Whyshouldoneusesportasameansforachievingdevelopmentaloutcomesatall?Itcanbeargued
thatforseveralreasonssportisverysuitablefordevelopmentalprojects.Firstly,sporthasanunique
attractivepower,whichcontributestothenecessaryconditionfordevelopment,i.e.participation.
SporthastheXfactor:allovertheworld,individualsandgroupsofvariousagesandbackgrounds
areinterestedinsport.Sportispartoftheculturalheritage:itisabasicpartofmanysocieties(Van
Eekeren,2007)andithasworldwiderolemodelsthatenthusemillionsaroundtheglobebehavior.
Also,sportisveryvisibleandaccessible.Sportcanbeafun,nonthreateningandinformalwayto
bringpeopletogether:participants,spectatorsandvolunteers.Sporteventsareintegrativeand

44


offeropportunitiesforthedevelopmentofasenseofcommunity,socialcommitmentandsocial
regeneration(Misener&Mason,2006).Therefore,sportissuitableforattractinggroupsthatare
usuallyhardtoreach,liketeenagers.
Secondly,sporthassomeintrinsicvaluesthatareveryimportantforsociety.Sportcontains
elementsthatplayanimportantroleineverydaylife,suchasdealingwithsuccessandfailure,
followingrulesaswellasruleevasion,teamunityandindividualdifferences,andselfcontrol(Van
denHeuveletal.,2008).Atthesametime,trainingcanbeusedtospreadsocialmessagesandto
exposemodelbehaviortospecifictargetgroups.Thebenefitsofsportareconsideredespecially
relevantforthemostvulnerable,includingthepoorandexcluded,girlsandwomen,peoplewitha
disability,thoselivinginconflictareas,andthoserecoveringfromtrauma(Bailey,2006).Allthese
featuresmakesportasiteforsocializationexperiences(Coakley,1998),auniqueopportunitythat
mighthelptoreachdevelopmentoutcomes.

3.2.6 Amodelforsportfordevelopment
Theliteraturereviewgivesusinsightinthepotentialvalueofsport.Itcanbearguedthatsport
offersauniquesiteforsocializationexperiences,whichinanindirectwaymighthaveanimpacton
overarchingdevelopmentgoals,suchashealth,childandyouthdevelopment,genderequalityand
girlsandwomenempowerment,conflictresolutionandpeacebuildingandeconomic
development.Theactualachievementofthesedevelopmentgoalsdependsonmanyvariablesand
onmanysportshaslittleornoinfluence.

Thecontributionofsporttotheoverarchinggoalsisthroughachievingintermediategoals.These
intermediategoalscanbereacheddirectlythroughsportsinterventionsandoftenrelateto
increasingsocialcapital.Thesegoalsarenoteasytoachieveandseveralconditionsmustbemet.
Oneconditionisnecessary:participation.Otherconditionsaresupportiveinachievingthe
intermediategoals,suchastheparticipationoftheintendedbeneficiariesandlocalstakeholdersin
theplanningprocess.TheeffectoftheSfDprogramsdependsprimarilyonthemomentoftruth:
theactualinteractionbetweensportscoachesandparticipantsinthelocalcontext.Littleisknown
abouthowthemomentoftruthisbestfacilitatedbySfDorganizations,inawaythatmaximizes
thechancesofachievingtheintermediateoutcomes.

TherelationshipbetweenSfDprograms,thenecessaryandsupportingconditions,themomentof
truth,intermediateoutcomes,externalvariablesandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesisshown
schematicallyinabasicSfDmodel,seeFigure8.Inthemodeladistinctionismadebetweentwo
levels.Level1isthepartofthemodelwheresportfordevelopmentcaninfluenceresults.Ifthe
necessaryandsupportingconditionsaremet,itislikelythatthisresultsintheintermediate
outcomes.Thatisnotthecasefortheoverarchingoutcomes.Theintermediateoutcomeshelpin
achievingtheoverarchingoutcomes,butthecontextismoreinfluential.Therefore,thisiscalled
level2:thevariablesthatarehardly,orcannotbe,influencedbysportfordevelopment
organizations.

45

Figure8:Therelationchainofsportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomes

Sportasa
Siteforsocialization
experiences

Necessarycondition
Participationinsport

Supportingconditions,suchas:
Provisionofsportfacilitiesandequipment,competitionandevents

Programsconsciouslyandstructurallyorganizedtocreatesocialcapital
Involvementofintendedbeneficiariesandcommunityinplanningprocess,
Involvementofsustainableandrepresentativegrassrootsorganizations
Programsbasedonevidencebasedmodels,continuouslearningthroughM&E
Educatingsportcoaches,includingleadershiptraining
Safeguardingofleadersandparticipants,involvementofsocialenvironment

Level1

TheMomentofTruth

Intermediateoutcomes,suchas:

Developmentoflifeskills
Increasedsocialinteractionandmobilization
Newrelationshipsandrolemodels
Increasedselfesteemandconfidence
Leadershipdevelopment
Increasedunderstandingofsocialissues
Communitybuilding

Externalvariables

Level2

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes,suchas:

Health,includingHIV/Aidsprevention
Childandyouthdevelopment
Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment
Conflictresolutionandpeace
Economicdevelopment

46

4Specificdevelopmentissues

Inthefollowingparagraphswewillexplicitlyzoominonsomespecificdevelopmentissueswhich
areparticularlyrelevantinlightofcurrentDutchpolicyonsportfordevelopment,asformulatedby
theDutchMinistryofForeignAffairs,andwhicharethefocusoftheprogramsofRightToPlay,
KNVBandNSAInternational,namely:

4.1

Childandyouthdevelopment:educationandbehaviorchange
Girl/womenempowerment/genderequality
Peacebuildingandconflictresolution

Childandyouthdevelopment:Education

OneoftheoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesfortheDutchorganizationsactiveinSfDischild
andyouthdevelopment.Thereisastrongassociationbetweensportandyouth,whichmakessport
avaluabletoolforworkingwithyoungpeople(Kay&Dudfield,2013).Sportcanbeusedasadirect
educationaltool.Kay(2009)mentionsforexamplethatSfDprogramsexaminemoralissuesfrom
theperspectiveofthefairplayrulesinsport.Sportis,inthiscase,usedaspartoftheeducational
program.Inthischapterwewilllookatamoreindirectrelationbetweensportandeducation:does
participationinphysicalactivitiesleadtobetterschoolperformance?Therelationshipbetween
physicalactivityandeducationaloutcomeshasbeenstudiedfrequently(SDPIWG,2007).These
studieshavemainlybeenconductedinindustrializedcountries,liketheUnitedStates(e.g.Scheuer
&Mitchell,2003;Valoisetal.,2004;Bailey,2005).
Researchsuggestscontradictoryoutcomesforthe
relationshipbetweensportandeducation.Ontheone
Therelationshipbetween
handsportisassumedtohaveapositiveimpacton
sportfordevelopmentand
educationbyimprovingcognitiveskills.Ontheother
educationhasbeenprovento
hand,spendingtimeonsportsmeanslesstimeto
bepositiveorneutral.
spendonschoolwork.Thishasalsobeencalledthe
zerosumapproach:alargeramountoftimespends
onsportshasanegativeimpactonschool
performance.However,French,AmericanandAustralianresearchhasproventhatthelogicofzero
sumisnottrue(Hervet,1951;Dwyer,1983;Sallisetal.,1999).Morephysicaleducationinschools,
resultinginlesstimeforothersubjects,doesnothaveanegativeinfluenceonschoolperformance,
astheschoolperformancesofpupilsstaythesameorimprove(Visscheretal.,2011).Besides,the
attractivenessofSfDprojects,alsoforchildrenwhoarenotengagedinaschoolorother
developmentalprogram,makesthatsportcanbeusedasatooltoencourageyoungpeopleto
enrollinaschoolprogramandtoencourageattendance(Kay&Dudfield,2013).
Inshort,therelationshipbetweensportfordevelopmentandeducationhasbeenproventobe
positiveorneutral.Sportcanleadtobettereducationalresultsandhascertainlynonegativeeffect
ontheeducationaldevelopmentofchildren.But,thisrelationshipcanonlybeseenasindirect.
Participationinsportleadstodevelopmentofcertainskills,whichsubsequentlyleadstoimproved
educationalperformance.Theseintermediateoutcomeswillbediscussedinthenextparagraph.

47

4.1.1 Intermediateoutcomes
Itcanbearguedthattwodifferentintermediatestepsplayaroletowardsbettereducationalresults
throughsport:1)thedevelopmentofsocialorpsychologicalskillsand2)thehealthandfitnessthat
followsafterregularlyparticipatinginsport.

Developmentofsocialandpsychologicalskills
Asmentionedinparagraph3.2,sportleadstothedevelopmentorimprovementofsocialand
psychologicalskillsasdiscipline,effectiveworking,selfesteemandselfefficacy.Sportprograms
provideyoungpeopletheopportunitytodevelopthemselvesasathletes,sportcoachesorleaders.
Theycantakeanorganizationalroleinthecommunityandbecomepeerleaders(Kay&Dudfield,
2013;Coalter,2010).
Also,sportimprovesdealingwithaspectsofsportsuchaswinning,losingandimprovingyourself
meanforyoungpeoplethattheydeveloporimproveskillsforselfreflectionandselfregulation
(Boonstra&Hermens,2011).Theseskillsareimportantforlearning.Sportisanenvironmentwhere
peoplestrivetowinandtoachievecertaingoals.Experiencesfromthiscontextcanalsobeusedin
othercontexts:childrenlearntopursuegoalsinlife.Thoseskillscanbetransferredtootherlife
domains,suchasschool.Itisassumedthatthoseskillshelpchildrentoachievebetterschool
outcomes.Thiscanbeillustratedbyanexampleofacomparativestudyofseveralarticles.Ekeland,
HeianandHagen(2005)conductedametaanalysisontherelationbetweensportandselfesteem
ofchildrenandyouthbetweenthreeandtwentyyearsold.Theyfoundthatsportintheshortrun
leadstoimprovedselfesteem.Thishasnotalwaysbeenproven:somestudiesshowapositive
effect,whileotherstudiesshownoeffectatall.Negativeeffectswerenotfound.

Improvedhealthandfitness
Asecondapproachisthatsportleadstohealthandfitness,asstressedinparagraph3.2,whichhasa
positiveeffectoncognitiveabilitiesbecauseofbiochemicalfactors.Severalstudieshavebeen
conductedtoprovethisstatement.AstudyinAberdeenshowedthatchildrenwhoparticipatedin
physicalactivityhavebettercognitiveskillsthanchildrenwhichdidnotparticipate(Hilletal.,2010).
AcomparativestudyonfiveDutchsportinterventionsalsofoundthatschoolperformance
improvedamongtheparticipants.However,thereisnocertaintyaboutthecausalityand
researchersconcludedthatmoreacademicresearchisneeded(Jacobs&Diekstra,2009;Boonstra&
Hermens,2011).
Therelationshipbetweensportandcognitiveabilitiesisexplainedbythefactthatmotorskillsgo
alongwithgoodcognitiveskills,especiallyregulationskills(Wassenbergetal.,2005).Regulation
skills,likeplanningandproblemsolvingcapacity,areassumedtobeimportantinaneducational
setting.Hartmanetal.(2010)foundthatgoodmotorskillsgoalongwithregulationskillsfor
childrenwithlearningproblems.Houwenetal.(2007)concludethatsportandplayaregood
settingstodevelopmotorskillsandregulationskills.However,notallscientistsagree.Etnieretal.
(2006)conductedametaanalysison51studiesontherelationbetweencardiovascularfitnessand
cognitiveskills.Theirresultsstatedthatfitpeopledidnothavebettercognitiveskills.Animportant
remarktothisresultisthatthestudiesthatwereusedbyEtnieretal.mainlywereconducted
amongadults.Therefore,therelationshipbetweenfitnessandcognitiveskillsamongyouthand
childrenremainsquestionable.

48


Again,mostresultsarecontextual;participationinsportdoesnotautomaticallyleadtopositive
effects,buttheeffectsdependonthetypeofsportandthecontext.Sportcanonlyleadtomore
childandyouthdevelopmentthrougheducationifcertainconditionsaremet.

4.1.2 Conditions
Severalconditionsinthesportcontextareimportantfortheextenttowhichsportleadsto
improvededucationalperformance.First,thereisthenecessaryconditionparticipation:children
needtoparticipateinsport(programs).Thismeanssporthastobeofferedinanaccessibleand
attractivewaytothetargetgroup.Furthermore,severalsupportingconditionscanbedetermined:
1)Positivecoachinginachildorientedsetting,2)Didacticalbasics,3)Asupportivesocial
environment,4)cooperationwithschoolsandcommunitywork.

Positivecoachinginachildorientedsetting
Goodcoaches,trainersorleadersareessential(Coalter,2007).Withgood,Coalterrefersto
positivecoachingandpayingattentiontoapositivelearningenvironment.Agoodlearning
environmentshouldbeachildorientedsetting(Devereaux,1971),asettinginwhichtheexisting
knowledgeandskillsofchildrenarethemainstartingpointandattentionispaidtothepsychical,
emotional,socialandintellectualdevelopment(Potracetal.,2000).

Didacticalbasics
Agoodcoachusesgooddidactics.Sixdifferentdidacticalconditionscanbeidentified:
funandenjoyment,
challenge,
variation,
aparticipativelearningprocess,
structuredrepetition,and
reflectionandasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext.

Especiallywhenworkingwithyoungerchildren,thefocusshouldbeonfun.Havingfunmotivates
children,whowillenjoytheactivityandareabletogetthemaximumeffectoflearning(Coakley,
2001).Thiscreatesapedagogicalclimateinwhichthechildrenlearntheirskillsbyplaying.
Experiencingchallengecreatesahighpowered,excitingtraining,whichallowschildrentolearn
optimallyanddeveloptheirtalents.Challengesteachchildrennottogiveupeasily(Wormhoudtet.
al.,2013).Thisconceptisbasedonthebelievethatindividualswillgrowwhentheyfacechallenging
situations,whichenablesthemtoovercometheirhesitancyorfear(Brown&King,2000;Proutyet
al.,2007).Childrenwhoexperienceahealthylevelofchallengeswilltakethemaximumoutoftheir
learningprocess.Variation,eitherinthecompositionofthegrouporintheofferedexercises,
effectsthelearningprocesspositivelybymotivatingchildrentoachieveanoptimallevelof
challenge,funanddevelopmentinthelearningprocess(Wormhoudtetal.,2013).Thelearning
processshouldhaveaninteractivecharacter,becausethisincreasestheexperience(Roussou,2004)
andthishelpstheparticipantstoreflectontheirownbehaviorandonwhattheyhavelearned.Boud
etal.(1985)statethatlearningbydoing,evaluatinganddoingthingsagaininordertoimprovethe
activityarecrucialelementsinaneffectivelearningprocess.Finally,agoodpedagogicalclimate
comprisesasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext,withphysicalandpsychologicalsafety.

49

Supportivesocialenvironment
Athirdimportantconditionthatinfluenceslearningofachildorteenageristhesocialenvironment.
Koekoek,KnoppersandStegeman(2009)conductedresearchamongschoolchildrenand
concludedthatthegroupinwhichchildrenplaysportisimportant.Howtheyexperiencesportand
whethertheylearnnewthingsdependspartlyonthemotivationofotherparticipatingchildren.
Unmotivatedchildrencanbeseenasanobstacleinthelearningprocess.Relatedtothereactionsof
otherchildrenisthesupportofparents.Ifparentsare
involvedinthesportactivityandiftheyareinformedand
supportive,moresuccessfuloutcomescanbeexpected.
Sportleadstoawiderangeof
intermediateoutcomesthat
Cooperationwithschoolandcommunitywork
mightinfluencebehaviorand
Afourthconditionisthecooperationbetweenschools
thedevelopmentofchildren
andothercommunitybasedorganizationsandthesport
fordevelopmentprogram(Lederach,2005).Itismore
likelythatprogramshavesuccessifthesportactivities
arelinkedtoschoolandlearningsituations.Sportcanbeatooltostimulateschoolperformance
andschoolcanbeatooltostimulatesport.Therefore,somesportfordevelopmentprograms
explicitlyuseschoolsettingstooffersportinordertoincreasethereach.

4.2 Childandyouthdevelopment:Behaviorchange
Theexpectationsoftheimpactofsportonbehaviorchangeofchildren,youthandyoungadultsare
high.Behaviorchangecanbeseenfromabroadperspective.Forexample,sportisexpectedto
reducenegativeandcriminalbehavior,butsportshouldalsocontributetothelearningoflifeskills.
Itisassumedthatthroughsportparticipantslearntocooperate,positivelychangeattitudesand
valuesandlearntocopewithlosing.Sportcanhelptoapproachyoungsterswhoareusuallyhardto
reach,becausetheyarenotengaged(anymore)withschoolsorreligiousinstitutions(Holroyd&
Armour,2003).However,thecontrarymightalsobeapplicablewhenfocusingspecificallyon
childrenandyouth;sportmightalsoserveasacontextwhereinalotofviolenceandaggression
takesplace.
Scientificresearchshowsthatsportprogramshavebookedgoodresultsthatmightleadtobehavior
change.Childrenengagedinsportprogramswereforexamplelessoftensendoutofclassandwere
showinglessnegativebehavior(Sandford,Duncombe,&Armour,2008).Atthesametime,
CameronandMacDougall(2000)studiedasportprograminAustraliaandfoundthatsportdoesnot
necessarilyleadtobenefitsintheformofcharacterbuilding.Theyseethesenseofbelongingand
thedevelopedrelationshipsaskeyresultsthatareoutputsoftheprogram.Justasstatedin
paragraph3.2,theyalsostressthattheintroductionofsportandphysicalactivityalonecannot
achieveabehavioralchange,likethepreventionofcrime.
Adirectrelationshipbetweenparticipationinsportsandreducedbehaviorproblemshasnotbeen
proven.Theremightbeanindirectrelation,becausesportleadstoawiderangeofintermediate
outcomesthatmightinfluencebehaviorandthedevelopmentofchildren(SDPIWG,2007).

50

4.2.1 Intermediateoutcomes
ScientistslikeSchafer(1969),Morrisetal.(2003)andCarmichael(2009)mentionseveral
intermediateoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentprogramsthathelptoreducenegativebehavior:
sportreducesboredomandprovidesagoodalternativeforcriminalpracticesandantisocial
behavior,becauseitgivesakickthatteensneedwhilegrowingup.Sportdecreasesthe
unsupervisedleisuretimeofyouth,whileprovidinganalternativesocialenvironmentwherethey
canlearnpositivenormsandvalues(SDPIWG,2007).Inthissocialenvironment,sportalsoprovides
analternativewaytoincreasestatusamongpeers.Sportleadstomoreselfesteem(Daniels&
Leaper,2006;Sandfordetal.,2008),whichforsomeyoungstersmighthelptoprotestagainst
imposedcriminalbehaviorbypeers.Sportprogramsgivethemasenseofbelongingwiththeirteam
mates,whichalsohelpstoescapefromcriminalfriends.Therefore,thereisadifferencebetween
teamandindividualsports.Participationinindividualsportsresultsinmoreselfconfidencein
conductingindividualtasksandparticipationinteamsportsleadstomoreperceivedcontrolon
relationships(VandenHeuveletal.,2007).Teamsportshelpparticipantsalsotodevelop
communicationanddecisionmakingskills(Kay,2009).
However,researchshowsthatsportcanalsoleadtonegativeoutcomes.Sportcanhaveadark
side:youngsterswhopracticeboxing,wrestling,martialartsandweighttrainingshowmore
antisocialbehavior.EndresenandOlweus(2005)usesociallearningtheoryasapossibleclarification
forthisoutcome;whatyoungsterslearninsport,theywilluseaswelloutsideofsport.Inthiscase,
theylearntosolveconflictsbyfighting.Asecondpossibleexplanationisthespecificsportculture,
whichischaracterizedbymachobehavior(Endresen&Olweus,2005).Whensportisusedastool
forbehaviorchangeamongyoungpeople,thecontextandconditionsarecrucialfortheimpact.

4.2.2 Conditions
Researchershavelinkedseveralsupportingconditionstothesuccessofaprograminachieving
behavioralchange,regardingtheorganizationoftheprogram,andthequalityandcompetencesof
thesportleadersandthereactionsofthepeergroup.Severalresearchersstressthatthereisno
onesizefitsallstrategy(Morrisetal.,2003;Sandfordetal.,2008;RightToPlay,2013).Different
typesofproblemsaskforspecificapproaches.However,somebestpractices,highlyvaluablefor
mostprojects,canbeidentified.

Smallgroups,clearobjectivesandcooperationwithrelevantactors
Sandford,ArmourandWashington(2008)mentionacarefullymanagedprogramthatconsistsof
smallgroupsasasuccessfactor.Morrisetal.(2003)agreewiththemonthefactthatcooperation
withrelevantactorslikeschool,communityworkersandfamilyisimportantforasuccessful
program;ifpossible,asportfordevelopmentprojectshouldbeembeddedinaschoolprogramor
comparablepartsofdailylifeofchildrenandyouth.AccordingtoanevaluationreportofRightTo
Play(2013),italsohelpsifaprogramhasclearandrealisticobjectives.Theparticipantsshouldalso
participateintheformulationandsettingofthesegoals(Sandfordetal.,2008).

Empatheticcoacheswithleadershipskillsandsamebackgroundastargetgroup
Regardingthecompetencesofsportleaders;thetrainersandcoachesshouldbeabletobuild
friendlyrelationshipswiththeparticipants.Anidealleadershouldempathize,showconcernsand
interest,havehumor,createmutualtrustandrespect,setrulesandrealisticgoalsandbe

51


consistent:heorsheshouldshowleadershipskills.Whathelps,accordingtoNichols(1997),isa
trainerorcoachwiththesamebackgroundastheparticipants.Suchaleaderisabletobuilda
relationshipwiththeparticipants,whichisgroundedonmutualtrust.Thesecoachesknowthelocal
contextandtheyouth.Ataskfortheleader,trainerorcoachisalsotoreflectonwhatthe
participantshavelearned.Iftheleaderspayattentiontogainingcertainskillswithinthesport
activity,andmaybeevendiscussthemwiththeparticipants,theseskillscanbetransferredtolife
domainsoutsidesport(Papacharisisetal.,2005).

Peeracceptance
Afinalconditionforsuccessisthepeergroup.Whenchildrenoryoungstersreceivepositive
reactionsfromfriends,socalledpeeracceptance,thisleadstomoreselfesteemthroughsport
(Koekoek,Knoppers,&Stegeman,2009).Thisprocesscanbeencouragedbythesportleaders;the
acceptanceorappreciationoftheteachersisofimportance.

52

Figure9:Therelationchainofsportandchild&youthdevelopment

Sportasa
siteforsocialization
experiences

Necessarycondition
Participationinsport

Supportingconditions:

Positivecoachinginachildorientedsetting

Didacticalbasics:funandenjoyment,challenge,variation,aparticipativelearningprocess,
structuredrepetition,andreflectionandasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext.

Supportivesocialenvironment

Cooperationwithschoolsandcommunityorganizations.

Smallgroups,clearobjectivesandcooperationwithrelevantactors

Empatheticcoacheswithleadershipskillsandsamebackgroundastargetgroup

Peeracceptance

TheMomentofTruth

Intermediateoutcomes:

Socialandpsychologicalskills

Improvedhealthandfitness
Alternativeforcriminalpracticesandantisocial
behavioroutofboredomorunsupervisedleisure
time
Learningpositivenormsandvalues

Externalvariables

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcome:
Childandyouthdevelopment:
Improvededucationalresults
Reducedbehavioralproblems

53

4.3

Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment

Girlsandwomencontinuetolackaccesstothesamequalityoflifeasmen,especiallyinlowand
middleincomecountries(Brady&BanuKhan,2005;Nanayakkara,2012).Foryears,policymakers
andactivistsaretryingtochangetheinequalitybetweenmenandwomen.Therighttogender
equalityisestablishedintheUniversalDeclarationof
HumanRights(1948);andin1979theUnitedNations
organizedtheConventionontheEliminationofAllForms
TheoutcomesofSfDinterms
ofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW).Gender
ofgenderequalityand
equalityineducation,employmentandrepresentationis
empowerment,are
oneoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Although
inseparablefromothersocio
policiesaredeveloped,anddespitetheemergenceof
culturalfactors,suchassocial
womanmovementsandtheirefforts,inmanycountries
class,religiousaffiliation,
equalitybetweenmenandwomenstilldoesnotexist.
regionalconcerns,and
Theempowermentofgirlsandwomenisoftenseenasa
geographicallocation.
steptowardsequality.Therefore,moregenderequality
andtheempowermentofwomenandgirlsaresimilarly
mentionedasdesiredoutcomesformanySfDprojects.
Justbeingabletoparticipateinsportisforwomeninsomecountriesanovelty.Forinstance,for
severalyears,accesstoparticipationinsportandphysicalactivityhasbeenrestrictedforMuslim
womeninIran.TheMuslimWomensGames,however,hasprovidedsomeIranianwomenwitha
novelopportunitytoengageinsportontheirowntermsinagendersegregatedenvironment,and
isservingasacatalysttoincreasetheoverallparticipationofIranianwomeninsportasboth
participantsandcoaches(Pfister,2006).Sportcanprovideanuniqueopportunitytoreacha
vulnerableandotherwisehardtoreachgroup,suchasgirls.QualitativedatafromtheMathare
YouthSportAssociation(MYSA)inKenyaindicatesthatoneofthemostimportantbenefitsofthe
programforyounggirlsisthesexualhealtheducationcomponentregardingHIVandAIDS
protection(Belewa,2005),asubjectthatismoredifficulttodiscussinamixedgendergroup.
GenderbasedSfDprogramsareidealforthedisseminationofhealthrelatedmessagesandhealth
education(Brady,2005).
Researchconsistentlypointsoutthatthesignificantincreaseinthenumberofgirlsandwomenin
sporthasdonemuchtodismantleconventionalnotionsofgenderandtopromotegenderequality
(SDPIWG,2007).Althoughcorrelationevidenceisoftenstrong,thereislittleevidenceofcausality
intermsofbeneficialoutcomesofsportparticipation.Itremainsimportanttoconsidercontextual
factors.Thesportexperiencesofgirlsandwomenindevelopingcountries,oreventheaccessibility
ofsports,andtheoutcomesintermsofgenderequalityandempowerment,areinseparablefrom
othersocioculturalfactors,suchassocialclass,religiousaffiliation,regionalconcerns,and
geographicallocation(Pfister,2006).Nevertheless,theuseofsportandphysicalactivityasatool
fordevelopment,andasameansofempoweringwomentotakestridestowardsachievingjustice
(Small,2002),shouldbeconsideredasaviableoptionthatiswellsupportedbyresearchevidence.

54

4.3.1 Intermediateoutcomes
Basedoncurrentresearchevidencedocumentingtherelationshipbetweensportandphysical
activityprogramsorinterventionsforgirlsandwomen,participationisgenerallyassociatedwith
positiveresults.Benefitsforgirlsandwomeninbothhighincomecountriesandlowerandmiddle
incomecountriesrelateto1)socialinclusion,2)selfesteemandempowerment,3)dismantling
gendernormsand4)providingleadershipopportunities(SDPIWG,2007).

Socialinclusionandsocialintegration
Themostsignificantfindinginthisreviewconcernssport,gender,andsocialintegration.Fabrizio
Pelak(2005)&Hargreaves(1997)havedocumentedthesocialbenefitsofsportparticipationfor
womeninthepostapartheiderainSouthAfrica.Inacountrywhereattentiontoracialoppression
hasservedtotrumpgenderinequality,footballparticipationisservingasavehicleforfemale
playersfromdiversebackgroundstomentoroneanother,aswellastodemonstratecareand
friendship.
Brady(2005)andBrady&BanuKhan(2002)havedocumentedthesocialoutcomesassociatedwith
sportsparticipationintheIshraq(Egypt)andMYSA(Kenya)girlsfootballprogram.Brady(2005)
relatedsportparticipationtotheconceptofasafespace.Accesstosafespaceiscrucialforoverall
healthanddevelopment,butsuchspacebecomesincreasinglyconfined,restrictive,enclosed,and
domesticasgirlsapproachadolescence,especiallyindevelopingcountries.Inadditiontotheroleof
sportinenhancingsocialinclusion,integration,reconstruction,friendshipandsocialties,sport
assistsinexpandingaccesstosafesocialspacesforgirlsinlowerincomecountries,therebyallowing
themtotakechargeandownershipofspace(Brady,2005).Asafesocialspacecanbeusedasa
neutralplatformfordialogueandinteractioninaconflictsituation(Kay&Dudfield,2013).Reports
fromtheNigerianAssociationforWomeninSports(NAWIS)conferencealsounderscorethecrucial
roleofsportandphysicalactivityinfacilitatingsocialcohesionamonggirlsandwomen,friendship,
andsocialinteractioninNigeria(Adeyanju,Aliu,&Chado,1993).
Overall,thereissignificantevidencetosuggestthatsportandphysicalactivityparticipationmay
actasacatalystforsocialinclusion,socialintegration,andrelationshipbuildingforgirlsand
women.Theseareimportantintermediatestepstowardsgenderequalityandtheempowermentof
girlsandwomen.

Selfesteem/empowerment
Selfesteemisamultidimensionalpsychologicalconstruct.Itreferstoameasurementoffeelings
ofpositiveselfworthinseveraldomains(Richman&Shaffer,2000).Agreatdealofresearchhas
beencarriedoutusingtheseconstructs,andsomeoftheresultsarereviewedhere.Improvements
inselfesteemthroughsportparticipationmaybeenhancedbyfeelingsofaccomplishmentand
perceptionsofimprovedphysicalappearance,aswellasdemonstratingahighdegreeof
commitmenttoexercise.
Evidenceisprovidedwhichsupportstheroleofsportandphysicalactivityparticipationin
enhancingselfesteemofgirlsandwomen,orassociatedconstructssuchasselfperception,self
worth,selfefficacy,andselfempowerment,andenhancedpersonalfreedom(Eickoff,Thorland,&
Ansorge,1983;Kenen,1987;Warrick&Tinning,1989;Markula,1993).Forexample,theyreport
higherselfesteem,confidence,andbodyimage(Young,1997)orenhancedlevelsofconfidence,

55


success,andmastery.Afeelingofbelongingnessandasenseofbeingseenandconfirmedwere
alsoreported(Lindgrenetal.,2002).Notably,nonparticipationhadanegativeimpactonself
esteem(Richman&Shaffer,2000).Astudytoassesstherelationshipbetweenathleticparticipation
byadolescentgirlsintheUnitedStatesandincidentsofforcedsexualvictimizationalsonoteda
negativeassociationbetweenthesetwovariables,suggestingthatsportparticipationmayoffer
someprotectiveeffectagainstsexualvictimization(Fastingetal.,2008).
Formanygirls,selfesteemdecreasesduringadolescence,andthisperiodoftransitionisoften
characterizedbyreducedphysicalactivityandsportparticipation,aswellasincreasinglyrestrictive
genderroles(Richman&Shaffer,2000;Brady,2005).Iftherearepotentialbenefitsfrom
maintainingandenhancinggirlsandwomensselfesteem,thensportparticipationseemstobe
oneofthekeycomponentsinachievingthis.
Mostofthebeforementionedstudieswereconductedinhighincomecountries.Fewerresearch
existthatstudiedsportfordevelopmentprojectsindevelopingcounties.FindingsfromtheIshraq
andMYSAprojectssuggestthatsportforgirlsplaysasignificantroleinenhancingself
empowerment,selfesteem,andpersonalfreedom(Brady&BanuKhan,2002;Brady,2005).In
addition,qualitativeresearchonfemaleparticipantsinMovingtheGoalPosts,KilifiKenya,
indicatesthatparticipationinfootballhassignificantlyincreasedlevelsofselfesteem(Belewa,
2005).
Althoughmostofthedatahavebeenproducedinhighincomecountries,wecanconcludethatgirls
whoparticipateinsportandphysicalactivityaremorelikelytoexperienceincreasedselfesteem
andfeelingsofselfempowerment.Ofcourse,thisoutcomecanonlybereachedwhensportis
offeredintherightway.

Challengingandtransforminggendernorms
Nearlyallofthesportstudiesdocumentorsuggestthetransformativepotentialofsportto
challengegendernorms.Mostresearcherssuggestthat,whilegenderequalityinsportremainsan
elusivegoal,thecontinuedparticipationofgirlsandwomenhasmadegreatstridestowards
achievinggenderequalityincertaincontexts.Afterall,stepsarebeingtakentowardslevelingthe
playingfieldanddecreasingtherestrictivenatureofconventionalgenderroles.However,itis
importanttonotethat,incertainstudies,changinggenderrolesforgirlsandwomenismorebased
onpersonalexperiencesandanecdotes,ratherthanscientificresearch.
Afewresearchersfromhighincomecountrieshaveconsideredhowsportservesasasiteforthe
continualrenegotiationandconstructionofgenderednormsandroles.Sometimes,sportservesas
aplacetocreateawarenessofthegenderednatureofsportparticipation,andanunderstanding
amongfemaleparticipantsthatgirlsoftenparticipateinsportsonboystermsandstandards
(Lindgrenetal.,2002).ParticipationintheMYSAgirlsprograminKenyaisassociatedwith
knowledgeandawarenessofgenderednorms;thegirlsareclearlyawarethatmaleplayershave
betteraccesstocoaches,equipment,playingtimes,andfacilities(Brady&BanuKhan,2002).SfD
programsseethisawarenessasafirststeptowardsbehaviorchange,inlinewithFishbein&Azjens
(1975)theoryofplannedbehavior.
Therefore,sportfordevelopmentprojectsdonotonlycreateawarenessaboutthedifferent
genderednormsandroles,butalsotrytochallengethesetermsandstandards.Forinstance,

56


participationinicehockeygivesfemaleplayersinCanadaanecessaryforuminwhichtheyactively
contestandchallengeconventionalnotionsofgenderedplay(Theberge,2003),andgirlscanactas
agentswhoactivelynegotiategenderinsportastheychoose,orresist,participationincertain
athleticactivities(Azzaritoetal.,2006).Thiscanbetranslatedtotheouterworld:Garret(2004)
suggeststhatanactivelifestyleallowsgirlstoresisttherestrictive,traditionaldiscoursesof
femininity;and,inaretrospectivestudy,Richman&Shaffer(2000)foundthatyoungwomenwho
participatedinsportbeforegoingtouniversitydisplayedahigherdegreeofgenderflexibility.
However,theincreaseofawarenessisnotalwaysasteptowardsdevelopment.Awarenesscanlead
tofrustrationifnothingchangesintheenvironment.Therefore,approachesthatfocuson
awarenessarenotuncontested.Someorganizationsfocusonempowermentandthecreationof
awarenessbywomenonly.ScientistslikeMisener&Mason(2010)warnthatthismightleadtovery
negativereactionsfromtheirenvironment,whichsometimesputsthewomeninanevenmore
restrictedsituation.Awarenessandachangeinperceptionshouldnotonlybecreatedbygirlsor
women,butalsobytheboysandmenwhosurroundthem.Genderisarelationalconstruct;the
meaningsoffeminineattributesareoftendefinedonlyinrelationoroppositiontocharacteristicsof
masculinityandachangeofnormsandvaluesshouldthereforebecreatedatbothsides.
SomeevidenceunderpinsthepossibilitiesofSfDprojectsinthisrespect:asportforpeace
programfordisengagedyouthhadtheeffectofboysdemonstratingagreaterwillingnesstoallow
girlstotakeownershipoftheprogram(Ennis,1999).Researchfindingsfromlowerandmiddle
incomecountriesalsosuggestthatparticipationinsportandphysicalactivityplaysasignificantrole
indismantlinggenderbarriersandnorms.ResultsfromtheMYSAprogramarethemosttelling:the
boysintheprogramhaveadoptedfavorableandsupportiveattitudestowardsgirlsinvolvement,
andtheywatchoutforMYSAgirlsintheslumsofNairobiandthebroadercommunity.
Furthermore,despitesignificantbarrierstoaccess,suchaslackoftransport,financialconstraints
andresidualgenderbinaries,FabrizioPelak(2005)andHargreaves(1997)suggestthat,although
footballhastraditionallyfunctionedasanallmaleflagshiporpreserveinSouthAfrica,female
playersareactivelyrenegotiatingbothmaterialandideologicalconstraints.Theyareforgingnew
genderedidentitiesasfemalefootballersinpostapartheidSouthAfrica.
Basedonthesestudies,itcanbearguedthatsportparticipationcreatesthepossibilityforless
restrictiveandconventionalgenderroles.However,itisimportanttonotethat,despitetheir
contributiontodecreasedgenderinequalities,sportanddevelopmentprogramsareusuallyrunfor
andbymen(Sartore&Cunningham,2007),andfewaredesignedforwomenalone.Insomecases,a
safeenvironmentforwomenandgirlsmeansanenvironmentwithoutmen.Inothersituations,
emancipationhasgonefurtherandthegoalinthesesituationsistocreateaspacewheremenand
womencaninteract.Therefore,onceagain,theorganizationofanSfDprojectshouldbe
appropriateforthecontextinwhichittakesplaceandshouldpayattentiontotheacceptedlevelof
freedomforwomenandthenormsandvaluesinthearea.

Leadershipandachievementopportunities
SomestudieshavefoundevidenceinlowerandmiddleincomecountriesthatSfDprogramsprovide
womenwithaccesstoleadershipandcareeropportunities.Forexample,theMovingtheGoalPosts
KilififootballprograminKenyahassuccessfullycreatedopportunitiesforselfgovernance.The

57


girlscommitteemembersorganizeandparticipateintheprogramatalllevelsofitsorganizational
structure.Forexample,allmatchesareledbyfemalereferees(Belewa,2005).
DatafromparticipantsintheMYSAgirlsfootballprograminKenyaillustratesthebenefitsof
participationinprovidingimportantvenuesforleadershipdevelopmentandpersonaland
professionalgrowth.Thegirlsvaluetheopportunityforspecializedtraininganddevelopmentinthe
areasofcoaching,refereeing,training,organizingtheleague,andthepeerandhealtheducation
thatMYSAhasprovided.ThegirlsfromthisprogramthatwereabletoparticipateintheNorway
Cupinternationalfootballcompetitionwerealsopositiveaboutthepublicrecognition,international
travelopportunities,athleticopportunities,leadership,andsuccess(Brady&BanuKhan,2002).

4.3.2 Conditions
Severalconditionsthatwillsupportthedeliveryoftheabovementionedintermediateoutcomes
canbedetermined.Recommendationsfromsportandgenderprogramssuggestthattheresultsof
theprogramdependonsupportingconditions,suchasgirlsparticipationthroughprogramdesign,
andencouraginggirlsleadership,development,andsafetyoncetheyareinvolved.Brady&Banu
Khan(2002)outlinedanumberofimportantrecommendationsforplanningandimplementing
sportandgenderprogramsindevelopingcountries.Theseinclude:

Retaininggirlsintheprogram,andsettingthetermsforparticipation:programfacilitators
mustallowgirlstoenter,exit,andreentertheprogramwithease.
Identifyingmeasuresthatwillensurethesafetyofgirlsintheprogram,andprotecttheir
reputations:theseincludesafewalking,adultchaperoning,transport,andplayinggames
beforedark.
Providinggirlswithfemalerolemodelsandmentorsinthecommunity:thisincludesaccessto
guidance,assistance,andproblemsolvingwithinthecommunity.
Encouraginggirlsselfexpression,decisionmaking,andleadership:inphysicallyactive
settings,girlsmaydramaticallyreadjusttheirbehaviorinthepresenceofboys;theymay
retreat,avoidsituations,ordisplayinhibitedbehaviors(Brady&BanuKhan,2002).Forthis
reason,itisessentialtoprovidegirlswithaccesstosinglesexactivitiesandgirlonly
spacesincertainathleticsituations.
Encourageboystobemorerespectful:ithasbeenproposedthatwhengirlssucceedortake
onnewandunconventionalroles,boysperceptionsofthemchangefavorably,andthere
areopportunitiesforboystoadoptenlightenedviewsregardingtheplaceofgirlsinsport.

Hargreaves(1997)addsthatatallstages,womenfromlowerandmiddleincomecountriesshould
havedirectinvolvementinprogramdesign,implementation,andtheorganizationalstructure,in
ordertoensuretheiractiveleadershipandroleindecisionmakingprocesses.GenderbasedSfD
programs,likeprogramsonsexualeducation,shouldassessthehealthrelatedneedsofaparticular
regionandincorporatemessagesthatpertaintotheseissuesintotheprogramdesign.Wherelocal
andregionalconcernsactasstructuralbarrierstoparticipation,itiscrucialthatsuchfactorsare
takenintoaccountintheplanninganddesignofgenderbasedSfDprograms(Brady,2005).Asa
consequence,effortsmustbemadetounderstandthemeaningandpurposeofsportandphysical
activityinthelivesofgirlsandwomeninparticularlocalcontexts,sothatprogrammingreflectsthe
diverseneeds,perspectives,andmotivesofparticipants,andcapturesthenuancesandsubtletiesof
girlsandwomensinvolvementinsuchsportprograms.

58


Besides,Valoisetal.(2004)suggestthatthepositivepsychologicaloutcomesofpsychicalactivity
candependongender,andthereforeSfDprogramsshouldallowfordifferencesinthewayssportis
offeredtoboysandgirls.Womenaresupposedtobemoreinneedofintimateinterpersonal
relations,whichamountstoorganizingmoreteamsports.Menexperiencepositivepsychological
benefitsfromphysicalactivityinavarietyofsports,includingindividualsports,andnotjustfrom
sportsthatarecharacterizedbycooperationandinterpersonalrelations,liketeamsports.However,
mostotherscientistsdontmentionthisconditionintheorganizationofthesport(VandenHeuvel
etal.,2007).

59

Figure10:Therelationchainofsportandgenderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment

Sportasa
siteforsocialization
experiences

Necessarycondition
Participationinsport

Supportingconditions:

Settingtermsforparticipation

Femalerolemodelsandmentors
Ensuresafetyandreputation

Encouragingfemaleleadership
Respectfulandsupportivemaleresponses Accesstosafesportsspaces
Participationofbeneficiariesinprogramdevelopment
Incorporatingdifferenceswhenofferingsportforgirlsandboys

TheMomentofTruth

Intermediateoutcomes:

Socialinclusionandintegration

Growthofselfesteem
Dismantlinggendernorms
Leadershipdevelopment

Externalvariables

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes:
Genderequality
Empowermentofgirlsandwomen

60

4.4 Peacebuildingandconflictresolution
Theliteraturereviewshowsagrowingnumberofstudiesofprogramsaimingtopromotepeace,
reconciliation,anddevelopmentinconflictriddenregions,notablytheBalkans,theMiddleEast,
WestandCentralAfrica,SriLanka,andSouthAmerica(Giulianotti,2011).Despitetheacademic
interestinsportforpeaceandreconciliation,theroleof
sportinpostconflictpeacebuildingremainspoorly
understood(Dyck,2011).Itisreportedthatparticipants
Sportcanberegardedasone
highlyvaluetheseprograms,butveryfewprogramshave
toolinanorchestraofmulti
beencriticallymonitored(Giulianotti,2011)andfew
levelpeacebuildingefforts
studiesaboutsportforpeacearepublishedinpeer
requiredtoproduce
reviewedmagazines.
harmoniouspeace.
Sincepeacebuilding,asafieldofstudy,lendsitselfto
practicalapproachesthatseektoaddressunderlying
sourcesofviolentconflict,itissurprisingthatithaslargelyneglectedtotakeaninterestinsport,
especiallyitsgrassrootsmodels.Moreover,fewofthestudiesonsportforpeacearegroundedin
peacebuildingtheoryorframeworks.While,attimes,authorsrefertokeyconceptsorideasthat
overlapwithpeacestudies,thesportforpeaceliteraturedoesnotemploythesamelanguage,
modelsorframesthatwouldallowthetwoareastointeractaswellasbuildupontheirrespective
bodiesofknowledge.
Thisissurprising,becausetherearehighexpectationsofthepowerofsportforpeacebuildingand
conflictresolution.Ontheonehand,sporthasbeenregardedasaninstrumentoruniversal
languageforpeacefulcommunication.Therefore,sportisseenasatoolfor(re)building
relationshipsbetweenantagonisticgroups.InAfrica,footballinparticularhasastrongappeal
becauseofitspopularityandabilitytomobilizeindividualsandcommunities(Dyck,2011).Onthe
otherhand,sporthasbeenassociatedwithdifferences,inequalityandconflict.IllustrativeisGeorge
Orwellsoftenquotedsentimentthatsportiswarminustheshooting(Orwell,1970:63).Although
modernsportsareregardedaslessviolent,contradictionsremainandsomescholarsseesportas
strategyofimperialismandconquest(cf.Darnelletal,2011;Tiessen,2011).
Scholarswarnforfalseandelaborateexpectationsassociatedwiththeprograms(Keim,2006;SDP
IWG,2007),becausetheproblemsaremultidimensionalandcannotbesolvedbysportalone
(Armstrong,2004a).TheSDPIWGreportmentionsforexamplealackofemployment,accessto
land,egalitariandistributionofincome,elementaryhealthprovision,affordablehousing,
educationalopportunitiesandcleanwater,problematicpoliticalstructuresandAIDSasproblems
thatformthecontextofasportforpeaceprogram.Armstrong(2004b,p.498)summarizedthisas:
Rehabilitationandreintegrationprojectsaredoomedtofailifthereisnobetterlifeofferedtothe
disaffecteddemilitarized.However,thereissomethingthatcanbedoneviasportfor
developmentprograms.ASfDprojectwillprobablynotstopawar,butthereareseveral
intermediateoutcomesthatcanbereached.Sportcanberegardedasonetoolinanorchestraof
multilevelpeacebuildingeffortsrequiredtoproduceharmoniouspeace.

61

4.4.1 Intermediateoutcomes
Severalauthors(e.g.Sugden,2010;Dyck,2011;Lyras&WelthyPeachey,2011)arguethatunder
carefullymanagedcircumstances,sportcanmakeapositive,butmodestcontributiontopeace
building.Sugden(2010)arguesthatsportisintrinsicallyvaluedasneutral,whichisimportantina
conflictsituation.
Themostimportantvalueofsportforpeacemightbetheopportunitytomakethecontact.Ifthat
contactismeaningful,interactiveandnotsuperficial,resolutionmightoccur(Baker&Esherick,
2009).Interpersonaldialoguecanleadtoareductionofnegativebiasesandabreakdownof
stereotypes(Hglund&Sundberg,2008).Theclaimsonthepossiblepositiveoutcomesofsport
forpeaceprogramscanbecategorizedintothreegroups:1)(re)buildingofrelationships,2)
reintegrationofsoldiers,and3)reconciliation.

Relationship(re)building
Sportfordevelopmentprogramsofferasiteforrelationshipbuilding(SDPIWG,2007).Accordingto
Lederach(2005),sportprogramsmaybecrucialincreatingopportunitiesforsocialinteractionthat
havelongbeensuppressed.Hestressestheimportanceofcreatingsafeandaccessiblesocialspaces
orrelationalspaces.Sportcanbeseenassuchasafeandsupportivespaceforrelationshipbuilding
acrosswideanddiversepopulations(Keim,2003).Becauseeverybodyenjoyssport,regardlessof
theirbackground,age,economicprosperityorreligion(Richards,1997),inthesespaces,peoplecan
meeteachotherinanaturalway.Therefore,sportoffersimportantopportunitiesforsocial
networkingandrelationshipbuilding,itmaycomplementpeacebuildingstrategiesbasedon
relationalspaces(Lederach,2005).Keim(2003)alsoshowsthatmoreinterculturalfriendships
growsinschoolwhenchildrenweredoingsportsinanintegratedteam.

Reintegrationofsoldiers
Afterawar,soldiersgohome.Someofthemarewelltrainedyoungmen,butothersarechild
soldiers.Especiallyforthem,asuccessfulreintegrationintoacommunitycanbehard.They
strugglewiththeirpastandthecommunitycanbeunwelcoming(SDPIWG,2007).Sportcanhelp
themtounderstandamorenuancedformofviolenceandaddtothehealingamongyouth
combatantsduringtheirreintegrationprocess(Dyck,2011).Sport,inparticularfootball,hasproven
toofferapossibilitytoreintegrate,becausesportisneutral;whileplaying,someonesbackground
orpastactionsarenotimportant(Richards,1997;Sugden,2010).Moreover,theorganizationofa
footballcompetitionmighthelptostrengthenrelationships(Armstrong,2002).However,sofar
verylittlestudieshavebeenexecutedthatfocusonthisintegrationandmostoftheevidenceis
morebasedoncommonsensethanonempiricalfindings.

Reconciliation
Reconciliationarisesfromrelationship(re)building,butisbroaderthanthat.Italsoincludes
componentsoftruthandjustice(SDPIWG,2007).Sportmightaddtoreconciliationbylinkingwith
advocacygroupsandrecruitingpopularstarsasadvocatesforpeace.However,mostscholarsstate
thevalueofsportforreconciliationiscontestable(Hglund&Sundberg,2008).Forinstance,Lea
Howarth(2006)statesthatsportprogramsareincapableofplayingaroleinreconciliationandthat
sportcannotaddressstructuralviolenceandtheurgenttasksofenvironmentalreconstruction,such
asremovaloflandmines.

62


However,severalnegativeoutcomesarealsopossible.Drawingonalargeandgrowingbodyof
literatureonglobalcitizenshipandpoststructuralism,andonpostcolonialcritiques,Tiessen(2011)
arguesthatSfDnarrativeshavethepotentialtoreinforcethe'othering'ofcommunitymembersin
developingcountries.Divisionsbetweenconflictiongroupscanbeworsened,sportcanleadto
exclusionofothersbecauseofastrongergroupfeeling.Besides,itmayalsocontributeto
paternalisticconceptionsofdevelopmentassistance(Tiessen,2011).Thismightleadtomore
cynicismandadisempowermentoflocalpeople(SDPIWG,2007).Ennis(1999)pointsatthefact
thatsportencouragesdominantbehavior,eitherviahighlyskilledorviaaggressivegamebehavior.
Thisaggressiondoesnotmatchwithsportforpeacegoalsandcanreinforceviolence.Ennis(1999)
alsomentionsthefactthatlowskilledplayersmightnotbeengagedandtheirabilitymightnotbe
improved,evenwhentaughtbycompetent,committedleaders.Finally,theaddedvalueofsport
forpeaceprojectscouldbeconsideredmodestwhencomparedtoothersportfordevelopment
programs.Asportforpeaceprojectcandivertresourcesfrommoreproductiveactivities,either
frompeaceactivitiesorotherSfDprojects(Schrag,2012).

4.4.2 Conditions
Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatsportisasocialconstructanditsroleandfunctiondepends
largelyonwhatwemakeofitandhowitisconsumed(Sugden,2005;Sugden,2010).While
sportspersonsoftenassumethattheactivitiestheyorganizeconstituteauniversallanguage,
Sugden(2006:221)warnsagainsttheoveressentializingofsport:Ifprojectsarelocally
grounded,carefullythoughtout,andprofessionallymanaged,theycanmakeamodestcontribution
towidereffortstopromoteconflictresolutionandpeacefulcoexistence.Thisstatementraises
questionsaboutwhichconditionsexactlyshouldbemet,andhowsportcanbeconstructedtomeet
peacebuildingneeds.

Thoughtfulandcommittedvolunteersandcoaches
Thefirstconditionistheavailabilityofthoughtfulandcommittedvolunteersandcoaches.Several
authorshighlighttheimportanceoftrainingandtheselectionofthevolunteersorcoachesthatrun
theprograms.Peacebuildingisacomplexprocessanddemandshighlyskilledpeacebuilders
(Keim,2003;Armstrong,2002,2004a&2004b;Gasser&Levinsen,2004;Sugden,2006;SDPIWG,
2007).AsSugden(2006)notes:Themostsuccessfuloffpitchprogramswerethoseledby
knowledgeable,sympatheticandskilledfacilitatorsandtendedtobeactivityratherthanclassroom
based(Sugden,2006,p.228).Nearlyallresearchconfirmstheimportanceofselectionandtraining,
andcommittedvolunteers,whoareculturallyawareandsensitive(Keim,2003;Donnelly&Coakley,
2002;Sugden,2006;Gasser&Levinson,2004).Theyconcludethatcurrentandfutureprogramming
mustinvestinandvalueprogramleaders,whoareinkeyanddemandingpositions.

Partofalongtermprogram
AsecondconditionisthatanSfDprojectshouldbepartofalongtermprogram.Playingagamein
themidstofconflictisunlikelytohavealonglastingimpactonpeace(LeaHowarth,2006;
Lambert,2007).Tomakeaprojectmeaningful,ithastobeaseriesofcarefullystructuredsporting
experiences.Ifotherconditionsaretakenintoaccount,andiftheprojectisaccompaniedbyawide
varietyofcultural,educational,economicandpoliticalinterventionsthatforinstancedealwith
socialinequalityandsocialexclusion,itmightmakecontributiontothepeaceprocess(Donnelly&
Coakley,2002;LeaHowarth,2006)

63

Communitybasedapproach
Athirdconditionisacommunitybasedapproach.Externalagenciesshouldbeawareoftheirrolein
insideroutsiderpowerdynamics.Therefore,theyshouldfocusonsupportingandcollaborating
withtheinitiativesofthelocalcommunityaswellasrecognizingandbuildinguponthe
communitiesassets.Asoutsiders,theymustbuildrelationshipswithlocalsinordertoproperly
understandandvaluetheculturalcontextofthecommunityinwhichtheyareworking,sothatthe
programthrivesfromthevaluedlocalknowledge(Sugden,2006).Insituationswhereoutside
groupseitherestablishaprogram,orareinfluentialintheprogramduetotheirdonorpositions,itis
essentialthattheyareguidedbycommunitydevelopmentapproaches.Outsidegroupsmustavoid
creatingdonorclientrelationships(Hognestad,2006)orparachutingoutsidersinaconflict
situation(Schrag,2012).Instead,organizationsshouldworkasalliesandsupportandprovide
spaceforcommunityownedinitiatives.Localpartnersthatarecommunitywiderecruitedshould
beinvolvedinallimportantevaluations,decisionmaking,planningandimplementingprocesses
(Donnelly&Coakley,2002;Sugden,2006).Externalagenciesmustbeempoweringinalloftheir
practicesandinclusiveofparticipatorydecisionmakingatalldecisionlevels(Boutlier,Cleverly&
Labonte,2000).Donnelly&Coakley(2002)alsostresstheimportanceofagencyinprograms,
referringtotheabilityofanindividualtobeinvolvedincreatingandtransformingthenatureof
theirphysicalactivity.WhiletheserecommendationsarerelevantinallSfDprograms,theyare
especiallyrelevantinsportforpeaceworkinvolvinganintrastateformofconflict.Veryimportant
isalsotheinvolvementofparents.Theyaretheonesthatinvestedmostinthewelfareoftheir
children,andascommunitymembersandconstituents,parentsareanimportantvectorforevery
programsimpactonthecommunity.Theytooaredrawnacrosslineswhentheycometowatch
theirchildrenplayandhavefun;oncethere,theyfindthemselvescheeringwithformerenemies
whohavechildrenplayingforthesameteam(Gasser&Levinsen,2004).

Accesstosafesportfacilities
Afourthconditionistheaccesstosafesportsspaces.Asmentionedbeforeinthechapterongender
equality,itisimportanttopayattentiontothequalityandquantityofsportsspaces(SDPIWG,
2007).Political,economic,andsocialconditionscanmakechildrenhesitantofparticipatinginjoint
ormulticulturalsportactivities(Keim,2003).Facilitieshavetobesafeandaccessible:Keimsstudy
inSouthAfricashowedthataffordableandsafetransportisalsoofcrucialimportancetothe
successoftheseprograms.Thisconditionisespeciallytrueforsportforpeaceprojects,because
remaindersofthewar(forinstance,landmines)canbeaseriousdanger.Partofaccessibilityisalso
thatallgroupsinthecommunityhaveequalaccesstotheproject,includingmorevulnerablegroups
likechildrenorthedisabled,andalsoincludingtargetedracialorethnicgroups(SDPIWG,2007).

Noemphasisonscoreboardoutcome
Afifthconditionisthatthereshouldbenoemphasisonscoreboardoutcome.LeaHowarth(2006)
placesvalueontheconflictingmomentsthatcanoccurinsport.Leadersskilledinpeacebuilding
canusethesemomentstoeducatetheparticipants.Suchtransformationofaconflictrequireswell
trainedandcapablefacilitators,aswehavestressedinthefirstcondition,butthesport
programmingshouldavoidemphasizingthescoreboardoutcome;instead,itshouldfocusonthe
continuedprocessofparticipationandutilizetheseteachablemoments.

64

Interconnectionwithotherorganizationsinsociety
Asixthconditionisaninterconnectionwithotherorganizationsinsociety.Sportprogramming
seemstoshowsuccesswhenitinterconnectswithotherlayersandlevelsofsociety,ratherthan
functioninginisolation.Sportisafirststepinestablishingnewcontactsandrelationshipsbetween
people,butforrealreconciliation,thesecontactsshouldbetransferredintotheordinarylife.
Therefore,cooperationwithothersocietalorganizationslikeschools,churchesandbusinessesis
necessary.Asmiddlelevelactors,Lederach(2005)notes,sportfordevelopmentorganizations
occupykeystrategicpositionstobuildcrosssectionalrelationships.Severalsportforpeace
projectswereabletoshowsuccessbyinterconnectingwithotherpartnersintheircommunity.
Giulianotti&Armstrong(2011)studiedhowSfDprojectsworkinacontextwithamilitarypresence.
Theysuggestthatsportbasedpeacemakinginterventionsprovidethemilitarywithanewkindof
institutionalfunction,andfreshwaysofbuildingpositivesociallinkstocivilianpopulations.They
stresstheimportanceofengagementbetweenciviliansandpeacekeeping,whichcanbeenforced
viasports.

65

Figure11:Therelationchainofsportandpeacebuildingandconflictresolution

Sportasa
siteforsocialization
experiences

Necessarycondition
Participationinsport

Supportingconditions:

(Organizationalandprogramcomponents)

committedvolunteersandcoaches

communitybasedapproach

noemphasisonscoreboardoutcomes

partofalongtermprogram
accesstosafesportsspaces
cooperationwithotherorganizations

TheMomentofTruth

Intermediateoutcomes:

Relationshiprebuilding

Reintegrationofsolders

Reconciliation

Externalvariables

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes:
Conflictresolution
Peace

66

5Conclusionandnextsteps

Inthischapter,thecentralquestionofthisreviewwillbeanswered:Whatisthepotentialofsportas
atoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?First,themainfindings
oftheliteraturereviewwillbesummarized.Then,DutchSfDpolicyandpracticewillbeoutlined,
focusingonthespecificcharacteristicsofDutchpolicyandprograms.Finally,valuablenextsteps
willbeproposed,relatedtothechallengesandopportunitiesinfrontoftheSfDsector.

5.1

Sportspotentialtocontributetodevelopment

Sporthassomeuniquefeaturestocontributetodevelopment,especiallyincomparisonwithother
interventions.Individualsandgroupsallovertheworldareinterestedinsports,regardlessof
background,age,race,religion,genderorstatus.Therefore,sportcanattracttargetgroupswhoare
usuallyhardtoreach.Theycaneasilybeinvolved,sportisvisibleandaccessible,sportoffersrole
modelsandcontainsintrinsicvaluesthatplayanimportantroleinsociety.Particularsportactivities
andsocialprocessesofparticipationcanbekeytoreachcertaindevelopmentgoals.Theunique
featureshavebeenacknowledgedinvariouspolicies,internationallyandintheNetherlands.

5.1.1 Claimsvs.empiricalresearch
Nevertheless,manyclaimsofthepowerofsportinpolicyandpracticecannotbemetaccordingto
empiricalresearch.Researchanalysishasmadeclearthatsporthasthepotentialtocontributeto
developmentgoals,butsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtothedesireddevelopmentaloutcomes.
Accordingtotheacademicliterature,healthistheonlyoverarchingoutcomethatshowsadirect
relationshipwithphysicalactivity.Forallotheroverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesitishardto
proveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportanddevelopment.Thisalsocountsforyouthand
education,genderequalityandpeaceandreconciliationdevelopmentgoalsthatarefociin
DutchSfDprograms.
Atthesametime,academicresearchoffershandlestousesportasavehicletocontributetothese
goals.Itisimportanttoapproachsportasasiteforsocializationexperiences,notasacauseof
socializationoutcomes.Itisnotsportinitselfwhichleadsautomaticallytodevelopment.Sport
takesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofa
sportfordevelopmentprogram.Toprovideinsightinthepotentialofsportfordevelopmentandto
beabletocontributetodevelopmentinthebestpossibleway,wedevelopedabasicSfDmodel.
Thismodeltakesintoaccountthattherelationbetweensportanddevelopmentoftenisindirect
andthattheoutcomesofSfDprogramsdependonanumberof,sometimeshardtoaffect,
variables.Themodelstartswithsportasasiteforsocializationexperienceandthendistinguishes
necessaryconditions,supportingconditions,themomentoftruth,intermediateoutcomesand
overarchingoutcomes,takingexternalvariablesintoaccountaswell.Anecessaryconditionfor
anyoutcomeisparticipationinsport.Supportingconditionsrefertotheprocessesand
organizationalandprogramcomponentsthatshouldleadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes.
Frequentlymentionedsupportingconditionsarerelatedtotheorganizationofprogramsand
activities,theroleofcoachesorleadersandthesocialenvironmentinwhichtheactivitiestake
place.SomeconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject,whileothersaremore

67


contextspecific.Ifconditionsaremet,sportmayleadtointermediateoutcomes.Examplesof
intermediateoutcomesarethedevelopmentoflifeskills,increasedsocialinteraction,butalso
developmentofleadershipandcommunitybuilding.Theseintermediateoutcomes,oftenreferred
toas(aspectsof)socialcapital,areanessentialelementintheachievementoftheoverarching
developmentaloutcomeslikechildandyouthdevelopment,genderequality,conflictresolutionand
peace.Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatintermediateoutcomesarenotalwaysdesiredor
positiveoutcomes.Sportcanleadtoinjuries,toexclusion
andtoantisocialbehavior.
Theexactmechanismsduringthemomentoftruth,
whichresultineitherpositiveornegativeoutcomes,are
stillunclear,includingthebestwayforSfDorganizations
tofacilitatethemomentoftruth.Whatisrequiredisa
developmentalapproachbasedonarealisticviewonthe
meaningofsport,andaconcentrationonunderstanding
thesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmightleadto
desiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsorsome
organizationsincertaincircumstances(Pawson,2006).
Fromthisperspective,monitoringandevaluationneedto
pursueunderstandingviaparticipatory,processcentered
andformativeevaluation(Shahetal.,2004;Coalter,
2006,2007).

Whatisrequiredisa
developmentalapproach
basedonthedereificationof
sport,andaconcentration
onunderstandingofthesocial
processesandmechanisms
thatmightleadtodesired
outcomesforsome
participantsorsome
organizationsincertain
circumstances.

5.1.2 Dutchpolicyandpractice
ThereviewofDutchandinternationalpoliciesmakesclearthatDutchSfDpoliciesandprograms
havebeeninfluentialandhavehadimpact,bothatpolicylevelandinpractice,butfluctuatedover
theyears.Thiscanbetracedbacktoseveralfactors,suchasthevaryingpoliticalattentionand
resources.ThecurrentSfDprogramallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartners
andlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.Thecurrentimplementing
partnersoftheDutchSFDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedan
importantroleinthecontinuityofDutchcontributionstoSfD,inandoutsidetheNetherlands.
TheseorganizationshaveusedtheirextensiveexperienceinSfDtocontributetooverarching
developmentgoals.Theorganizationsdifferinthewaytheywanttocontributetodevelopment
workingwithdifferentapproaches,differenttargetgroups,andindifferentcountries.Thisfits
withinSfDpolicyintheNetherlandssince1998,whichcanbecharacterizedasdecentralizedand
opentowardsdiversity.Asaconsequence,adistinctDutchapproachdoesnotexist.However,
therearesimilaritiesintheapproachesoftheMinistryofForeignAffairs,NSAInternational,KNVB
andRightToPlay.First,theyallfocusontransferofknowledgeandskills.Thisisdonebydeveloping
curricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals,bysettinguplocalnetworksandbyincreasingthecapacity
oflocalpeopleandorganizations.Second,localcoachesandleadersareessentialasrolemodels
andeducators.Third,programsaimtoconnectthegrassrootsoperations(microlevel)withlocal
organizations(mesolevel)andnationalandinternationaladvocacyefforts(macrolevel)level.The
programsarebasedonneedsandcontext,tailormadeandcohesive.Thisisinlinewithscientific

68


researchindicatingthattheinvolvementoflocalleadersandlocalcapacitybuildingandtheuseof
localleadersasrolemodelsarekeystoachievedesiredoutcomes.

5.2 ValuablenextstepsforDutchSfDorganizations
Thefollowingquestionis:HowcanDutchSfDorganizationsusethepotentialofsportinthebest
possibleway,takingintoaccounttheirownexpertiseandexperience,DutchSfDpolicyand
programs,andevidenceandlessonslearnedfromempiricalstudies?
Theacademicliteraturelearnsthat,tomaximizetheoutcomes,SfDorganizationsshouldaccept
thatadirectrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopmentishardtoproveandthattheyshould
focusonintermediateoutcomesinstead.AccordingtothepresentedSfDbasicmode,SfD
organizationsshouldmakesurethatthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremettoincrease
thechanceonthedeliveryofthedesiredoutcomes.Intheyearstocomeoneofthemainchallenges
fortheSfDsectoringeneralistoinvestinqualityofprogramsandsustainabilityofresults.
Dutchorganizationscanplayavaluableroleindealingwiththesechallenges,makinguseofthe
findingsandrecommendationsofthisreview.Theycanincreasetheirimpactusingsportfor
developmentbyastrongerfocuson:
1. Facilitatingthemomentoftruth
Theinteractionbetweenthesportcoachandparticipantisdecisivefortheoutcomesofa
program.ThethreeDutchSfDorganizationshaveastrongfocusontheeducationofsport
coachesandcommunityleadersandthushaveadirectimpactonthemomentoftruth.They
canincreasetheimpactoftheirprogramsbyastrongerfocusonfacilitatingthemomentof
truth.Importantaspectsoffacilitatingthemomentoftruthare:
Backgroundanalysesandneedsassessmentsofparticipantsandlocalcontexts
Preciseselectionofcoachesandleadersbyqualitativeentryrequirements
Tailorededucationprogramsforcoachesandleaders
Sharingbestpracticesamongcoachesandleaders
Establishingpeerreviewsofcoachesandleaders
Supervisionandfollowupprogramsforcoachesandparticipants

Ingeneral,facilitatingthemomentoftruthmeansthatSfDorganizationsoperatefroma
servicemanagementperspective,facilitatingallparticipantsduringthemomentoftruthinthe
bestpossibleway.

2. Investinginlocalinvolvement,organizationalcapacityandpartnerships
Oneoftheimportantsupportingconditionsforoutcomesandimpactistheinvolvementof
localbeneficiariesthemselvesandtheircommunities.Itisstronglyrecommendedtoalso
involvelocalcivilsocietyorganizations,i.e.sportorganizationsand/orotherorganizationsthat
cansupportthemomentoftruthaswell.Furtherinvestmentinorganizationalcapacityandin
localpartnershipsiscrucialtodeliversustainableprogramswhichhaveanimpactinthelong
term.

69


3. Programsatmicrolevel,structurallysupportedatmesoandmacrolevel
Inthefieldofsportfordevelopment,organizationsworkinacomplexenvironmentinwhicha
varietyofstakeholdersisengaged,fromlocalorganizationstonationalgovernmentsto
internationalsportorganizationstodonors.Alltheseactorsinfluence,directlyorindirectly,the
actualdeliveryofSfDprograms.TheSfDorganizationseitherlocalorforeignhaveto
structurallycooperatewithcivilsocietyorganizationstoalsomakesurethatrelationswith
governments,multilateralinstitutionsand(i)NGOs,aresupportivefortheSfDprogramsat
grassrootslevel.

4. Integrationofpractice,policyandresearch
Themoreisknownaboutthemechanismsduringthemomentoftruthwhichdeterminesthe
aspiredoutcomesattheendofthedaythebetterorganizationsareabletomakeadifference
withtheuseofsportfordevelopment.Programscanbeimprovedifsystematiccooperation
betweenSfDorganizationsandlocalpartnersandacademicinstitutionsisstimulatedand
facilitated.Thiscooperationshould,besidesmonitoringandevaluation,leadtosmart
integrationofscientificresearchandinnovationwithinSfDprograms,especiallywithregardto
theorganizationofpartnershipandcapacitybuilding.Indoingso,DutchfundedSfDprograms
canbefurtherimproved,increaseimpactinthefieldandcontributetotheSfDsector
internationally.

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