Experiment No.

01
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity(g) with the help of compound (bar)
pendulum.
Apparatus required:

A bar pendulum with two knife edges.

Stop watch
Telescope
Meter Scale

Description:
It is heavy uniform rectangular metallic
bar AB of about one meter long, having
holes at a regular intervals along its
length on either side of centre of gravity
(CG) (fig1). The line joining centres of the
holes are parallel to the edges and
passing through the bar. The bar can be
supported by hard steel knife edges ,
which can be fixed with each hole in turn.
The knife edge is properly tightened by
plyier so as to ensure that its sharp edge
remains horizontal to the supporting
platform and perpendicular to
the
length of the bar during its oscillations.

Theory:
The working formula for determination of acceleration due to gravity by bar pendulum is
given by,
g bar = 42 ( ) graph
Where g : acceleration due to gravity
L: equivalent length of pendulum
T: time period of pendulum
Procedure:
1. Find out the centre of gravity G of the pendulum (the midpoint of the rectangular
bar i.e. the 10th hole of the supplied bar).
2. Fix two pins vertically on both ends of the bar pendulum with the help of wax or
cello tape.
3. Suspend the bar about the knife edge from the hole nearest to the one end of the
bar. Focus the telescope on the pin fixed at the other end of the bar pendulum. The
1

telescope may be place at a distance of 2 meters and its axis should be parallel to
the ground (i.e. horizontal).
4. Make the pendulum swing in a vertical plane perpendicular to its horizontal axis of
suspension. The angle of displacement or oscillation ( ) should be less than 40 .
5. Note down the time taken for 20 oscillations thrice (t 1 , t2 , t3), then find out the
mean time taken for 20 oscillations i.e. t = (t1 + t2 + t3) and calculate the time
6.

7.

8.

9.

period T (T= ).
Repeat the above procedures (iii) to (v) by suspending the bar from successive holes
except the central hole. Record the distance (d) of the knife edge from the fixed end
say A of the bar. For the holes close to CG the period gets longer and at CG it
becomes infinity.
Invert the bar to allow similar operations for the holes on other side of CG and
continue till last hole at the other end is reached. Distances are to be recorded from
the same fixed end A.
Plot a graph with distances of knife edges from one fixed end A along X-axis and
corresponding time periods along Y-axis A curve of the type shown in the fig.2 is
obtained.
Draw three lines parallel to X-axis so as to cut these two symmetrical curves at
four different points (A,B,D,E ), (A,B,D,E ), (A,B,D,E) as shown in figure 2 . The
distance between the asymmetric points on either side (AD or BE) or (AD or BE)
will evidently be equal to be lengths of equivalent simple pendulum (L). Hence find
the equivalent lengths, i.e.
L1 = (AD+BE)/2 ,
L2 = (AD + BE)/2 ,
L3 = (AD+ BE)/2

The time period (T) corresponding to these four points gives the value of this common time
period T1 for the equivalent length L1, T2 for the equivalent length L2 & T3 for the
equivalent length L3 .

Observation:
Table -1(A) (For determination of time period)
No. of
holes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Distance of
hole from C.G
(in cm)

t1

Time for 20 oscillations (in seconds)

Mean
t2
t3
t= (t1+t2+t3)

Time
period T
(in sec)
T=

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45

Table -1(B) (For determination of time period)

No. of
holes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Distance of
hole from C.G
(in cm)

t1

Time for 20 oscillations (in seconds)

Mean
t2
t3
t= (t1+t2+t3)

Time
period T
(in sec)
T=

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45

Table-2 (For determination of g)

Line no.

Equivalent length L
(in cm)

Timeperiod T
(in sec)

in

Mean

in

I
II
III

Calculation:
gbar = 42 ( ) graph = 4(3.142)2(

) = ............................

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (gobs) = .......................
Standard Value (gstand) = 980
Percentage of error = |

|100 =.......................%

Precautions:
1. The centre of gravity (CG) of the bar pendulum should be found with care.
2. The knife edge should be properly tightened and keep perpendicular to the levelling
plane.
3. The angle of oscillation should be small.
4. Keep the axis of the telescope parallel to the ground so as to avoid few earlier
swings.

Conclusion:
From the above calculation the value of acceleration due to gravity g is found to be
...................................
.

Experiment No.02
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the value of wavelength of LASER source using grating.
Apparatus required:
1. Diode LASER Source
2. Grating
3. Screen
4. Scale and base
5. Holder with stand
Description:
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The emission of radiation
in optical or microwave regions is of two types :
1) Spontaneous Emission
2) Stimulated Emission
The chief advantages of using the LASER sources are :
1)These sources provide monochromatic beam of light as a result of spatial and temporal coherence.
2)The intensity of the beam is very high and it is extremely narrow and well-defined due to
stimulated emission and amplification.
Theory:
The LASER beam after passing through the grating will split into zero order ,first order and second
order beam as shown below in figure.

Let

xm : Distance between zero order spot and mth order spot (in mm)
D : Distance between screen and grating element.
(a+b) : Grating element

xm

From the above figure we can write,

Sin

From diffraction phenomena

(
Or,

Or,

(
(

)
)

Putting the values of (a+b), m , xm. & f we can calculate the value of .
Procedure:

Place the LASER source on the holder and mount on the heavy base.
Hold the grating and screen in there respective holders and bases .
Place the grating between LASER source and screen as shown in the figure.
The laser beam after passing through the grating will split into zero order, 1st order, 2nd order
beam as shown in figure.
Mark the zero order ,1st order,2nd order spots on the screen and measure distances between
them.
Measure the distance between grating and screen.
Take the same procedure for different grating (at least 4 number of grating ).
Calculate the value of for each grating and finally take the average.

Observation:
Table -1 (For determination of wavelength)
Sl.
No.

Grating
element
(a+b)

Order of
Spectrum
(m)
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(in cm)

(in cm)

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (
Standard Value (

obs)

= ................................ A0

stand)

Percentage of error = |

= ................................... A0
|100 =...................%

Sin

(in A0)

Mean
(in A0)

Precautions:
i) The apparatus should be handled with care.
ii) The ruling surface of the grating should not be touched with bare hands.
iii) The laser light should not be seen directly with naked eyes.

Conclusion:
From the above experiment the value of wavelength of laser light is found to be
................... A0.

Experiment No.03
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
Apparatus required:

Travelling microscope.
Beaker containing water
Capillary tube fitted with a stand
Needle
Magnifying glass
Thermometer

Description:
This experimental set up consists of at least three long capillary tubes of different diameter
mounted on a glass strip G by rubber band B supported by a stand as shown in figure 1
(a).The lower ends of the capillary tubes are dipped in water taken by a beaker D and placed
on an adjustable stand S2.A needle N is also fixed on the glass strip along the capillary tubes
.Its height is adjusted such that the tip of the needle head touches the surface of water.

Theory:
The working formula for surface tension of water is given by,
(

Where T :
r
:
g :
:
h :
h= h+

Surface tension of liquid

Radius of capillary tube
Acceleration due to gravity
Density of liquid
Height of water columns in capillary tube
: Effective height of water column

Procedure:
1. Clean the capillary tube with some dilute caustic soda and wash out repeatedly with
water . Dont use distilled water ,as it is generally greasy .Dry the tubes with dry air.
2. Fill the gas beaker with water and note its temperature . Place the beaker on an
adjustable stand.
3. Take at least three capillary tubes of different diameter. Mount them on the glass
strip by a rubber band and set them vertical on the beaker . Water will rise in the
capillary tubes. Fix the needle also on the glass strip parallel to the capillary tubes .
Adjust its height such that the tip of the needle just touches the surface of water.
4. Focus the travelling microscope (TM) on one of the capillary tube by removing
parallax between the cross wire and the image of the water column in the tube .Set
the horizontal cross wire tangential to the meniscus of water at M in the tube. The
meniscus of the water in the capillary tube will be inverted i.e. convex as shown in
the figure 1(b) .Note the reading by vertical scale of TM (h 1 say)
5. Move the travelling microscope along the horizontal scale and bring it in front of the
second and third tube and repeat the step (iv) to note the reading by vertical scale
of the microscope
6. Bring the travelling microscope in front of needle and lower it till the horizontal
cross wire lies symmetrically between the tip of the needle and its image at N in the
water as shown in figure 1(c).Note the reading on vertical scale of TM at N (h2 say).
(h1-h2) gives the height h of the water column in the capillary tube.
7. Take out the capillary tubes from the rubber band and find the diameter at the bore
of the tubes in two mutually perpendicular directions with the help of travelling
microscope by taking the horizontal scale of the travelling microscope.
Observation:
Density of water in t0C=......................
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 980
Least Count of the travelling microscope = ..........................

Table -1 (For determination of height h of the water column in the capillary tube )
Tube
No.

Reading in centimetres
Meniscus Base
Needle head
M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

T.S.R
(h1)=M.S.R+V.S.R

M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

T.S.R
(h2)= M.S.R+V.S.R

Height of the
water column in
the
capillary
tube
h=h1-h2
(in cm)

1
2
3

Table-2 (For determination of radius r of different capillary tube)

Tube
no.

Reading in cm for
L.H.S
M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

R.H.S
T.S.R (D1)=
M.S.R+V.S.R

M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

T.S.R (D2)=
M.S.R+V.S.R

Diff
D =
D1 D2
(in
cm)

10

Reading in cm for
Lower End
M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

Upper End
T.S.R (D3)=
M.S.R+V.S.R

M.S.R

V.S.R =
v.r L.C

T.S.R (D4)=
M.S.R+V.S.R

Diff

D =
D3 D4
(in cm)

Diam
eter=

(in
cm)

Radius
r
(in
cm)

Table-3 (For the determination of Surface Tension)

Tube No.

h (in cm)

r (in cm)

h= h+ (in cm)

Mean T (in

T=
(in

1
2
3

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (Tobs) = ..........................
Standard Value (Tstand) = ..........................
Percentage of error = |

|100 =.......................%

Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Tubes should be of uniform bore and water should rise freely into the tubes.
Tubes should be parallel to each other and vertical.
The surface of water should not be touched in hand.
The tip of the needle should just touch the water surface and not dip into it.

Conclusion:
From the above calculation the value surface tension is found to be ..........................

11

Experiment No.04
Aim of the Experiment:
To plot V-I characteristics graph of pn junction diode.
Apparatus Required:

D.C Regulated power supply 0-1.5 V D.C

D.C Regulated power supply 0-50 V D.C
P.N Junction diode
Two voltmeters (0-1.5 V) and (0-50 V) to measure forward and reverse voltage .
One millammeter (0-15 mA ) to measure forward current .
One micrometer (0- 100 A) to measure reverse current.

Theory :
Volt-ampere characteristics or V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode is the curve
between voltage across the junction and the circuit current.
Forward Biasing :

In forward biasing p-type is connected to positive

terminal and n-type is connected to negative
terminal .In forward biasing the potential barrier is
altogether eliminated and current starts flowing in
the circuit ,current increases sharply with increase
in forward voltage .The circuit diagram for forward
biasing is shown in figure 1.

Reverse Biasing :
In reverse biasing p-type is connected to
negative terminal and n-type is connected to
positive terminal .Potential barrier of the
junction is increased . Therefore the junction
resistance become very high and practically no
current flows through the circuit. However , a
very small current (of order A) flows in the
circuit with reverse bias, which is called
reverse current and is due to minority carriers.

12

If reverse voltage is increased continuously ,the kinetic energy of the electrons become high
enough to knock out the electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this stage breakdown
of the junction occurs, characterised by a sudden rise of reverse current. The circuit diagram
for reverse bias is shown in figure 2 . The V-I characteristic curve is shown below

Procedure:
1. Do the connection according to the circuit diagrams.
2. Apply different voltages to the pn junction and note the corresponding reading of
the currents.
3. For forward biasing use the milliammeter and for reverse biasing use microammeter
scale.
4. Plot a graph for applied voltage and corresponding currents for both the cases.
Observation:
No.of obs.

For Forward Biasing

VoltageVF
Current IF
(in volts)
(in mA)

For Reverse Biasing

Voltage VR
Current IR
(in volts)
(in A)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Precautions:

Connections should be made carefully.

Voltages applied should be well within the safety limit of given diode.

13

Experiment No.05
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the value of modulus of rigidity of the material of a rod by static method
using vertical pattern apparatus (Bartons apparatus) .
Apparatus required:

Bartons apparatus
Vernier callipers
Screw gauge
Slotted weights
Meter scale
Spirit level

Description:
Upper end of a long thin rod or thick wire fixed
tightly to a heavy metallic frame and lower end to a
heavy metallic cylinder. A thread leave diametrically
opposite sides of the cylinder ,tangentially passes
over two frictionless pulleys that carry two pans of
equal weights at their free ends . By placing equal
weights on the pans a couple can be applied to
produce a twist in the rod about its own axis. The
twists produced at three different points of the rod
are measured by either single or double ended
pointers which moves freely over the circular scales
graduated in degrees respectively .The pointers
along with the respective scales can be clamped at
any desired points.

Theory:
The working formula for modulus of rigidity of the material of rod is given by,
=
Where
G
l
D
r
M

14

:
:
:
:
:
:
:

( )=

) graph

modulus of rigidity of the given material of the rod

acceleration due to gravity
length of the rod between two consecutive scales
diameter of the cylinder
radius of the rod
mass suspended in the hanger
angle of twist

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the rod in two mutually perpendicular directions at several
places with the help of screw gauge, hence find mean radius (r) of the rod.
2. Find the diameter (D) of the cylinder by vernier callipers.
3. Measure the length (L) of the rod AB. Place the 1st scale at a distance of , the
2nd scale at a distance of and the third scale at a distance of from the fixed
end A of the rod ,so that the distance between any two consecutive scale is

4. Adjust the pointers for zero weight on the hanger so that they read zero on the
respective circular scales.
5. Place gently 1kg slotted weight on both the hanger. Wait for few minutes and note
down the reading of the three pointers. Let the readings be 1, 2 and 3 for the 1st,
2nd and 3rd pointer respectively.
6. Increase the load in steps of 1kg till the maximum permissible load is reached. Note
down the reading of the pointers on the scale at each step.
7. Decrease the load in the steps of 1kg till the zero load is reached .Note down the
reading of the pointers on the scales at each step. Let it be 4,5 and 6 respectively.
Find the mean of loading and unloading for each scale. Let it be 7=

,8=

,9=
. Find the difference between (8 and 7) & (9 and 8). Let them be
10 and 11 respectively. Find out the mean 10 and 11 .Let it be the angle of
twist.
8. Plot a graph taking load (M) along X-axis verses angle of twist() along Y-axis. The
nature of the graph is a straight line as shown in figure 2. Reciprocal slope of the
straight line gives (

).

Observation:
Length of the rod AB i.e. , L=...............cm
Distance of the 1st scale from fixed end A i.e. , l1= ...................cm
Distance of the 2nd scale from fixed end A i.e. , l2= ...................cm
Distance of the 3rd scale from fixed end A i.e. , l3= ...................cm
Distance between two consecutive scales

= l2 - l1 = l3 l2 =...................cm

15

Table -1 (For determination of radius r of the rod by screw gauge )

No.
of
obs

Pitch
in (P)
in cm

L.C
(in
cm)

I.C.S.R
(I)

No.
of
complete
rotation
(n)

F.C.S.R
(F)

Diff
(d)
=I F

P.S.R
=Pn
(in cm)

C.S.R=
d L.C
(in cm)

TSR=
PSR+CSR
(in cm)

Mean
diameter
(in cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Table-2 (For determination of diameter D of the cylinder by slide callipers.)

No.of
obs
1
2
3
4
5

16

L.C
(in cm)

M.S.R
(in cm)

V.C

V.S.R=
V.CL.C
(in cm)

TSR=MSR+VSR
(in cm)

Mean diameter
D (in cm)

Mean
radius
r (in
cm)

Table-3 (For determination of angle of twist by Bartons Apparatus)

No.of
obs

Load
(in gm)

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Angle of rotation(in degree)

For loading
1
2
3

Angle of rotation(in degree)

For unloading
4
5
6

7=
(in deg)

8=
(in deg)

9=
(in deg)

10=8 7
(in deg)

11=9 8
(in deg)

Angle of
twist =

Calculation:
Substituting the values of g,l,r,D and (
=

( )=

(
(

)(
) (

) in the working formula to obtain the value of modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod
)(
)

) graph = ..........................................

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (obs) = .................................................
Standard Value (stand) = .................................................
Percentage of error = |

| 100 =........................%

17

Precautions:

Both the pulley & pans should be of same height from the ground
Pulley should be frictionless.
Load should be increased or decreased gradually and gently & should never exceed
the maximum permissible limit.
As the radius of the rod occurs in forth power ,it should be measured accurately in
two mutually perpendicular directions.

Conclusion:
From the above calculation the rigidity modulus of the given material is found to be
........................
.

18

Experiment No.06
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the wavelength of the given source of light by Newtons ring apparatus.
Apparatus required:

Sodium lamp with transformer

Newtons ring apparatus fitted with travelling microscope
Convex lens
Spherometer
Magnifying glass

Description:
It consists of an optically plane glass plate and a
planoconvex lens of large radius of curvature. The
curved surface of lens is in contact with the glass
plate and both are enclosed in circular frame. Air film
of increased thickness is formed. Thickness is zero at
the point of contact and goes on increasing towards
the periphery of the lens. The thickness of the film
along a circle with the point of contact as the centre
is same. There is another optically plane glass plate
whose angle of inclination can be changed. It is kept
at 450 with the horizontal. In an optical arrangement
of Newtons ring, light from a monochromatic source
(sodium vapour lamp) is allowed to fall on a convex
lens through a broad slit which renders into a nearly
parallel beam. These beams fall on the glass plate
and reflected from the lower surface. The reflected
parallel beam is made incident on the air film
vertically. A part of the incident ray is reflected from
the top surface of the film (glass-air boundary) and goes as ray 1 without phase reversal.
The other part is reflected along the air film and incident at the plane glass plate and get
reflected and goes out as ray 2 with phase reversal of as shown in fig.3 .Ray 1 and 2
satisfies the condition of interference and produce concentric circular fringes which is
observed through travelling microscope.

19

Theory:
The central ring is dark in the experiment. This is because of the fact that ,when light is
reflected at a denser medium, a phase change of or a path change of is introduced. If R
is the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens and is the wavelength of the
light used ,then the diameter of the nth dark ring is given by
= 4nR .................................................(1)
Similarly the diameter of (n+m)th dark ring is given by
= 4(n+m)R ....................................(2)
From (1) & (2) , the wavelength of the light is given by

Where :
Dn+m :
Dn :
m :
R :

wavelength of the light source

diameter of (n+m)th ring
diameter of nth ring
number of ring
radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens in contact with glass plate

Procedure:
1. Clean the surface of glass plate and the lens with a neat and clean cloth. Place both
of them in the circular frame, so that curved surface of the lens is in contact with the
plate. Also clean the other glass plate and set it ,so that it is inclined at an angle of
450 .
2. Place the whole arrangement near a sodium lamp and adjust the slit of the lamp , so
that the slit and the centre of the plate are at same height.
3. Insert a convex lens in between slit and the plate so that slit is at the focus of the
lens and parallel rays are incident on the plate and see that the rays after reflection
fall normally on the lens surface.
4. Find pitch and least count of the travelling microscope. If needed , level the
microscope . Set the microscope tube in vertical position and adjust the position of
20

microscope so that point of contact of the lens and plate is just below the centre of
the objective of the microscope.
5. Focus the microscope, so that alternate dark and bright rings are clearly visible.
Slightly move the lens to bring the centre of the fringes to come in view. (Newtons
rings would be visible at the centre of the lens even to the naked eye. )
6. Adjust the position of the microscope, till the point of intersection of the cross wires
lies at the centre of the ring system and one of the cross wires is at right angle to the
horizontal scale
7. Slide the microscope with the help of fine adjustment screw to one side, say left, till
the crosswire lies tangentially at the centre, to a certain dark ring (say 20 th). Note the
reading of the microscope.
8. Slide the microscope backward with the slow motion screw and take readings, when
the cross wire lies tangentially at the centre to 30th, 29th ,28th, 27th,.............rings and
go upto 1st ring. Note the reading of microscope at each stage.
9. Keep on sliding the microscope in the same direction, till cross wire lies tangentially
at the centre of the 1st ring on the right side. Note the microscope reading. Continue
moving the microscope and take readings of continuously upto 30 th ring.
10. Record the observations in tabular form. The difference between reading of
microscope for a particular order from left hand (A) and right hand gives the
diameter of all the rings. Knowing the diameters calculate their squares.
11. Find the radius of curvature (R) of the
curved surface of the lens in contact
with the glass plate with the help of
spherometer.
12. Plot a graph by taking order of the ring
(n) along X-axis and (Diameter)2 along
Y-axis. The slope of the curve will give
.

Observation:
Radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano convex lens = ............cm
Pitch = ...................................
L.C = ..................................

21

Table -1 (For determination of diameter of the ring )

Sl.no

Ring
no.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

n+20

I.C.S.R
(I)

N.C.R

F.C.S.R
(F)

P.S.R =
( NCR
Pitch )
(in cm)

Difference
(I~F)

C.S.R =
(I~F)L.C
(in cm)

Total =
P.S.R
+C.S.R
(in cm)

Mean
d2
(in cm2)

n+18
n+16
n+14
n+12
n+10
n+8
n+6
n+4
n+2

Calculation:
Putting the value of
from the graph and R in the working formula can be
calculated by using the formula
= (

( )

= ............................... A0

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (obs) = ....................... A0
Standard Value (stand) = ...................... A0
Percentage of error = |

| 100 =.......................%

Precautions:
1. The lens and the glass plate should be thoroughly cleaned. The lens should have
large radius of curvature.
2. The glass plate should be inclined at an angle of 45 0 so that light is incident normally
on the plano-convex lens.
3. The point of intersection of the cross wires should always be placed tangentially to
the rings.
4. The microscope should should always be moved in the same direction to avoid error
due to backlash error.
5. The radius of curvature and diameter of the ring should be measured accurately.
Conclusion:
From the above experiment the value of is found to be ........................... A0.
22

Experiment No.07
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of a given wire by Searles method.
Apparatus required:

Searles apparatus
Long wires(two of equal lengths) of given materials
Screw gauge
Meter scale
Half kilogram slotted weights and
Hanger

Description:
It consists of two metallic frames held together
by parallel bars . The metallic frames are
suspended from a rigid support with the help of
two identical wires of same material ,length and
diameter. One wire is experimental wire (test
wire) and the other is compensating wire
(control wire) . The compensating wire carries a
constant weight to keep the wire stretched or
kinks free. The experimental wire carries a
hanger with dead load in which slotted weights
can be put to produce extension .The frame
carries a spirit level one of which is tightly fixed
in one frame and other end rests on the tip of
the micrometer screw attached to the other frame . Micrometer screw is adjusted so that
the bubble of the spirit level stands exactly at the centre of two marks (horizontal position).
On applying load, the experimental wire is elongated , one of the frame gets lowered and
the bubble of the spirit level gets disturbed (move towards up i.e towards compensating
wire).The micrometer screw is raised by rotation to bring the bubble of spirit level back to
original position. The amount of rotation of the micrometer screw gives the amount of the
elongation of the wire.
Theory:
The working formula for determination of Youngs modulus Y of the wire by Searles
method is given by,
( )

Where L : original length of the wire

g : acceleration due to gravity
d : diameter of the given wire
M : Load applied on the hanger
: elongation produced in the experimental wire
23

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the experimental wire by the help of a screw gauge at various
positions(at last five different places) of the wire. Measure the diameter in two directions at
right angle to each other at each position of the wire .Determine the mean value of the
2.

3.

4.

5.

diameter d and hence the cross sectional area =

.
Determine the breaking load of the given wire by multiplying the cross-sectional area with
the breaking stress (supplied) of the material of the wire.
(The limiting load put on the hanger should always be kept below half of this breaking load
during the experiment. )
Measure the length of the wire between the upper fixed end & lower fixed end of the
experimental wire, thrice by a meter scale & calculate the mean of the three values which
gives the length L of the wire.
Put the limiting load on the hanger for few minutes to keep the wire taut. Remove greater
part of the limiting load from the hanger , leaving a certain portion known as dead load
which is sufficient to keep the wire free from any kink.
Bring the bubble of the spirit level to the centre by rotating the micrometer screw in one
direction (anti cock wise when loading and clock wise when unloading).Take the circular
scale reading which is the initial circular scale reading (R1) or circular scale reading at the
beginning of the step.

6. Add identical load (

) and wait for a few minutes, then see the position of the bubble .
Repeat the procedure to bring the bubble to the centre. Take the circular scale reading
which is the final circular scale reading (R2) or circular scale reading at the end of the step.
7. Repeat the procedure (5) & (6) for load of 1kg, 1.5kg, 2kg etc. It should be noted that initial
reading of any observation is same as the final reading of its previous observation.
8. Unload the experimental wire by same steps as before and repeat the procedure (5),(6) &(7)
at each step until it comes to zero.
9. Calculate the total number of circular scale division (x1 or x2) rotated for each step i.e. the
difference of R1 or R2 .
For loading difference

For unloading difference

x 1 = R 2 - R1

if R2 > R1

= (100 + R2) R1

if R2 < R1

x 2 = R 1 R2

if R1 > R2

= (100 + R1) R2

if R1 < R2

10. Take the mean difference i.e. x = (x1 + x2) for each step . Multiply the mean difference (x)
with least count (LC) which gives mean elongation of that step.
11. Determine total elongation for each additional load by adding the mean elongation for each
step.
12. Plot a graph by taking load (M) along X-axis and total elongation ( ) along Y-axis. The nature
of the graph is a straight line. Determine the slope of the curve, i.e (

load
24

).

Observation:
Length of the wire L = ..................cm.
Pitch of the screw gauge = ................cm.
Least count of the screw gauge = ..............cm.
Least count of the micrometer screw =....................cm.

Table -1 (For determination of diameter of the wire by screw gauge)

No.
of
obs
1
2
3
4
5

I.C.S.R
(I)

N.C.R

F.C.S.R
(F)

P.S.R =
(NCR Pitch)
(in cm)

Difference
(I~F)

C.S.R =
(I~F)L.C
(in cm)

Total =
P.S.R +C.S.R
(in cm)

Mean d
(in cm)

Table -2 (For determination of elongation of wire)

Load Increasing
No. of
obs.

Load
(in
gram)

1
2
3
4
5
6

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500

R1

R2

Diff.
= x1 x2

Load decreasing
R1

R2

Diff.
= x1 x2

Mean
elongation
x= (x1+ x2)
L.C
(in cm)
a=
b=
c=
d=
e=
f=

Total
elongation
l (in cm)

a
a+b
a+b+c
a+b+c+d
a+b+c+d+e
a+b+c+d+e
+f

Calculation:
Putting the value of ( ) from the graph and L & d ,the value of Youngs modulus Y can
be calculated by using the formula

= ........................

25

Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (Yobs) = .......................
Standard Value (Ystand) = ........................
Percentage of error = |

|100 =.......................%

Precautions:
1. Remove the kinks in the wire as much as possible by adding suitable dead load.
2. The diameter of the wire should determined at several places.
3. Dont load the wire beyond the maximum permissible load selected form
breaking load data.
4. Micrometer screw should be rotated only in one direction in order to avoid back
lash error, while loading and unloading.
5. In all cases both for loading and unloading wait for a couple of minutes before
noting the reading of the micrometer.
6. The wire should be loaded or unloaded gently.
7. If the bubble of the spirit level is not exactly touching the two marks then any
one side of the bubble should touch the mark tangentially and this has to be
taken as reference through out the experiment.

Conclusion:
From the above experiment the value of Y is found to be .............................

26

Experiment No.08
Aim of the Experiment:
To plot the input and output characteristic curves for a bipolar junction transistor (B.J.T).
Apparatus required:

A transistor mounted on a board with three terminals marked e (emitter), b (base) & c
(collector).
Two voltmeters of range (0-1 V) & (0-10 V) respectively.
A micro ammeter(0-200 A )
A milli ammeter (0-10 mA)

Description :

The whole circuit diagram shown above may be divided into two parts :(i) emitter-base circuit or input circuit.
(ii) emitter- collector circuit or output circuit.
The emitter supplies the majority charge carriers for transistor current flow. The collector
collect the current for circuit operation and the base controls the passage of current from
the emitter to the collector. The input circuit is forward bias and the output circuit is reverse
biased.
Theory:
The emitter which is connected to positive terminal injects positive holes into n-type base
region and these holes are drawn through the base region towards the collector by the
negative field of the later. A few holes neutralize with electrons in the electron rich base
layer. But the base layer is extremely thin and majorities of holes diffuse to the collector
region and as a result collector current is increased. From the observations of variation in
voltage and current, input and output characteristics can be studied. Input characteristics
curves are plotted between base-emitter voltage (VBE) & base current (IB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). Output characteristics curves are plotted between collectoremitter voltage (VCE) & collector current ( Ic ) at constant base current ( IB ).

27

Procedure:
Make the circuit connections according to the circuit diagram in case of a PNP
transistor.

For input characteristics keep VCE constant at a particular value say 2 volt. Note VBE &
IB increase VBE ,in steps of 1 volt and note the corresponding values of IB in A . Plot
a graph between VBE & IB at constant VCE.

Repeat the above step for other values of VCE say 2V, 4V, 6V to get family of input
characteristics curves.

For output characteristics keep IB constant at a particular value say 20 A. Note VCE
& IC .Increase VCE in steps of 0.5 V and note the corresponding values of IC in mA. Plot
a graph between VCE ~ IC at constant IB.

Repeat the above step for other values of IB say 40, 60, 80 A to get family of output
characteristic curves as shown below.

Observation:
Table -1 (For Input characteristics)
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

28

VCE = 0 volt
VBE (V)
IB ( A)

VCE = 2 volt
VBE (V)
IB ( A)

VCE = 4 volt
VBE (V)
IB ( A)

VCE = 6 volt
VBE (V)
IB ( A)

Table -2 (For Output characteristics )

Sl. No

IB = 20 A
VCE (V)
IC ( mA)

IB = 40 A
VCE (V)
IC ( mA)

IB = 60 A
VCE (V)
IC ( mA)

IB = 80 A
VCE (V)
IC ( mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Precautions:

Care should be taken that collector voltage should remain constant during the
particular set of readings.

Do not exceed the ratings for the currents to protect the transistor from damage.

29

Experiment No.09
Aim of the Experiment:
To determine the grating element of a plane diffraction grating.
Apparatus required:

Spectrometer
Prism
Spirit level
Plane diffraction grating
Sodium vapour lamp

Description:
(A) Spectrometer: A spectrometer consists mainly of the following three parts
1. Collimator 2. Prism table & 3. Telescope
1. Collimator
This is a horizontal tube at one end of which there is a convex lens while at the other end
there is an adjustable narrow slit which can be taken in or out of the tube by rack and pinion
arrangement. The axis of the collimator should be horizontal and perpendicular to the
vertical axis about which the prism table can rotate. The collimator can be tilted by screws
below it.
2. Prism Table
It is a small circular table mounted on a vertical stand so that it can be raised or lowered
or can be clamped at any position by the screws. It is provided with three levelling screws.
On the surface of the table there are straight lines marked parallel and perpendicular to the
line joining screws. There are also concentric circles, the common centre of which coincides
with the centre of the table. The table can be rotated about a vertical axis of the instrument.
The angle of rotation of the prism table can be recorded by two verniers V 1 & V2 which can
rotate with the table over a circular scale (usually graduated in half degrees). The table can
be fixed by a screw and a smaller rotation can be imparted to it by a tangent screw.
3. Telescope
It is a small astronomical telescope provided with a compound eye-piece and a crosswire. The axis of the telescope should also be horizontal and perpendicular to the vertical
axis of rotation of the prism table. It can be rotated about the vertical axis of the instrument
and the angle of rotation can be recorded with the help of two verniers V1 & V2 from scale
(usually graduated in half degrees) which moves with the rotation of the telescope. For
recording the readings of the scale, these two verniers are kept at 180 0 apart. The telescope
can also be tilted by screws. The whole apparatus is supported on a base, provided with
three levelling screws. The telescope can be fixed by a screw while a slow motion can be
imparted by a tangent screw.

30

(B) Grating : A diffraction grating is an arrangement

which is equivalent in its action to a number of parallel
and equidistant slits of same width. The transmission
gratings are fabricated of a transparent solid
material.The parallel rulings are inscribed on the
surface with the help of a diamond scriber. The rulings
made by the scriber have a rough surface which
scatters the incident ray hence opaque to light. The
intervals between the rulings remain transparent and
play the part of slits. The width of transparent part a
and width of the ruling i.e. rough surface is b the
(a+b) is called grating element. The number of lines
ruled per cm N is given by (
).

Theory:
When a parallel beam of light monochromatic light of wavelength is incident normally on a
grating ,the light after diffraction gives rise to principal maxima in certain directions given by
(

Where a : width of the transparent part

b : width of the ruling surface
(a+b) : grating element
n : angle of diffraction for the nth order maxima
If 1 and 2 be the angles of diffraction in the first and the second order spectra
respectively, then
(

31

Procedure:
A. Spectrometer Adjustment:
1. Make the base of the spectrometer horizontal by adjusting the levelling
screws provided with the base using spirit level.
2. Adjust the eye-piece of the telescope until the cross-wires are clearly
focussed. Direct the telescope to a distant object and focus thee telescope
until the object is seen without parallax.
3. Illuminate the slit of the collimator with sodium light. Turn the telescope to
keep its axis in, line with the axis of the collimator. Seeing through the
telescope adjust the distance of the slit from the collimating lens until sharp
images of the illuminated slit is observed. By rotating the screw decrease the
width of the slit to get a well defined narrow illuminated line.
4. Keep the spirit level on the prism table parallel to the line joining the two
levelling screws and adjust until the air bubble of the spirit level comes to the
centre. Then turn the spirit level perpendicular to this position and adjust the
third screw to bring the air bubble at the centre.
5. Rotate the telescope until its axis makes an angle of about 1200 with the axis
of the collimator. Place a spectrometer prism having no ground surface at the
centre of the prism table. By rotating the prism table images of the slit
formed by partial reflection at the two faces of the prism can be seen
through the telescope. Adjust the levelling screws of the prism table such
that, the image formed by each face of the prism is at the centre of the field
of view of the telescope band extends equally to the upper and lower part
and remains vertical. After optical levelling is completed the spectrometer is
ready for doing experiment.
B. Grating Adjustment:
1. Bring the telescope in line with the collimator to have image of the slit on
the vertical crosswire. If necessary, clamp the telescope and give it slow
motion for finer adjustment.
2. Take the reading on the scale. Read both the verniers. Call these readings
and 1 respectively.
3. Fix the given grating on the turn table. Now turn the telescope from its
initial position through exactly 900, so that the new readings are +900 and
1+900. Clamp the telescope. This now ensure that the collimator and the
telescope tubes are at right angles to each other.
4. Rotate the prism table carrying the grating in such way that the image of the
slit after reflection at its surface falls on the telescope. Rotating he prism
table very slowly, the reflected image is made to coincide exactly with the
vertical cross wire. In this position, the angle of incidence of light on the
grating is 450.The reading of the position of the prism table is noted down.
5. Rotate the prism table from the above position through 45 0 more so that
the grating plane becomes normal to the direction of light. The prism table
is locked in this position. This is the normal incidence position.
6. Turn the telescope to catch the 1st order spectrum and see that again the
image comes symmetrically on the intersection of the cross wire. If it is not
32

so, adjust one of the levelling screws at right angles to the grating to achieve
this.
C. Measurement of 2:
1. Substitute the source of light, the wavelength of which is to be determined.
See that except for the telescope, all other screws are properly clamped.
2. Adjust the telescope on the first order spectrum of right hand side (RHS).
Clamp it, and by fine adjustment screw bring the intersection of the cross
wire exactly in the middle of the spectrum line.
3. Note the readings (MSR, VC) on both the verniers V 1 and V2. Normally the
difference in their readings would be approximately 1800.
4. Now turn the telescope to catch the first order spectrum of the same line on
the left hand side (LHS), and take readings (MSR, VC) of the two verniers V 1
and V2.
5. The diff between two readings of
the same verniers i.e. , (V1~V1 ) &
(V2~V2) gives double the angle of
diffraction 2x and 2y which gives
21, hence we can calculate 1.
6. Determine the grating element by
substituting the value of and 1 in
the working formula.
7. Repeat the above procedure for the
second order spectra and calculate
2. Finally calculate the mean of the
grating element.

Observation:
Wave length of the given monochromatic source of light i.e. sodium light = 5893A 0
Least count of the spectrometer =........................

33

Table -1 (For determination of angle of diffraction)

Order of
RHS reading in degree, minute & second
the
V1
V2
spectrum M.S.R V.S.R T.S.R M.S.R V.S.R T.S.R
(a)
(b)

LHS reading in degree, minute & second

V1
V 2
M.S.R V.S.R T.S.R M.S.R V.S.R T.S.R
(c)
(d)

Calculation:
The grating element of the given plane diffraction grating = .........................................cm
Percentage of Error:
Observed Value (a+b)obs = ......................
Standard Value (a+b)stand = .....................
(

Percentage of error = |

34

)
(

(
)

| 100 =.......................%

2x = 2y =
a-c
b-d
(in
(in
deg) deg)

2 =
(in deg)

(in
deg)

(a+b)
in cm

Precautions:

The optical adjustment of the spectrometer and the grating must be done correctly.
The collimator slit must be strongly illuminated by the source. The slit should be as
narrow as possible.
Remember that while recording your observations, you do not make any confusion
in noting readings of V1 and V2 & V1 and V2.
The grating surface must be normal to the incident rays.
The grating is so adjusted that its ruled surface faces the telescope. Hold the grating
at its side. Do not touch the face of the grating , otherwise it will get damaged.

Conclusion:
From the above experiment the value of grating element of the supplied grating is found to
be ..............................cm.

35

Experiment No.10
Aim of the Experiment:
To verify the laws of transverse vibration of stretched string by using a sonometer .
Apparatus required:

Sonometer
Tuning forks
Rubber hammer
Wires
A hanger
Half kilogram weights
Wooden blocks
Wedges

Description:
A Sonometer consists of a
hollow wooden box about
one metre with bridges A
and B fixed at two ends on
the top surface .A uniform
wire is stretched over the
two bridges, one end of the
wire being fixed to the nail at one end of the box. The other passes over a smooth pulley
and carries a weight hanger on which weights are placed. M and N are two movable bridges
in between the fixed bridges A and B. By changing their position , the length of the vibrating
segment of the wire can be altered.

Theory:

When a string fixed at two points cm apart and stretched with a tension
vibrate , the frequency of vibrations , n is given by

n=
Where

dynes, is set to

is the mass of unit length of the string in gm per cm. Here a thin wire is taken as a string.

The laws of transverse vibration of string are contained in the above expression. The frequency is
i) inversely proportional to the length

of the vibrating segment ,if

ii) directly proportional to the square root of the tension , if

iii) inversely proportional to the square root of
36

, if

and

and

are constant

and are constant.

are constant.

Procedure:
1. To verify the law of length:

Place two sharp wedges under the wire of the sonometer . Load the hanger with a
load of about 2 kilogram including hanger .See that the wire is properly stretched
between the wedges and touches both of them. Wooden blocks may be placed
under the wedges if necessary. See that there are no kinks in the wire.
Bring two wedges close to each other. Cut a piece of paper (rider) about 2 cm long
and about 2mm wide. Fold it into V shape .Place this paper on the wire between
wedges.
Take the tuning fork of the frequency provided. Strike gently at the end of one its
prongs with a rubber hammer to set it into vibrations. Press the stem against the
sonometer board keeping the tuning fork vertical .At the same time move one of the
wedges outwards very slowly till the rider ,kept always on the wire ,midway
between the wedges begins flutter. Strike the tuning fork again and again during
this adjustment and press against the board to keep it vibrating. At a certain fixed
distance between the wedges the rider flies off .The wire now vibrates in resonance
with the frequency of the tuning fork.
Measure the length of the wire between the wedges by a metre rod .Increase the
distance between the wedges by a few centimetres . Again adjust the apparatus to
repeat the procedure with another tuning fork.
Keeping the tension fixed find the length of the wire which vibrates in resonance
with each of the three tuning forks.

2. To verify the law of tension:

Take a load of 2 kg including hanger. Obtain the length of the wire which vibrates in
resonance with one of the tuning forks as done while verifying law of length.
Increase the load by 500 grams and repeat the experiment with the same tuning
fork. Similarly repeat the experiment with three different loads.
It is not possible to find directly the frequency with which the same length of wire
will vibrate under different loads. If 1 and 2 are the lengths of the wire vibrating
with the same frequency n1 under the loads T1 and T2 respectively ,then the
frequency of sound n2 produced by same length 1 under the load T2 can be
calculated by using the law of length as
n1

= n2

or,

37

Observation:
Table -1 (For verification of law of length)
Sl.no

Frequency
(n)
(in hertz)

Distance between wedges (in cm)

increasing

decreasing

mean

1
2
3
Table -2 (For verification of law of tension)
Frequency of the tuning fork n1 =.........................Hz
Sl.no

Tension
(in Newton)
w9.8

Length of the wire giving frequency n1

(in metres)
increasing
decreasing
mean

Calculated
frequency
for a length

1
2
3

Precautions:

The wire should be of a uniform area of cross section, free from kinks and should be
tight.
The tuning fork should be pressed gently on the sonometer board.
The weight of the hanger should always be included in the load.
The pulley should be free from friction.

Conclusion:
From the above experiment the laws of transverse vibrations for a stretched string are
verified.

38