Pageiii

AllGod'sChildren
ABiblicalCritiqueofRacism
StevenL.McKenzie

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1997StevenL.McKenzie
Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyany
informationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
Forinformation,addressWestminsterJohnKnoxPress,100WitherspoonStreet,Louisville,Kentucky402021396
QuotationsfromtheBible,unlessotherwisenoted,aretheauthor'sowntranslation.
BookdesignbyJenniferK.Cox
CoverdesignbyKevinDarst
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Firstedition
PublishedbyWestminsterJohnKnoxPress
Louisville,Kentucky
ThisbookisprintedonacidfreepaperthatmeetstheAmericanNationalStandardsInstituteZ39.48standard.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
9899000102030405061098765432
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
McKenzie,StevenL.,date.
AllGod'schildren:abiblicalcritiqueofracism/StevenL.
McKenzie.1sted.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN0664256953(alk.paper)
1.EthnologyintheBible.2.RacismReligiousaspects
Christianity.3.RacismBiblicalteaching.I.Title.
BS661.M441997
220.8'3058dc219645164

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CONTENTS
vii

Preface
PartOne.Beginnings

1."IntheImageofGod"Genesis111

2."AlltheFamiliesoftheEarth"ElectionandBlessinginGenesis1226
PartTwo.TheNatureofIsrael

12

3."YouMustUtterlyDestroyThem"HolyWarinDeuteronomyandthe
DeuteronomisticHistory

23

4."AMixedCrowd"TheEthnicDiversityofAncientIsrael

31

5."YourPeopleWillBeMyPeople"TheStoryofRuth

40

PartThree.WhoAreGod'sPeople?

6."YouShallHaveNoPartwithUs"MixedMarriagesinEzraNehemiah

53

7."TheEarThatHearsandtheEyeThatSees"TheNonIsraeliteOriginsof
WisdominIsrael

60

Pagevi

8."IKnewThatYouAreaMercifulGod"TheBookofJonah

69

9."HimShalltheNationsSeek"Isaiah'sVisionofUniversalHarmonyandOther
PropheticTexts

76

PartFour.ChristandtheChurch

10."TheSpiritoftheLordIsuponMe"TheMissionofJesusintheGospelof
Luke

87

11."NothingCommonorUnclean"GrowingPainsoftheEarlyChurchinthe
BookofActs

98

PartFive.TheMandatetoIntegrate

12."ThatTheyMayAllBeOne"UnityandFellowshipintheWritingsofJohn

113

13."ManyMembers,yetOneBody"UnityinDiversityintheWritingsofPaul

121

Notes

133

ForFurtherStudy

135

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PREFACE

RacisminAmerica
AphotographinNewsweekmagazinetheweektheO.J.Simpsoncriminaltrialended(Oct.16,1995,pp.2627)saiditall.Itwasagroupofcollegestudentsatthe
momenttheverdictwasannounced.Everyblackfacewasjubilanteverywhiteone,dumbfounded.Thegreatlegacyofthattrialisthatitbroughthometowhite
Americanstheracialdivisionthatdominatesoursociety.TherehadbeensignsofitinpreviousnewsitemstheRodneyKingbeatingandtrial,forexample.Andthe
evidenceofdivisionisallaroundus.Jobs,neighborhoods,schools,andchurchesaredividedtooalongraciallines.AfricanAmericanshadlongbeenawarethatrace
profoundlyaffectsthiscountry'slegalandcivicinstitutions.O.J.vindicatedtheirawarenessbyconvincingwhitepeoplethatthisisso.
MostwhiteAmericanshaveassumedthatracismintheUnitedStateswasessentiallyathingofthepast,thatithadbeenlegislatedaway,sothattruetothecivilrights
songofthesixties,wehadindeedovercome.Ofcourse,theyadmittedtherewereisolatedpocketswhereracismstillexisted.WhenImovedtoMemphisin1983,I
immediatelybecameawarethatitcontainedmorethanitsshareofthesepockets.Butthiswastobeexpected,sinceMemphisisintheSouth.TheO.J.trial,however,
explodedthemyththatracisminAmericaisconfinedtotheSouth.Andthetruthisthathistrialisonlythemostpublicexampleoftheracismandracialdivisionthat
existnationwide.

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RacismandtheBible
RaceperseisamodernconceptandthereforenotanissueintheBible.Nonetheless,theBiblehasfrequentlybeenusedinthepastandcontinuestobeusedinthe
presenttolegitimateracistideasandpractices.BeforeandduringtheCivilWar,SouthernclergymencommonlycitedtheBiblenotonlyinsupportofslaverybutalso
toadvocateblackinferiority.ThefocaltextfortheirsermonswasGenesis9,whichistreatedhereinchapter1.IfthisinterpretationoftheBiblehaddiedwiththat
generation,itwouldnolongermatter.Butasthestoryatthebeginningofchapter1shows,thissameinterpretationcontinuestoexerciseaperverseinfluencetoday,
overonehundredyearslater.
ThecontinuinguseoftheBibleindefenseofracismcallsforacarefulandreasonedanalysisofitstext.Suchscholarlybiblicalanalysesareavailable,buttheytendto
concentrateontechnicalmattersofhistory,language,andcompositionandtoignoremodernissuessuchasracism.Thistendencyisquiteunderstandable,giventhe
abusetowhichtheBibleissooftensubjectedintheserviceofallkindsofmoderncontroversies.Butmybeliefandcontentioninthisbookisthatcarefulstudyofthe
BibleincontextisolatesatheologicalcurrentthatpresentsGod'splanforhumanityasacallforunityamongallpeopleandthat,therefore,forcefullycountersracism.
Thereare,tobesure,examplesofnationalismandethnicismintheBiblethataretheequivalentofracism.Itisimportanttobehonestinpointingtheseoutand,without
tryingtominimizethem,tounderstandthemalsoincontext.Nonetheless,thereisadistinctivestrainintheBibleasawholethatcountersthesenarrowperspectivesina
powerfulway.

TheNatureofThisBook
TheimpulseforthisbookarosewhenKenSehested,directoroftheBaptistPeaceFellowshipofNorthAmerica,commissionedmetoreviewashortpamphletof
reflectionsonracismandtheBiblethattheBPFNAwasconsideringforpublication.MycritiqueconfirmedKen'ssuspicionsthatthereflections,whilecertainlywell
intentioned,containedserioushistoricalandgeographicalerrors.Atthesametime,thepamphletand

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myconversationswithKenshowedthattherewasclear,andindeeddesperate,needforadetailedbookonthetopic.
Thisbookwillnot,ofcourse,makeracismdisappear.Itisacomplexsocialproblem,onethatistooingrainedinmodernculturetoberesolvedby"throwingtheBible"
atit.Thisbookisintended,rather,asaresourcetoprovokethoughtanddiscussionaboutracismwithinreligiouscommunities.ItnotonlycountersclaimsthattheBible
supportsracismbutalsotriestoshowhowimportantinterracialunityisintheBible'sdescriptionofGod'swillforhumanity.Ihopethatthecasepresentedherewillin
turnleadreaderstoundertakeconcreteactiontointegrateandunifytheircommunities.
Likeanyauthor,Iwriteoutofthelimitationsofmyknowledgeandexperience,andIbegthereadertoconsiderthoselimitationsinevaluatingthisbook.Iamawhite
manwhocannotpretendtosharetheperspectivesofminoritiesorwomen.Myapproachisnot"ideologicalcritical,"whichwouldentailreadingfromamodern,
deliberatelyideologicalstance,suchasthatofanAfricanAmericanorafeministcritic.Rather,Iattempttointerpretthebiblicalstoriesintheirhistorical,cultural,and
literarycontextasproductsofancientIsrael.ItismycontentionthatfromwithinthatcontextthetheologyoftheBiblespeaksforcefullytothemodernproblemof
racism.MyareaofexpertiseistheHebrewBible,soIhopemyNewTestamentcolleagueswillpardonanytreatmentsofmaterialsinthatareathatremainfacile,
despitemyeffortstoconsultexperts.IamconvincedofthevalueofinterpretingtheHebrewBibleinitsowncontextapartfromlaterChristianuse,andIbelievethe
HebrewBibleonitsownmakessomeimportanttheologicalstatementsrelatingtoracism.Atthesametime,thisbookisdesignedspecificallyforaChristianlay
audience,andIwritefrommyChristianbackground.Hence,IasktheindulgenceofmyJewishcolleaguesforusingtheterm"OldTestament"throughoutandfor
sometimesdealingwithspecificallyChristianuseandinterpretationofHebrewScripture.Finally,thestoriesatthebeginningsofeachchapterrelatespecificallytothe
blackcivilrightsmovementintheUnitedStates.Thisisnotmeanttoimplythatotherformsofracismdonotexistinthiscountry,thatminoritiesotherthanAfrican
Americanshavenotbeenoppressed,orthatracismislimitedtotheUnitedStates.Itissimplythatblackwhiteracismisthemostobviousandpersistent

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andthecivilrightsmovementthemostcurrentsocialupheavalagainstit.Thebiblicalprinciplesdiscussedinthisbookapplytoracisminanyform.

Acknowledgments
InadditiontoKenSehested,severalindividualshaveservedas"soundingboards"forthediscussionsinthisvolume,andIamgratefultoeachoneofthem.Ithank
WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,especiallyJonBerquist,forseeingthepotentialoftheideaandfortheirencouragement.Mysecretary,KarenWinterton,madethe
suggestiontoincludeanecdotesatthebeginningofeachchaptertoimprovethebook'sreadabilityandprovideaspringboardforsharingexperienceswithindiscussion
groups.AlongwithpersonalexperiencesandstoriesIhaveheardaboutMemphisduringmyyearshere,thebookVoicesofFreedomwasawonderfulsourcefor
storiesfromthecivilrightsmovement.1 SteveHaynesandSusanSullivan,mycolleaguesatRhodesCollege,havebeenmyowndiscussionpartnersonthistopic.
StevehasbeenaconstantsourceofinformationonthehistoryofinterpretationoftheBible,particularlyofGenesis9.Susancontributed,fromherexpertise,thesketch
ofIdaB.Wells'scareeratthebeginningofchapter4.
Ioweagreatdealtomyfamilyespeciallyinthiscasetomyparents,whotaughtmeearlythatracismiswrong.Inthisspirit,Idedicatethisvolumetotwochurches
thatinmyexperiencehaveshownthemselvesdedicatedtofullracialintegrationandaremakingseriouseffortstowardthatend:RiversideChurchofChristin
Albuquerque,NewMexico,andPrescottMemorialBaptistChurchinMemphis,Tennessee.
STEVENL.MCKENZIE
Christmas1995

Page1

PARTONE
BEGINNINGS

Page3

1
''IntheImageofGod":
Genesis111
IshallneverforgetthesessionofacourseIwasteachingonthebookofGenesisseveralyearsagothattreatedthestoryfromGenesis9onthesocalledcurseof
Ham.Thispassage,orratherinterpretationsofit,providedthehistoricalandtheologicalbasisamongsouthernChristianspriortotheCivilWarforlegitimatingblack
slavery.Atthetime,Iassumedthatsuchinterpretationswereartifactsofthedistantpast.Moststudentswereunfamiliarwiththem,soIfirsthadtoexplainhowthetext
hadbeenusedbeforeIcouldshowhowsuchusesweremisinterpretations.Thatday,though,theinsidioustragedyofpastmisinterpretationwasbroughthometome.
Oneofthestudentsintheclass,anAfricanAmerican,cameupafterwardtothankme.AsaboyhehadlistenedtohisgrandmotherreadingtheBibletohim.Hevividly
recalledthatwhenshecametothisstorysheexplainedthatblackpeoplewerethedescendantsofHam,whowerecursedbythepassagetobeslavestotheirwhite
brothers.Theirsufferingsasarace,shesaid,werewilledbyGod,afatedresultoftheirbeingbornblack.Thiswasnotanunderstandingshehadreachedonherown
butoneshehadbeentaughtasthedaughterofslavesbytheirwhitemaster.Thestudenthadinheritedhisgrandmother'slovefortheBible,butwasdisillusionedbya
faiththataffirmedtheinnateinferiorityofanentireracehisraceasthewillofGodandthatsanctionedtheiroppression.Theclass,hesaid,hadrestoredhistrustin
theBibleasasourceofcomfortandinspirationratherthanofoppression.
IhavesincebecomeawarethattheabuseofthispassageforracialoppressionisnotnearlysodefunctasIsupposeditto

Page4

be.TheracistcharacterplayedbyTomBerengerinthemovieBetrayed(UnitedArtists,1988)realisticallycitesGenesis9indefenseofhisviolentactsagainstblacks.
Ihaveheardawhitesupremacistpreacherontelevisiontrytogivethisinterpretationlegitimacybycouchingitintheguiseofareasonedexplicationofthetext.Ihave
evendiscoveredastudyBible(Dake'sAnnotated),stillbeingpublishedinGeorgia,thatoffersthisracistexplanationasthemeaningofGenesis9.Itisinthehopeof
counteringsuchinterpretationsthatIoffertheexaminationofGenesis19thatcomprisesthischapter.ThestudentwhosestoryIhaverecountedisitsinspiration.
Creation
RaceisnotanissueintheBibleinthewayitisinmodernsociety.TheBible'sstoriesofcreationdonotdistinguishdifferentracesaswemightexpectandasacreation
storywrittentodaymightdo.ThisisparticularlystrikingwhenoneconsidersthenatureoftheBible'screationaccounts,especiallytheoneinGenesis23.
ThefirstthreechaptersoftheBiblearewidelyunderstoodbyscholarstocontaintwooriginallyseparatestoriesofcreation.Thedistinctionbetweenthetwois
apparentintheirrespectiveordersofcreation.Genesis1describeshowGodcreatedtheworldinsixdays.Itcouldalmostbecalledalist,withaspecificitemor
categoryofitemsbeingmadeoneachday:
Day1

light

Day2

skyandseas

Day3

drylandandvegetation

Day4

sun,moon,andstars

Day5

birdsandfish

Day6

landanimalsandpeople

Theaccountextendsintochapter2,wherethefirstthreeversescompletethefirstweekbytellinghowGodrestedontheseventhdayandtherebyordainedthe
Sabbathasadayofrestandworship.
Anewcreationstorybeginsin2:4bandcontinuesthroughchapter3.Itsnatureandorderareverydifferentfromthoseofthefirstchapter.Itis,firstofall,anarrative
ratherthanalist.

Page5

Ithascharacters(Yahweh2 God,Adam,Eve,andtheserpent),aplot,andcharacterdevelopment.Itslanguageandorderarealsoquitedifferent.Inthisstory,
YahwehGodfirstformsamanfromtheground(2:7)andplaceshiminthenewlyplantedGardenofEden(2:8),whichstandsaloneinaworldthatisessentiallya
barrenwasteland(2:56).Next,YahwehGodsetsouttofindasuitablecompanionfortheman(2:18)andformstheanimalsoutoftheground.Butnoanimalisfound
tobe"likehim"or"correspondingtohim"(2:18,20).Takingoneoftheman'sribs(2:21)ensuresthatthenewcreaturewillbeanappropriatematch.Withtherib
YahwehGod"builds"awoman(2:22).Theman'swordsuponseeinghermakeitclearthatsheisindeedlikehim:"Thisone,thistime,isboneofmyboneandfleshof
myflesh''(Genesis2:23).Theorderofthesecondcreationstory,therefore,isquitedifferentfromthatofGenesis1:12:3,andmaybeoutlinedasfollows:
aman
agarden
theanimals
awoman

Despitetheirobviousdifferences,thesetwoaccountsofcreationhavesomecommonlinks,andthestoryin2:4b3:24mayhavebeeninterpretedbytheeditorwho
combinedthetwoasasequelorelaborationofthe"list"in1:12:3.Oneofthelinksbetweenthetwotexts,whichisimportantforthestudyofracism,istheiruseof
theHebrewword,'adam.Thiswordisoftentranslated"man,"andcomparabletotheolderusageofthatterminEnglish'adamcanhaveatleastfivedifferent
meaningsinGenesis13,dependingonthecontext:
1.allhumanbeings,humankind(formerly"man"or"mankind")
2.anindividualhuman,apersonregardlessofgender(Germanman)
3.allmalehumans,themalegender,"man"asopposedto"woman"
4.anindividualmalehuman,aman
5.thepropername"Adam"

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Genesis1:27isanexcellentexampleofthefirstmeaning:
SoGodcreated'adaminhisimageintheimageofGodhecreatedthem[Hebrew"him"]maleandfemalehecreatedthem.

Theword'adamhereisdefinedasincludingmaleandfemale,sothatitreferstohumansorhumankindingeneral.Beforeitscombinationwiththestoryinchapters
23,thisversionofcreationdidnotpresupposethat1:27referredtoAdamandEve.Rather,Genesis1:27meantthatGodcreatedallthepeopleonearth
(hundreds?thousands?ofmenandwomen)atonetime.
In2:7,however,'adamhasadifferentmeaning.This'adamisclearlyanindividualratherthantheentirespecies.Ontheotherhand,sinceheistheonlyoneofhis
speciesatthispoint,healsorepresentsallhumans.Heis,therefore,asymbolofhumankind.Heisalsoprobablyarepresentativeorsymbolofallmalesormen
(definition3).Thereissomedebateastowhether'adamatthisstageshouldbeunderstoodasgenderless,orratherandrogynous(i.e.,combiningbothgenders),oras
amale.Butv.23clarifiesthismatterwhenitsaysthatthewomanwastakenfrom(or"outof")theman,usingawordfor"man"thatisgenderspecific(Hebrew'ish).
Hence,eventhoughYahwehGod'screationin2:7isspecificallyaman,i.e.,anindividualmale,heisatthesametimeasymbolofhumanityingeneral(olderusage
"man'')andperhapsofallmales(man).
ThepropernameAdam(definition5)alsoillustratesthesymbolicmeaningof'adaminthisstory."Adam"wasnotreallyapropernameinancientIsrael.Itdoesnot
followthepatternsthatancientIsraelitesusedtoformtheirnames,andnooneelseintheBibleisnamedAdam.Itisobviouslyderivedfromtheword'adamandis
entirelysymbolic.JustasinJohnBunyan'sPilgrim'sProgressthehero,"Christian,"isthesymbolforeveryChristian,soAdamis"Everyone"or"Everyman."The
name"Eve"isalsosymbolic,aswewillseemomentarily.
ThesymbolicmeaningofAdamfitswiththenatureofthecreationstoryinGenesis23asawhole,whichisetiological.Anetiologyisastorythatisinventedto
explaintheoriginofsomethinganame,aplace,acustom,orevenageologicalfor

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mation.Genesis23explainstheoriginsofmanythings.Itanswersanumberof"why"questions,likethosewhichchildrenask:Whydowewearclothes?Whydo
snakescrawl?Whydowehavetoworkhardforaliving?Whydowomenhavepaininchildbirth?Whydowedie?Perhapsthebestexampleofanetiologyinthis
storyisin2:24.Aftertheman'sexpressionofdelightatthecreationofwoman,thenarratoradds,"Therefore,amanleaveshisfatherandhismotherandcleavestohis
wifeandtheybecomeoneflesh."Thestoryinchapter2andthisverseinparticularexplainwhytherearetwosexesthataresosimilarbyvirtueofbothbeinghuman,
yetalsoverydifferent.Thestoryfurtherexplainstheattractionbetweenthesexes,andv.24isoftenreferredtoasanetiologyformarriage.
InlightoftheetiologicalnatureofGenesis23,itisstrikingthattheycontainnoreferencetoorexplanationofthedifferentraces.AdamandEvearedescribedasthe
parentsofallpeople.ThispointisexplicitlymadeforEve,whosenamecomesfromtheHebrewwordforlife,sothatsheisthe"motherofallliving"(3:20).Thestory
embracestheideaofequalityandfraternityamongallpeople,regardlessofrace.Sinceallaredescendedfromonecouple,allarerelated,allareapartofoneanother.
ThevariantaccountinGenesis1doesnotcontradictthisidea.Whileitsportraitofcreationdiffers,italsoseemstoreflectasenseofequality,inthatGodcreatesnot
justonecouplebutallpeopleatonetime.Again,itsaysnothingaboutracialdistinctions.
Thedetailsofthestoryinchapters23doallowthereadertodeduceAdam'sandEve's"racial"identity.Firstandforemost,ofcourse,theyaremembersofthe
humanrace.But2:1014situatestheGardenofEdenintheregionofMesopotamia(betweentheTigrisandEuphratesRivers,roughlymodernIraq).Thoughthestory
doesnotsaysoexplicitly,onewouldassumethatthefirstcoupleweretypicallyMiddleEasternorMediterraneaninthewriter'simaginationoliveskinnedand
swarthywithblackhair.Theywouldnothavebeenseenas"black,"sincethestoryisnotsetinAfrica.Buttheycertainlywerenot"white,"orEuropean,asdepicted
bymost(especiallyRenaissance)artists.

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TheSoCalledCurseofHam(Gen.9:1827)
Thestoryin9:1827isastrangeoneandiscloselyconnectedinsomewayswiththegenealogyinchapter10.Noah'sthreesonsarereferredtoin9:1819,andinthe
nextchapterallthepeoplesoftheknowneartharetracedbacktothem.Wewillconsiderthisinmoredetailmomentarily.Thestoryproperbeginsin9:20withthe
mentionofNoahasnowavinedresser,whobecomesdrunkfromthefruitofhisagriculturallabor(v.21).Theseversesareanallusiontothemeaningofthename
Noahandthepunonitin5:29.There,Noah'sfather,Lamech,giveshimthenameNoah,saying,"Thisonewillbringuscomfortfromourlaborandthetoilofour
handsfromthegroundwhichYahwehhascursed."Noah'snameishererelatedtothewordfor"comfort"or"relief,"andthecomforthebringscomesfromthevine.
ThiscomforthasnothingtodowiththefloodbutratheralludestoNoah'slegacyastheinventorofwine.Thisishisrolein9:2021.
Butthestorythentakesanunexpectedturn.Asaresultofhisintoxication,NoahliesnakedinhistentwherehissonHamseeshim(9:2122).Itwasregardedas
shamefulforasontoseehisfather'sgenitals(whichisthemeaningof"nakedness"inv.22).SomeinterpretershaveevensuggestedthatHam'soffenseinvolvedmore
thanjustlookingathisunclothedfather.TheypointtothelawsinLeviticus18,whichforbidincest,whichisdescribedidiomaticallyas"uncoveringthenakedness"of
variouscloserelatives.WhatevertheexactnatureofHam'sdeed,itwasseenasanembarrassmentandinsulttoNoah.ThatiswhyNoah'sothersons,Shemand
Japheth,takeprecautionswhentheycoverNoahsoasnottoviewhisprivateparts(9:23).ItisalsowhyNoahuttersthecurse(9:2427)whenheawakesand
discoverswhatHamhasdone.Thecurse,however,isnotlaiduponHam,theoffender,butratheronhisson,Canaan.Andherein,forallitsstrangeness,liesthekey
tounderstandingthepurposeofthispassage.
Beforediscussingwhatthispassageis,itisworthwhiletoshowwhatitisnot.ItisnotacurseonAfricansorblackpeople.Inordertoseehowthisinterpretation
arose,itisnecessarytoglanceatchapter10.Thegenealogyinthatchapterisoftencalledthe"tableofnations."Itisalistofthepeoplesandna

Page9

tionsoftheworldknownatthetimeofthewriter.Itsobviousintentionistoassignallknownpeoplesanorigin,ingenealogicalterms,fromoneofNoah'ssons.In
otherwords,itseekstodemonstratehowtheworldwasrepopulatedafterthefloodfromNoah'sdescendantsthroughhisthreesons.Now,thereisnocompletely
reliablerationaletoexplainhowthenationsandpeoplesarepartitionedamongthethreesons.However,theydoseemgenerallytofollowgeographicdivisions.The
descendantsofJaphetharemainlysituatedinthewesternMediterranean.Javan(10:2),forexample,isGreece.Rodanim(v.4)istheislandofRhodesKittimis
CypressandTarshishisaportonthesoutherncoastofSpain.
The"genealogies"ofHamandShemattestagooddealofconfusion.Ham's"descendants"seemtobeareasunderEgyptiancontrolorinfluence.Cushreferstothe
areasouthofEgyptknownasNubia,ortodayasEthiopia.MisrayimistheHebrewnameforEgyptandistranslatedassuchinsomeEnglishBibles.PutisLibya,and
CanaanisPalestine.ThefurtherdelineationofCush,inverses712,includesNimrod,Babel,Erech,Accad,Shinar,Nineveh,andCalahallplacesinMesopotamia,
whichshouldfallwithinShem'sline,alongwithAsshur(=Assyria,v.22),Aram(=Syria,v.22),andothers.Theconfusionhasprobablybeencausedbythefactthat
"Cush"hasmorethanonemeaning.WhileitgenerallymeansNubia,itcanalsorefertosouthernMesopotamia,wheretheKassites(whosenamesoundslike''Cush"in
Hebrew)onceruled.
Twopointsofimportanceforourstudyemergefromsurveyingthisratherconfusingsituationinchapter10.First,thethreesonsofNoaharenottoberegardedasthe
progenitorsofthethreegreatracesofthemodernworld(Asian,Negroid,andCaucasian).Genesis10reflectsaverycircumscribedviewoftheworld:thewriter's
knowledgeisbasicallylimitedtotheMediterranean,AsiaMinorandTurkey,theMiddleEast,andnorthernAfrica.ThereisnomentionofanyeastAsianpeoplesor
countries.TheplacesthatareincludedwereinhabitedbypeopleofNegroidorCaucasianorigin,buttheyarenotdistinguishedbyrace.Thus,Ethiopians(Cush),
Egyptians,Libyans(Put),andthepeoplesofCanaanareallregardedas"brothers"(10:6).Secondly,thespecificcursein9:2527cannotrefertoblackorNegroid
people.ItisnotCushwhoiscursed,notevenHam,butCanaanandhisdescendants,whohavenoethnictieswith

Page10

Africa.Theattemptstojustifyslaveryoroppressionofblackpeoplebasedonthispassageareobviouslyerroneousandtheproductofakindofmodernracismthat
theBibleneitherreflectsnorsupports.
Whatthenisthefunctionofthisstory?OnemustadmitthatthecurseofCanaandoesparticipateinasortofracismtheenslavementofanethnicgroup.Thecurseof
Canaanisanotheretiology.ItexplainshowtheIsraelitesdisplacedtheCanaanitesinthelandandjustifiesthestoriesaboutIsraelitessubduingandsubjugatingthem.
Wewillconsiderthesestoriesinlaterchapters.However,itisworthobservingnowthattheBible'swayoftellingthisstoryseemstoundercutthiscurseevenasit
recountsit.Foronething,thecursecomesnotfromGodbutfromaman,Noah.AndwhileNoahiscertainlyagreatherointhestoryoftheFlood,thenarrativein
9:2027castshiminanunsavoryroleasadrunkardwhoexposeshimself.Inaddition,thecurse,forallthedangerandevilitrepresents,isinasensequiteunreal.
TherewasneveranyfullscaleenslavementofCanaanitesbyIsrael.Infact,thedistinctionbetweenthetwoisnotentirelyclearhistorically.TheIsraeliteswere
themselvesoriginallyapartofCanaanitesocietyanddevelopedintoanationfromwithinCanaan.TheBible'saccountofthe"conquestofCanaan"reflectsthiswhenit
describesCanaanitessuchasRahabandherfamily(Joshua6)andtheGibeonites(Joshua9)beingabsorbedintoIsrael.MostofthetimeIsraelitesandCanaanites
livedpeacefullysidebyside.Forinstance,therewereindividualsinDavid'sarmycenturieslaterwhomtheBibledescribesasbelongingtodifferentCanaaniteethnic
groups(e.g.,UriahtheHittite,1Samuel11).Thus,theCanaanitesastheyarerepresentedinNoah'scurseasIsrael'snationalenemyarehypothetical,andinany
casecertainlycannotbeequatedwithanymodernethnicorracialgroup.
TheTowerofBabel(11:19)
Thereisonefinaletiology,inGenesis11,thatissignificantforourstudy.Itoffersanexplanationfortheoriginofthedifferentlanguagesandculturesoftheearth.
Accordingtothestory,allpeopleoncespokethesamelanguage(11:1).Which

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languageitwasisnotspecified.Thestoryalsoenvisionsalltheearth'sinhabitantslivingandmigratingtogether.IntheplainofShinar,whichisMesopotamia,they
decidetobuildatoweruptoheaven(11:24).Topreventthemfromsucceeding,Yahweh"confuses"(theHebrewverbisbalal,aplayonthenameBabel)the
languagessothatthepeoplecannolongerunderstandoneanother(11:57).This,inturn,leadstotheirscatteringabroadthroughouttheearth,presumablyby
languagegroups.
ElementsofadiatribeagainstMesopotamianreligionhavebeenincorporatedintotheoriginalstory.Thecitywherethepeopleattempttobuildthetowerisidentified
asBabel,theHebrewnameforBabylon.Andthetoweritselfistobeunderstoodasaziggurat,thetypical,pyramidshapedtempletoweroftheancient
Mesopotamians.Twootherelementsofthestoryarealsoimportantforourpresentstudy.First,Yahweh'sstatementinv.6isastoundingforitsexpressionofthe
unlimitedpotentialofhumancooperation:
Theyareonepeoplewhoallhavethesamelanguage,andthisisonlythebeginningofwhattheywilldo.Now,nothingtheyproposetodowillbeimpossibleforthem.

Peopleworkingtogethercanaccomplishanything!ThestoryimpliesthatevenYahwehisintimidatedbythispotentialandthereforeconfusesthelanguages.
Thesecondimportantaspectofthestoryforastudyofracismisthereasonpeopleareseparatedfromoneanother.Somemoderninterpretershavefoundarationale
forapartheidinthisstory,anditistruethatGodseparatespeoplehere.Buttherealcauseoftheseparationissin,inparticular,inordinatepride.Divisionbetween
peopleiscontrarytoGod'sinitialplanandonlyenterstheworldaspunishmentforsin.Itis,therefore,anevil.InafuturelessononActswewillseethatLuke,its
author,reflectsontheTowerofBabelstoryinhisaccountofthebeginningofthechurch.WhenthedisciplespreachindifferentlanguagesonthedayofPentecost
(Acts2)theepisodeconveysatheologicalmessage:throughChrist,inthechurch,Godhealsthedivisionsbetweenpeoplethatsinbroughtintotheworld.

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2
"AlltheFamiliesoftheEarth":
ElectionandBlessinginGenesis1226
ItwascalledSNCCtheStudentNonviolentCoordinatingCommitteeandin1964itplanned"FreedomSummer"inMississippi.Themainpurposeoftheproject
wastoregisterblackpeopletovote.StudentvolunteersmostlywhiteandmostlyfromtheNorthcanvassedmainlyruralareasinthestate.Thestudentsreceived
traininginOhiobeforeheadingsouth.SNCC'sphilosophywasstrictlynonviolentparticipantsweretaughttobepreparedforvariouskindsofviolenceandhowto
respondnonviolentlytoanyviolencetheymightencounter.ItwasaphilosophybasedonChristianprinciples,astaughtbyDr.MartinLutherKingJr.andother
ministers.Sometimesthestudentswhotrainedortraveledheldbriefdevotionals,althoughmostofthemwerenotparticularlyreligious.OnJune20,thefirstwaveof
trainedstudentsleftforMississippi.AmongthemwereAndrewGoodman,22,JamesChaney,21,andMichaelSchwerner,24.Thethreedisappearedthenextday.
Theircorpseswerefoundaboutsixweekslater.AllthreehadbeenshotChaney,whowasblack,hadbeensavagelybeaten.Duringthosesixweeksandafterthe
discoveryofthebodies,thedevotionalperiodsandtheprayersduringthemincreaseddramaticallyinlengthandintensityasmorestudents"gotreligion."
Oneoftherootcausesofracismisfearofwhatisdifferentor"foreign."Thisfearofthe"other"iscalledxenophobia,andasthenameindicatesitisanunreasonable
fear.Usuallythe

Page13

"other"isquitesimilarto"us."Becauseitisaparanoia,thefearcanleadtounreasonableactions,andweinflictthehurtthat"we"somuchfearedfromthe"other."In
thischapter,wewillconsiderseveralepisodesfromthelifeofAbraham,whofearedthe''other,"unnecessarilyasitturnedout,andrespondedwithdeceitandtrickery
ratherthanwithfaithinGod.Alongtheway,wewillalsoexploreGod'sreasonforchoosingAbrahamandGod'sinterestinthenonelect.
The"PatriarchalPromise"
TheelectionofIsraelasGod'schosenpeoplebeginswithAbram,whoiscalledinGenesis12:13toleavehishomelandforajourneytoaplacethatisunknownto
him,butthatYahwehpromisestoshowhim.Thereareotherpromisesaswell:
Iwillmakeyouagreatnation.Iwillblessyouandmakeyournamegreatsothatyouwillbecomeablessing.Iwillblessthosewhoblessyouandcursethosewhocurseyou,and
allthefamiliesoftheearthwillblessthemselvesbyyou[orbeblessedthroughyou].

TheAbrahamandSarahstoriesarefullofirony.GodpromisestomakeAbramintoagreatnation,butheremainschildlessformostofhislife.Inhisoldage,whenhis
"sonofthepromise,"Isaac,isbornofSarah(Genesis17),hisnameischangedfromAbram,understoodas"exaltedfather,"toAbraham,takentomean"fatherofa
multitude."3 Thechangeishighlyironic,forthe"fatherofamultitude"andhiswifestillhaveonlyoneson,andatonepoint(Genesis22)heiseventoldtosacrificethat
son.WhenAbrahamdies(Gen.25:711),Isaacisbarelymarriedandtoa"barren"woman(25:21).Laterinchapter12(12:7cf.13:1415)Yahwehalsopromises
togiveallthelandofCanaantoAbram'sdescendants.Butheremainsa"residentalien"inCanaanallhislife,wanderingfromplacetoplace(cf.12:49),and,again
ironically,hediesowningonlythecaveinwhichheandSarahareburiedacavethathepurchasedhimselfatanexorbitantprice(Genesis23).Heispromisedthat
thosewhoblesshimwillbeblessedandthosewhocursehimwillbecursedandthatotherpeopleswillblessthemselvesbyhim(orbeblessedthroughhim).Buthis
dealingswithotherpeoplesdonotusuallyresultintheirbenefit,

Page14

evenwhentheydohimnoharm,asweshallsee.Finally,becauseofhisobediencetoGod'scommandstoleavehishomelandandtosacrificehisonlyson,Abrahamis
reputedtobeamanofgreatfaith.Butagainweshallseethatinseveralepisodesofthestoryhiswordsandactionsattestincredulityratherthanfaith.
ThepromisetoAbramin12:13isalsoanelectionformula.Byit,GodsinglesoutAbramandhisdescendantsforspecialblessing.Theformulaisrepeatedinturnto
Isaac(26:34)andJacob(28:1314)andisrecalledwhenGodchoosesMosestoleadhispeopleoutofEgyptianslavery(Ex.3:6,13166:29).Animportant
elementofthispromiseisthestatement:
Allthenations[orfamilies]oftheearthwillblessthemselvesbyyouandyourdescendants[orbeblessedthroughyouandyourdescendants].

Originally,thispartofthepromiseprobablymeantthatAbrahamandhisheirswouldbethemodelbywhichothernationswouldpronounceblessings.Inotherwords,
thetranslation"blessthemselvesbyyou"isthemorecorrect.Still,thepromisedoessaythatthosewhoblessAbrahamalsoblessthemselves.AndtheJosephstoryin
Genesis3750providesanexampleofthenations'beingblessedthroughadescendantofAbrahamandSarah,sinceJosephsavestheworldfromfamine.
Moreover,somepartsoftheBible,especiallyinIsaiah(9:242:649:660:13),speakofIsraelasa"lighttothenations,"thatis,themeansthroughwhichallpeoples
cometoknowYahweh.ThewritersofthesepartswouldinterpretthispromisetoAbrahamasreflectinganinterestinallpeoplesoftheearth.Inthisview,theelection
ofAbrahamandIsraelisGod'smeansbywhichtoblessalltheworld.Thus,eventhoughuniversalblessingwasprobablynotintendedintheoriginalpromiseto
Abraham,itwasinterpretedthiswaywithintheBibleitself.
The"Wife/Sister"Stories(Gen.12:102020:118)
TwoepisodesinthenarrativesaboutAbrahamandSarahareslightlydifferentversionsofthesamestorypattern.AthirdinstanceofthepatternoccursforIsaacand
Rebekahin26:611.

Page15

Theversionsinchapters12and26areexplicitlyrelatedtoeachotherandwerelikelywrittenbythesameauthor.IsaacandRebekah'smovetoGerarin26:1is
occasionedbyafaminethatiscomparedtothefaminethatbroughtaboutAbramandSarai'smovetoEgyptin12:10.Theversioninchapter20waswrittenlaterand
borrowselementsfromeachoftheothertwo.Thebasicplotofthestoryinallthreeversionsisasfollows:Thepatriarchandmatriarchjourneytoaforeignland.The
patriarchisafraidforhissafetybecausehiswifeisbeautiful,soheliesorpersuadeshertolieonhisbehalfbytellingthepeopleofthelandand/ortheirkingthatsheis
hissister.Inthefirsttwoversions(chapters12and20),thekingofthelandaddsSarai/Sarahtohisharem.Inallthreeversions,thekingeventuallyfindsoutthe
woman'strueidentityandconfrontsthepatriarch.IntheIsaacversion(chapter26),theking'smarriagetoRebekahispreemptedbyhisrecognitionofhertrue
relationshiptoIsaac,whichisexpressedbyapunonhisname:HeseesIsaac"fondling"(fromHebrewtsahaq[tsa&!aq],thesamerootasyitshaq[yits&!aq],
"Isaac")Rebekah(26:8).
Thepatriarch'slieattestshislackoffaithinGodtoprotecthim.Butwhatisespeciallystrikingforourstudyisthatinallthreeversionsofthisstorythepatriarch's
xenophobiaisunfounded.Hehasnoreasontofeartheforeigners,whoactuallyturnouttobemorerighteousthanhe.Thepharaohin12:1020marriesSarai(takes
herintohishouse,12:15)andenrichesAbramforhersake(12:16).Whenhediscoversthetruthhesendsthecoupleawaywithoutharmingthem(12:1720).In26:10
AbimelechpointsouttoIsaacthemoralperilthathisliemighthavecaused:"Oneofthepeoplemighteasilyhavelainwithyourwife,andyouwouldhavebroughtguilt
uponus!"Moralconcernsareespeciallypronouncedintheversioninchapter20.Thewriter(20:4a)pointsoutthatAbimelechdidnotapproachSarahandthus
cannothavecommittedadultery.Abimelechhimself(20:4b)affirmshisinnocence.AndGod(20:5)admitsthatheacted"intheintegrityof[his]heart."ItisAbraham,
notAbimelech,whohasdone"thingsthatshouldnotbedone"(v.9).Abraham'sfearthat"thereisnoreverenceforGodinthisplace"(v.11)hascertainlyprovennot
tobethecase.TheforeignersdemonstrateagreaterreverenceforGodandfairertreatmentofothersthantheelectpatriarch.Inthesestories,the"nations''aremore
righteousthanthechosen.

Page16

HagarandIshmael(Gen.16:11621:821)
Hagar'sFlight(Gen.16:116)
Yahweh'spromisetoAbramthathewouldengenderagreatnationencountersseveralobstaclesasthestoryproceeds.ThefirstoftheseisthatAbram'swife,Sarai,is
"barren,"thatis,unabletoconceivechildren.InGenesis16,SaraicomesupwithawaytohelpYahwehkeepthepromise.SheoffersherhandmaidHagar,asa
surrogatetobearanheirtoAbraham.Thesocialandculturalinstitutionspresupposedinthisstoryaresodifferentfromthoseoftodaythattheydemandspecial
explanation.Oneoftheseinstitutionswasslavery.HagarwasSarai'sslave.Slaverywascommonintheancientworld,butitwasdifferentfromtheslaverypracticedin
nineteenthcenturyUnitedStates.Ancientslaverywasnotthefruitofracism.Slavesinantiquitywereeithercaptivesfromwarsorpersonsforcedbydebttosell
themselves.Thiscertainlydoesnotmaketheinstitutionanylessinsidious,fromamodernperspective,butitisimportantforourpresentpurposestomakeclearthat
Hagar'sstatusasaslavehadnothingtodowithherracialorethnicidentity.Femaleslavesoftencamewiththeirmistressesinamarriage.Marriageswerearrangedas
mattersoflegalcontracts.SomemarriagecontractspreservedfromancientMesopotamiaspecifywhatappearstobeimplicitintheBible'sstoryaboutHagar.The
wife,accordingtosuchcontracts,wasresponsibleforprovidinganheirtoherhusband.Ifshecouldnotbearoneherself,shewastosupplyafemaleslavewhocould
doso.Thecontractsandlawsaboutsucharrangementsalsocontainotherspecificationsthatareimportantbackgroundtothebiblicalaccount,asweshallseebelow.
ThecarefulreaderwillnoticethatitisSarai,notAbram,whoproposesthesurrogacyofHagar(16:2).Itseemsoddtomodernreadersthatawifewouldvolunteerto
shareherhusbandwithanotherwoman.Sarai'slanguagesuggests,however,thatsheisunderlegal(andcertainlysocial)constraint.WhensheproposesthatAbram
haverelationswithHagarsheadds,"PerhapsIwillbebuiltupthroughher"(16:2).Theexpressioninitalicsissometimestranslated,ratherblandly,"obtainchildren."
Butitseemstohavefullerconnotations,suchas''fulfillmylegalresponsibility."Atanyrate,AbramandHagarcon

Page17

ceiveachild(16:4).Thelawsaboutsuchrelationshipsprohibitapregnantslavegirlfromtreatingherinfertilemistresswithcontempt.Butthisisanaturalreaction,and
itisHagar'sresponseinthestory(16:4).SaraiblamesAbram(16:5),whichagainmayseemratherstrangetothemodernreader,butsinceSaraihasgivenHagarto
Abram,sheisnowhisproperty,andSarai'sonlyrecourseisthroughhim.Ancientlawsalsoforbadetheabusivetreatmentofapregnantslavebyherinfertilemistress
thatSarainowheapsuponHagar.Butagain,thisreactionisnatural.ItisthismistreatmentthatleadsHagartoflee(16:6).
HagarisobviouslyonherwaybackhometoEgyptviathe"wayofShur"(16:7),whenanangelofYahwehmeetsheratawell(16:78).Thesceneisremarkablein
severalrespects.Firstofall,unlikeothersuchstories,especiallytheoneinGenesis21,inwhichtheangeladdressesasituationofcrisisorneed,inthiscasetheangel
simplytellsHagartoreturntoSarai(16:9).Thisisevenmoreunusualinlightoftheepisode'sending(seebelow).Second,inverse10theangelreiteratesforHagaran
elementofthe"patriarchal"promise:''Iwillgreatlyincreaseyourdescendantssothattheywillbetoomanytocount."ThisistheonlytimeintheBiblethatanelement
ofthispromiseisgiventoanyoneotherthanoneofthepatriarchs,Abraham,Isaac,orJacob.NotevenSarahoranyoftheothermothersofIsraelhavethepromise
giventothem.YethereitisgiventotheEgyptianslave,Hagar.ThepromiseismadeinreferencetoIshmael,thesonHagaristobear.JustasYahwehlaterpromises
toblessIsaacandhisdescendants,sohewillalsoblessIshmaelandhisline.IsaacmaybethesonofpromiseandIsraelthechosenpeople,butYahwehalsocaresfor
thenonelect,forIshmaelandhisArabdescendants.Verse12containsanetiologyfortheoriginandnatureoftheIshmaelites.Theyareportrayedastoughdenizensof
thewildernesswhosurviveagainstandatoddswiththesurroundingpeoples.
Hagar'sDismissal(Gen.21:821)
OnewouldnextexpectthepassageinGenesis16togoontonarrateIshmael'sbirthandtodescribehowheandhismothersurvivedinthewildernesstofoundthe
new,promisednation.Butitisanotherremarkablefeatureofthistextthatthe

Page18

storyendswithHagar'sreturnaccordingtotheangel'sorder.Ishmael'sbirthisrecounted(16:1516),butthereisnowordyetabouthisbecominganation.Thatisleft
totheendofthesecond,verysimilarstoryaboutHagarandIshmaelin21:821.Infact,thereturnofHagarattheendofchapter16seemstobetheproductof
narrativestrategytoenhancethestory'stensionandpresentonefinalobstacletothesuccessionofthesonofpromise.
Sarai'splanto"bebuiltup"throughHagarandAbram'scompliancewithitmaybeseenastheirefforttohelpGod.Theyhadgivenuponhavingachildbetween
themselves,hadlostfaithinGod'sfulfillingthepromiseintheusualway.SotheydecidedtogiveGodahelpinghandthroughanexpediencyavailableintheirculture.
Theirhelp,however,quicklyturnedintoahindrancewhenGod'soriginalplanwentforward.ThiswasespeciallytruewhereSarahwasconcerned.Atafeastgivenby
AbrahamonthedayofIsaac'sweaning(21:8),whenhewouldhavebeentwoorthreeyearsold,SarahcametofullrealizationoftheproblemposedbyIshmael.
Verse9saysthatSarahsawIshmael"laughing."ThewordisaformoftheHebrewverbtsahaq[tsa&!aq],"tolaugh,''whichisusedelsewhereinthestory(e.g.,
21:6)asapunonIsaac'sname.ThisleadsSarahtoinsistthatAbrahamdriveoutHagarandIshmael.ButhowcouldthemeresightofIshmaellaughingleadSarahto
suchdrasticaction?ThisproblemhasapparentlymotivatedtheSeptuagint,theGreektranslationoftheHebrewBible,tosupplythewords"with[or"at"]herson
Isaac"attheendoftheverse.Thus,IshmaelisseenaslaughingatIsaacormockinghiminsomeway,andthisangersSarahsothatshedemandsHagar'sdismissal.A
betterinterpretationmaybesimplytofollowtheHebrewtextandperceiveitsreadingasthenarrator'scleverdevice:Sarah'sglimpseofIshmael"laughing"remindsher
thatheisreplacingherson,Isaac,asAbraham'sheir.Hence,herinsistencethatAbraham"driveouttheslavewomanwithherson"isexplicitlymotivatedbyherdesire
that"thesonoftheslavewoman...notinheritwithmysonIsaac"(21:10).
Nowthemarriagecontractsandlegaltextsmentionedearlierthatdealwiththissortofsituationspecificallyprohibitdrivingoutordisinheritingaslavewoman'ssonif
heisthefirstbornandthewifelaterbearsason.ThismayexplainAbraham'sdistressatSarah'sdemand(21:11).Henodoubtfeltaffection

Page19

forIshmaelashisson,andwasloathtosendhimawayforthatreason.Buthewasalsoreluctanttodosobecausesuchanactwouldbeaviolationofsocialand
perhapslegalconvention.HecomplieswithSarah'sdemandonlyafterGodtellshimto,atthesametimerevealingtohimthatIsaacistobehisrealheir,thesonofthe
promise(21:12).GodalsomakesanotherpromisetoAbraham(21:13).ItisthesamepromiseYahwehmadetoHagarfirstthathewouldmakeofhersonagreat
nation,justasofIsaac.ThechosensonandthechosenpeoplearenottheonlyonestoreceiveGod'sblessing.
AbrahamsendsHagarandIshmaelawayintheearlymorning(21:14).Hegivesherfoodandwater,knowingthatherjourneywillbelongandperilous.Shewanders
inthewildernessofBeersheba,againonherwaytowardEgypt.Thisishot,dry,barrenland,andherwatersoonrunsout.Thistimethereisacrisisandarealneed
fortheangelofGodtoappear(21:17).ThereissomeconfusioninthisaccountabouttheageofIshmael.Followingthechronologyofthesestories,Abrahamwas
eightysixyearsoldwhenIshmaelwasborn(16:16)andonehundredatIsaac'sbirth(21:5).IfIsaacwasweanedattwoyearsofage(21:8),thenIshmaelwouldhave
beenaboutsixteenwhenheandhismotherweresentawaymuchtoolargeforHagartocarryonhershoulder(21:14)ortocastunderabush(21:15).Allofthis
suggeststhat21:1421reflectstheoriginalendingofthestoryinchapter16,beforethenarratorcreatedtwoversionsofthestoryfordramaticreasons.Bethatasit
may,Hagarleaveshersonbecauseshecannotbeartowatchhimdie(21:16).
Nowcomestheendingweexpectedinchapter16.TheangelrespondstoHagar'sdesperateneedbyshowingherawell,whichwaseitheranewcreationorwhich
shehadnotpreviouslynoticed(21:19).Thewellinthisaccountisnotmerelythesettingofthetaleasitisinchapter16butisintegraltotheplotofthestory.Before
showingherthewell,theangelreassuresherofGod'sprotectionandguidancebyreiteratingthepromise,thoughinabrieferform,thatIshmaelwillbecomeagreat
nation(21:18).ItisthenthatthestorycanendbyrelatingthatGodblessedIshmaelinthewilderness.Thefulfillmentofthepromiseisimplicitherebutbecomesexplicit
in25:1218,wherethegenealogyoftheIshmaelitetribesisgiven.
TheBibleportraysthe"Ishmaelites"astraderswholived

Page20

andtraffickedbetweensouthernPalestineandEgypt,especiallyintheSinaipeninsula,whichincludesthewildernessofParan,whereIshmaelsettled(Gen.21:21).The
storiesaboutIshmaelareeponymousinnature.ThismeansthatIshmaelrepresentsorstandsforthenation.ItisnoaccidentthattheIshmaeliteterritorywasbetween
PalestineandEgypt,anditmaybethatHagarisdescribedasanEgyptianinordertoaccordwiththegeographicallocationsoftheprincipalcharactersinthestory.It
istherelationshipsbetweenthosecharactersthatareimportantforourstory.IsaacistheelectsonofAbrahamchosenbyGodtobetheonethroughwhomthe
patriarchalpromiseisfulfilled.AsIsaacrepresentstheIsraelites,soIshmaelrepresentsIsrael'sneighbors,theArabs.TheBibledepictsthemasbrothers.Morethan
that,theBibleportraysbothgroupsasrecipientsofGod'spromisesandobjectsofGod'sloveandconcern.
ThetextswehavesurveyedintheAbrahamandSarahstoriesalsocontainbroaderlessonsforourconsideration.Inthewife/sisterstories,the"foreignnations,"both
insideofPalestine(Gerar)andoutside(Egypt),areportrayedquitepositively.Indeed,theirfearofGodandimmediateresponsetodivinecommandscontrastsnot
onlywithAbraham'sfearsaboutthembutalsowithhisownlackoffaith,tosaynothingofthecontrastbetweentheirconcernsformoralityandfairnessandhisrather
callousbetrayaloftheirtrust.Finally,whilethestoriesofAbrahamandSarahfocusontheconceptofelectionthechoosingfirstofAbrahamandthenofIsaacat
leastonestrainofinterpretationwithintheBiblesawGod'sultimategoalasuniversalblessing("Byyouandyourdescendantswillallthenationsoftheearthbe
blessed").Bythisunderstanding,electionisnotanendinitselfbutmerelyameanstoanendthatincludesallraces.

Page21

PARTTWO
THENATUREOFISRAEL

Page23

3
"YouMustUtterlyDestroyThem":
HolyWarinDeuteronomyandtheDeuteronomisticHistory
AddieMaeCollins,DeniseMcNair,CaroleRobertson,andCynthiaWesleytheywerenotmuchyoungerthanIwasin1963.OnthemorningofSeptember15they
weredoingwhatIandthousandsofotherchildrenacrossthecountryweredoing.Theyweregettingreadyforchurch.TheyhadattendedSundayschoolandwerein
thebasementofthechurchbuildingchangingintotheirchoirrobestosinginthesanctuary.Achurchbuildingiscalledasanctuaryit'ssupposedtobeaplaceof
safety,arefugefromtheoutsideworld.ButonthatparticularSundaytheSixteenthStreetBaptistChurchinBirmingham,Alabama,wasnotsafe.At10:19fifteen
sticksofdynamiteblewthechangingroomapartandrockedthechurch.Afewblocksaway,Robert"DynamiteBob"Chambliss,aKlansmanwhowouldbe
convictedofthecrimefourteenyearslater,stoodwatching.Twentyorsowereinjured,fourweredeadAddieMaeCollins,DeniseMcNair,CaroleRobertson,and
CynthiaWesley.
Thegreatesthorrorsofracismaretheactsofviolencedonetochildren.OurtopicinthischapteristhemandateinthebookofDeuteronomyandthebooksthatfollow
fortheIsraelitestoengageinsuchviolence.TheyweretoldtoconquerandannihilatetheCanaanitesmen,women,andchildren.Thiswasoneofthestrainsof
exclusivismthatwerepresentinancientIsrael,inspiteofthelessonsaboutGod'suniversalloveinGenesis.

Page24

Ourtaskwillbetotrytosetitinitshistorical,cultural,andliterarycontext.
ThePracticeofHolyWar
ThenameDeuteronomymeans"secondlaw."ThebookconsistsofaspeechorspeechesofMosesinwhichhereviewsthelaw(Deut.1:5)forthepeopleshortly
beforehisdeath(34:18).Thesettingofthebookisthe"plainsofMoab"eastoftheJordanRiver(1:5).ThepeopleofIsraelarecampedthere,poisedtoenterthe
promisedlandofCanaan.Becauseofapastoffense,Mosesisnotallowedtoenterwiththem(1:37).HecanonlylookuponitfromthedistantMountNebobeforehe
dies(32:4852).InhisspeecheshetellsthepeoplehowtheyaretotakethelandandthenliveinitaccordingtothelawthattheyhavereceivedfromGod.
Theorderastohowtheyaretotreatthesevenpeoplesnativetotheland(7:1),whichIgrouptogetherforthesakeofconvenienceas"Canaanites,"isharshandcalls
forcompleteannihilation:"Youmustutterlydestroythem.Youshallnotmakeacovenantwiththemorshowthemmercy"(7:2).Thiscommandmentisespecially
alarmingformodernreaderswhohaveseenthehorrifyingeffectsof"ethniccleansing"inourowncentury.Wehavecometoregardsuchpoliciesandtacticsonthe
partofanymilitaryasunjustifiableandunacceptable.ThediscussionthatfollowsisnotmeanttojustifythemandateinDeuteronomyortoexplainitaway.As
mentionedinthePreface,wemustadmitthattheBiblecontainsinstancesofnationalandethnicexclusivism,ofwhichthiscommandmentinDeuteronomyisone
example.Ourtaskinthischapterwillbetoattempttounderstandsomethingofthecontextinwhichitarose.Then,bothhereandinsubsequentchapters,wewill
exploretheresponsestoitwithintheBibleitself.
TheHebrewwordfortheannihilationtheIsraelitesweretoeffectagainsttheirCanaaniteenemiesisherem[&!erem].ItisusedintheOldTestament,asin
Deuteronomy7:2,forthedevotionofagroupofpeople,suchasacity,todestruction.Thekeyelementinitsmeaningis"devotion."Thecityisactuallydevotedto
Yahweh.AsinthecaseofJericho(Josh.7:1718),thismeansthatthepeopleandtheanimalsofthecityaretobeexecutedaccordingtoGod'sholypurpose.The
propertyofthecityisholy

Page25

inthatsense,andthereforeisalsotobedestroyedratherthantakenasplunder.Onlythevaluablemetalsgold,silver,andbronzeareretainedfordepositintothe
treasuryforYahweh(7:19),fortheyalsobelongtoYahweh.
Thepracticeofherem[&!erem]wasnotuniquetoIsrael.ItismentionedinawellknowninscriptionfromancientMoab,thecountryontheothersideoftheJordan
RiverfromIsrael,andsimilarpracticeswerecarriedoutbyothercountriesintheancientMiddleEast.Inthisinscription,theMoabiteking,Mesha,describeshowhe
devotedcitiesthatheconqueredtotheMoabitegod,Chemosh.Theexactoriginofthepracticeisnotknown,buttheMeshainscriptionandthebiblicalpassages
suggestthatitmayhavebeenawayofavengingaparticular"insult"toagodorthegod'speople.IntheOldTestamentworld,eachnationhaditsowngod,andthe
nationwasregardedastheheritageandpropertyofitsgod.Anationalarmymight"devote"todestructiona"foreign"groupofpeoplewholivedinsidetheterritoryof
theirgodbutwhodidnotworshipthatgod.
ThisideologyisgivenparticularreligioussignificanceinDeuteronomy'smandate.ThecommandtodevotetheCanaanitepeoplestodestructionwasnotapplicableto
allnonIsraelites.Deuteronomy20:1018distinguishesbetweenwarfareagainstthecitiesoftheCanaanitepeoplesandwarfareagainstcitiesthatare"farfromyou,"
thatis,outsideofCanaan.Forthelatter,theIsraelitesaretooffertermsofpeace(20:10).Then,ifthecityrefusestheterms,theIsraelitesaretokillthemalesbutmay
takethewomen,children,andpropertyasspoilsofwar(20:1214).NonIsraeliteswhowere"residentaliens"inIsrael(oftentranslated"sojourners")arementioned
inseverallawsinDeuteronomy.Alongwithwidows,orphans,andothergroups,theyareespeciallyvulnerabletoabuse,andsothelawmakesprovisionforspecial
protection(24:1718).Theyreceivesomeofthetithecollectedfortheunderprivileged(14:282927:12)andareallowedtogleanthefieldsforfood(24:1922).In
short,''foreigners"whoresideinIsraelhavemostofthesamerightsandresponsibilitiesascitizens(16:91224:1415).
ThecommandtodevotetheCanaanitestodestructionhasanexplicitlyreligiousrationale.Theywouldbea"snare"totheIsraelites,byleadingthemintotheworshipof
othergods(Deut.7:4,16).Theyaretobedestroyed"sothattheywillnotteachyoutodoaccordingtoalltheabominationswhichtheyhave

Page26

donefortheirgods"(20:18).ThisissuchadangerthattheIsraelitesmustevenbecarefulnottobetemptedaftertheCanaanitesaregone(12:2931).Theymust
destroyalltheCanaaniteworshipplacesalongwiththeiraltarsandidols(12:13).ThepunishmentofdeathisnotreservedonlyfortheCanaanitesbutisalsotobe
exacteduponIsraelitecitiesthatforsakeYahwehfortheworshipofothergods(13:1218).Alltheinhabitantsofsuchacity,includingtheanimals,aretobekilled
(13:15)andthecitywithallitspropertyburned,nevertoberebuilt(13:16).Anindividualwhoisprovenguiltyofapostasyistobeexecutedbystoninginorderto
"purgetheevilfromyourmidst"(17:27).ThesameappliestopersonswhoengageinothertypesofreligiouspracticeassociatedwiththeCanaanitepeoples(18:9
14).Thus,the"devotion"oftheCanaanitesandtheexclusivismofDeuteronomyisreligiousratherthanethnicinmotivation.
TheSettingoftheDeuteronomisticHistory
ThebookofDeuteronomyisthefirstvolumeofwhatmostOldTestamentscholarsconsidertobeamultivolumeworkintheBibleonthehistoryofIsrael.Thisworkis
knownastheDeuteronomisticHistoryandincorporatesthebooksofDeuteronomy,Joshua,Judges,1and2Samuel,and1and2Kings.Thepolicyofannihilatingthe
CanaanitesintheOldTestamentisaproductof,andforallpracticalpurposesislimitedto,theDeuteronomisticHistory.Deuteronomyestablishesthemandateforthis
policy,aswehaveseen,andtheinstancesoftheimplementationofthepolicyinIsrael'shistoryarereportedintheotherbooks.Soitwillbeinstructivetoconsiderthe
settingoftheDeuteronomisticHistorybeforewemovetoasurveyofthoseinstances.
ThefinalchapteroftheDeuteronomisticHistory,2Kings25,describesthedestructionofJerusalemandtheTemplebytheBabylonianarmyin586B.C.The
DeuteronomisticHistoryaswenowhaveitwasobviouslywrittenorcompiledafterthisdate,thoughtheremayhavebeenearliereditions.Theimportantpointforour
presenttopicisthattheDeuteronomisticHistorydealswiththeidentitycrisisofthepeopleofIsraelinthelightorthewakeoftheturbulenteventsattheendofits
kingdom.Twoothereventswereofcrucialimportanceforthe

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monarchyintheDeuteronomisticHistory'spresentation.ThefirstwasthedivisionoftheunitedkingdomfollowingSolomonintothetwonationsofIsraelandJudah.
ThesecondwasthedestructionofIsraelbytheAssyriansin701B.C.Judah'sdestructionthencamein586.Theauthor(s)oftheDeuteronomisticHistoryattributed
allthreedisasterstothesinofworshipingothergods.Solomon'sforeignwivesledhimastray,andthekingdomwasdividedasaresult.IsraelandthenJudahinturn
forsookYahweh,andtheirrespectivedestructionsensued.Thus,fortheDeuteronomisticHistory,Israel'scontinuedexistencewasboundupwithitsreligiousidentity
asthepeopleofYahweh.Itsauthor(s)soughtto(re)establishIsrael'sidentitythroughaseriesofreligious"exclusives."IsraelwastoworshipYahwehexclusively,and
theworshipwastotakeplaceexclusivelyattheTempleinJerusalem.Foreigngodswereathreattothisexclusivity,andthereforetoIsrael'sidentityandexistence.But
anevengreaterthreatwasthegods,likeBaal,whowereathomeinCanaanandcloselytiedpeople'sthinkingtothecyclesthatbroughtfertilitytolandandanimals.
Theauthor(s)oftheDeuteronomisticHistoryparticularlywantedtodistanceYahwehandIsraelfromtheseCanaanitegodsandthereligionassociatedwiththem.
WhentheDeuteronomisticHistory(includingthemandatetodestroytheCanaanitesinDeuteronomy7)waswritten,thedifferentCanaanitepeoplesasseparateethnic
groupshadlongsincedisappearedfromtheland.Forthemostpart,theyhadsimplybeenabsorbedwithinIsrael(seechapter4ofthisbook).Butthefertilityreligion
involvingBaalandothergodsthathadbeenassociatedwiththelandofCanaanforcenturiesstillthrivedlargelyamongIsraelites!TheprophetsinIsraelgoingback
totheeighthcenturyhadcondemnedthisworship,andnowtheauthor(s)oftheDeuteronomisticHistory,inthesametradition,alsocondemnedit.TheCanaanitesand
theirreligionweretoberemovedfromtheland.ButinfactthoseCanaanitegroupsnolongerexistedtheywere"strawfigures"thattheDeuteronomistichistorian(s)set
upforthepurposeofconsolidatingthepeopleofIsraelinreligiousunity.Somescholarshaveevensuggestedthatthereasonforgivingtherulesofwaragainstthenow
fictional"Canaanites"wastopreventtheexecutionofheremagainstrealpeopleswhowerealiveatthetimeDeuteronomywaswritten.Noneofthisdiminishesthe
horror

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oftheideaofgenocidethatismandatedinDeuteronomy7,butitdoespointoutthemandate'sunrealnature.
CarryingOuttheConquest
Jericho(Joshua67)
TheDeuteronomisticHistoryrecountsseveralinstancesofcarryingoutthe"devotion"ofCanaanitecities.ThebestknowncaseisthatofJericho.Aftersevendaysof
theIsrealitearmymarchingaroundthecity,YahwehcollapseditswallandgaveitovertoIsraeliteconquest(6:116,20).Joshuaannouncesthatthecityisdevotedto
Yahweh,sothatallthepeopleandanimalswithinitaretobekilledandthepropertydestroyedorturnedovertothesacredtreasury(6:1719).Thearmyfollows
Joshua'sorder(6:21),buttherearetwoimportantexceptions.First,Rahabandallthosewhoareinherhousearepreserved(6:17).Inthenextchapter,thisbookwill
examineRahab'sstoryasaresponsetothepolicyof"devoting"theCanaanites.SheisanessentialpartoftheconquestofJerichowithoutherhelpthespieswouldnot
havesucceeded,andJerichomightnothavefallen.Forthemoment,however,itisenoughtoobservethatkeepingRahabandherhouseholdalive,howevermanythey
were,underminesthe"devotion''ofJerichoandpreventsitfrombeingcomplete.
Anotherperson,namedAchan,alsopreventsthetotal"devotion"ofJericho,thoughinaverydifferentwayfromRahab.HisstoryisinJoshua7.Bytakingsomeofthe
spoilofthecity,heviolatestheorderto"devote"ittoYahweh(7:1,2021).HismistakebringsaboutthedefeatofIsraelandthelossofthirtysixofitssoldiersinthe
battleforthesmalltownofAi(7:25),tosaynothingofthedishearteningeffectithasonJoshuaandthearmy(7:59).OnlyafterAchan'ssinisconfessed(7:1621),
andatonedforbyobliteratinghim,hisfamily,andhisproperty(7:2226),aretheIsraelitesabletoreturntoAiandtakeit(8:123).
TheRestofCanaan(Joshua1011)
Joshua8:2429reportsthattheisraelitesslaughteredalltheinhabitantsofAi,hungtheirking,andtookthecattleandpropertyasspoil.Beginningin10:28,chapters
1011recount

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thesimilartreatmentofotherCanaanitecitiesinsummaryfashion.Thefinalresultcomesin11:23:
JoshuatookallthelandaccordingtoallthatYahwehhadtoldMoses,andJoshuagaveitasaninheritancetoIsraelaccordingtotheirallotmentsbytheirtribes.

DespitethisoverviewandJoshua'sconquestofkeycities,therewerestillplentyofCanaaniteslivingintheland,sothattheconquestofCanaanandtheannihilationof
itsnativepopulationwasnotthorough.Firstofall,thestoryoftheconquestisinterruptedinchapters910bythatoftheGibeonites,whofooltheIsraelitesinto
makingatreatywiththem,sothattheycontinuetoliveintheland.Wewilltreatthisstoryinmoredetailinthenextchapter.Then,intheaccountofthedivisionofthe
landthatfollowsinchapters1224,severalpeoplesarementionedwho,liketheGibeonites,werenotdestroyedbutremainedinthelandlivingsidebysidewiththe
Israelites.Theseinclude:GeshuritesandMaacathites(13:13),Anakim(14:12),Jebusites(15:63),andCanaanites(16:1017:12).ThelistofunconqueredCanaanites
isevenlongerinthefirstchapterofJudges.Inmostcases,theIsraelitesaresaidtohaveenslavedtheCanaanitenativesbutnotdestroyedthemordriventhemoutof
theland.
Inpart,thissituationcorrespondswiththeperspectiveofDeuteronomy7:22,whichascribesthegradualremovaloftheCanaanitestoYahweh'sintentionalplanto
preventthewildanimalsfrombecomingtoonumerous.Buttheauthor(s)oftheDeuteronomisticHistoryexplainedthefallofIsraelastheresultofthecontinued
Canaanitepresence.TheCanaanitesledtheIsraelitesastrayreligiously,andtheirapostasyeventuallybroughtonnationaldisastersaspunishment.Forwhatever
reasons,aswiththeconquestofJericho,theorderedannihilationoftheCanaanitesultimatelyprovedunworkable.Realityundercutthe"ideal."
SaulandtheAmalekites(1Samuel15)
Deuteronomy25:1719containsaspecialmandatetodestroytheAmalekites,outofrevengefortheirattackonthepeopleofIsraelwhentheyhadjustcomeoutof
Egypt(Ex.17:815).In1Samuel15,Saulischargedwithcarryingoutthismandate

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andistoldtoexecuteherem[&!erem]againsttheAmalekitesbykillingalltheirpeopleandanimals(15:3).SauldoesindeedattacktheAmalekites,anddestroysall
ofthemexceptforthekingandthebestofthelivestock(15:79).Heclaimsthathesavedtheanimalsforsacrifice(15:15),andhemayhavekeptthekingalivefora
special,ritualexecution,alongthelinesofwhatJoshuadidtothekingofAi(Josh.8:29).4 Butdespitehismotives,bothYahwehandSamuelweredispleasedthathe
hadnotcarriedouttothelettertheorderto"devote"theAmalekites,bykillingthemallinthefield.Samueldeliveredhisfamous"obedienceisbetterthansacrifice"
oracleandpromptlyannouncedthatYahwehhadrejectedSaulasking:"TodayYahwehhastornthekingdomfromyouandgivenittoyourneighborwhoisbetter
thanyou''(15:28).Theneighbor,ofcourse,isDavid,andthisepisodeoftherejectionofSaulleadsintothestoryofDavid'srisetothethrone,whichbeginsinchapter
16.Ironically,afewchapterslater,in1Samuel22,Saulexecutesthe"devotion"againstYahweh'sownpriestswhenheisconvincedthattheyhaveconspiredwith
David,ofwhomSaulhasbecomeinsanelyjealous.Moreover,theAmalekitescomebackagainandagaininSaul'slife,asthestoryisnowtold.Itistheywhoraid
Ziklag(1Samuel30),anditisanAmalekitewhofinallykillsSaul,accordingto2Samuel1.EvenagainstthehatedAmalekites,thepolicyofdevotiondidnotwork,
andactuallybecameSaul'sundoing.
InallthreeoftheseexamplesJericho,theCanaanitesingeneral,andtheAmalekitesthepolicyof"devotion"todestructionwasineffective.Fortheauthor(s)ofthe
DeuteronomisticHistorythiswasbecausetheIsraelitesfailedtocarryoutthe"devotion"completely,andthisinturnledtotheireventualdownfall.Butamodern
readermightsuggestthatthepolicyitselfwasflawed.Insubsequentchapters,wewilltreatthestoriesofRahabandtheGibeonites,aswellasthebookofRuth,as
responsestoethnicallyexclusivisticinterpretationsofDeuteronomy'spolicyof"devotion,"ifnotdirectlytothepolicyitself.Allthesestoriesandsourcesagreethat
therewasethnicdiversitywithinancientIsrael.Theresponsescontendthatatleastinsomecasesthiswasagoodthing.

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4
"AMixedCrowd":
TheEthnicDiversityofAncientIsrael
WhenIsraelwasinEgypt'sland,Letmypeoplego!
Oppressedsohardtheycouldnotstand,Letmypeoplego!
Godown,Moses,WaydowninEgypt'sland.
TellolePharaoh,Letmypeoplego!
"ThussaiththeLord,"boldMosessaid,"Letmypeoplego!
Ifnot,I'llsmiteyourfirstborndead."Letmypeoplego!
Traditionalspiritual

Fromcradletograve,IdaB.WellsBarnettlivedwithandfoughtagainstracism.Bornin1862toparentswhowereslaves,WellsBarnettwasemancipatedattheend
oftheCivilWarandlivedintheruralSouthuntiladulthood.ShewaseducatedatShawUniversity(nowknownasRustCollege),aschoolestablishedbythe
Freedman'sAidSocietyinHollySprings,Mississippi.ShelatertookajobasaschoolteacherinMemphisandsufferedwithblackchildrenfromthepoorandunequal
conditionsofsegregatedschools.Shelostherjobwiththecityschoolboardin1890forspeakingoutinanewspapereditorialaboutthe"fewandutterlyinadequate"
buildingsandthepoortrainingofsomeoftheteachersassignedtothoseschools.Turningthentojournalismfulltime,WellsBarnettservedaseditorofTheFree
Speech,anearlyAfricanAmericannewspaperbasedinMemphis,whichwascirculatedwidelyintheSouth.Withgreatdignityandthoughtfulness,sheregisteredher
convictionthatblacksweretreatedunfairlyandroutinelydeniedjustice.AfterthedeathsofthreeMemphis

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friendswhowerelynchedinaracialincidentinMarchof1892,sheheightenedhereditorialcampaignagainstracism.WellsBarnettcalledonAfricanAmericansto
leavethecitythatofferednojusticeforthem.Inherautobiography,shereportsthathundredsleftMemphis,includingpastorswhotookwholecongregations
westward.AwhitemobdestroyedWellsBarnett'sMemphispressin1892.Outoftownatthetime,shewaswarnednottoreturntoMemphisbecauseofthreatson
herlife.
Thereisthereforeonlyonethingleftthatwecandosaveourmoneyandleaveatownwhichwillneitherprotectourlivesandproperty,norgiveusafairtrialinthecourts,but
takesusoutandmurdersusincoldbloodwhenaccusedbywhitepersons.
(ContributedbySusanMcLainSullivan)

IdaB.Wells'slifeandcareerremindoneofMoses,whomweshallmentioninthischapter.Likehim,shewasaLeaderandspokespersonforherpeopleagainst
oppression.LikeMoses,shecalledforanexodusfromharshtreatmentandinjustice.Shealsosharedtraitswithotherbiblicalcharactersweshallconsiderhere.Like
Rahab,shewascourageousandinsightful,andlikeoneofMoses'wives,shewasofAfricandescent.
Inchapter3weexaminedatraditioninDeuteronomyandtheDeuteronomisticHistorythatmandatedannihilatingtheCanaanites.Wesuggestedthatthistraditionwas
partofaconcernforreligious"purity"fromarelativelylatedateinIsrael'shistory,andthatthewholesaleannihilationdepictedinthesetextsneveractuallyoccurred.
Nonetheless,eventheideaof"ethniccleansing"likethisisfrighteningandoffensivetomodernreadersandrightlyso.Infact,otherpartsoftheBibleitselfoffera
responseofsortsthat,togetherwithhistoricalconsiderations,underminesandcounterstheantiCanaanitetheme.Thatresponseisfoundintheclaimthatfromits
beginningthenationofIsraelwasnotethnicallyunitedbutincorporatedpeopleofvariousbackgrounds,includingCanaanites.Indeed,fromahistoricalperspective,the
ethnicdistinctionbetweenIsraelitesandCanaanitesisrathervague.

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Moses'Wives
Israel'sbirthasanation,accordingtotheBible,tookplaceattheexodusfromEgyptunderMoses.
WhenIsraelwasachildIlovedhim,
AndoutofEgyptIcalledmyson.
(Hos.11:1)

ButtheIsraelthatMosesledoutofslaverywasnotanethnicunity.Exodus12:38mentionsalarge"mixedcrowd"thataccompaniedtheIsraeliteswhentheyleft
Egypt.ThiswasaheterogeneousgroupofpeoplewhosetiestoIsraelwerenotethnicbutgroundedinthecommonexperienceofslavery.TheBiblepicturesthese
peopleasbeingwithIsrael'sancestorsintheexodusfromEgyptandeventuallybecomingabsorbedwithinthenewnationitself.Infact,theveryname"Hebrew"seems
originallytohavedesignatedasocioeconomicclassratherthananethnicgroup.
Moses'ownwifecouldbeconsideredpartofthis"mixedcrowd,"thoughshehadnotdirectlyexperiencedbondageinEgypt.HernamewasZipporah,andshewas
fromthelandofMidianinthesouthernArabianpeninsula(modernSaudiArabia).ThewifeofIsrael'sfirstleaderandgreatestliberator,therefore,wasnotanIsraelite
byethnicbackground.Butshe,likesomanyothers,wasincorporatedaspartofthenation.
ThereisastoryinvolvingMoses'wifethatisespeciallypertinentforourpresentstudy.InNumbers12,Moses'siblings,AaronandMiriam,questionhisleadership:"Is
itonlythroughMosesthatYahwehhasspoken?Hashenotalsospokenthroughus?"(12:2).TherealreasonthattheyspeakagainstMoses,though,hastodowithhis
marriagetoaCushitewoman(12:1).Thescantdetailsinthisstoryimmediatelyraisetwoquestions:(1)WhoexactlyisthisCushitewoman?and(2)Whatisitabout
herthatleadsAaronandMiriamtocomplainaboutMoses'leadership?Whilethestorydoesnotaddresseitherquestiondirectly,itsplotdoessuggestrelatedanswers
toboth.
TheissuethatsurroundsthefirstquestioniswhetherthiswomanistobeidentifiedwithZipporah.Somescholarshaveassumedthatsheis,andhavetherefore
suggestedthatinadditiontoitsmorecommondesignationsofNubia(Ethiopia)andsouthernMesopotamia,"Cush"couldalsorefertoanareaor

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claninMidian.Theycitetwootherpassagesinsupportofthissuggestion:Habakkuk3:7usesthenameCushaninparallelwithMidian,sothattheycouldbetwo
namesforthesameregion.But"Cushan"isnotexactlythesameasCushandisnotattestedanywhereelseintheBible,sothatitsprecisemeaningisuncertain.The
otherpassageismorecompelling.SecondChronicles21:16refersto"theArabswhoareneartheCushites."TheCushitesherearenotlikelyNubians,sinceNubia
wasnowherenearArabpeoples.TheyarealsonotlikelyMesopotamians,sincethestorydealswithJudahanditsnearbyneighbors.
ButevenifCushcouldrefertoanareaofMidian,itseemsunlikelythattheCushitewomaninNumbers12isZipporah.Zipporahhasbeenmentionedbyname
previouslyandbeencalledaMidianite,soitwouldbeunusualforhersuddenlytobereferredtohereenigmaticallyasaCushite.Thisappearstobeanewmarriagefor
Moses,andtheremainderofthestorysuggeststhathisCushitebridewasindeedNubianandthereforeblack.Moreover,itwasevidentlybecauseshewasblackthat
AaronandMiriambegantoquestiontheirbrother'sleadership.ItisinthelightofthisunderstandingthatMiriam'spunishmentinthestory(12:1016)makesthemost
sense.Sheisafflictedwithaskindisease(ofteninterpretedasleprosy)andexcludedfromthecampforsevendays.Thetextspecificallystatesthatshebecame"as
whiteassnow"(12:10).ItisnotentirelyclearwhyMiriamaloneispunishedandnotAaron.Perhapsitwasbecauseshewastherealinstigatorofthecomplaint(note
thatsheismentionedfirstin12:1),orperhapsbecauseshe,likeMoses'wife,thetargetofhercomplaint,wasawoman.Ineithercase,herbecomingpalewhitewith
diseasewasaparticularlyappropriatecountertoherobjectiontoMoses'blackwife.
CleverCanaanites:RahabandtheGibeonites
ThebookofJoshuarecountstheexecutionofthemandatetreatedintheprecedingchapter,toconquerCanaanandannihilateitsinhabitants.Joshua'saccountis
clearlyidealized,anoverviewoftheconstituentpartsofthelandofIsrael.Theverynextbook,Judges,showsthatinfacttheCanaanitescontinuedtothriveandeven
dominateinthelandclaimedbyIsrael.ButeveninJoshua'stellingofthestory,thetruthemergesthatthe

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completedestructionoftheCanaaniteswasimpossible,impractical,andintheend,undesirable.
Rahab
TwostoriesabouttheCanaanitepresenceinIsraelstandout.Thefirstisthatoftheexceptionalwoman,Rahab.Rahabwasaharlot,aprostitute.Onemustbecareful
atthispointnottoreadmodernmoraljudgmentsintothestory.Therewerenopayingjobsforwomeninthatancientsociety,andprostitutionwasoneofthefew
meansthatunmarriedwomenhadofsustainingthemselves,especiallyinacitylikeJericho.Rahab'sdescriptionasaharlotsaysmoreaboutherindependenceand
judiciousnessindealingwithmenthanitdoesabouthermoralcharacter.However,italsoindicatesherlowsocioeconomiclevelandsuggeststhatshewassomething
ofanoutcastamongherownpeople.PerhapsthisisonereasonwhyshehelpedtheIsraelitespies.
InJoshua2:1thetwoIsraelitespiesgotoRahab'shousebecause,asstrangersinthecityofJericho,theywouldbeinconspicuousinaprostitute'shouse.Rahabhides
andprotectsthemwhenthekingofthecitysendsmentoarrestthem(2:27).Beforesheletsthemgo,however,sheextractsapromisefromthemtospareherand
everyoneinherhousewhenthecityfallstotheIsraelites(12:814).
TheinsightandfaithascribedtoRahabinthisepisodeareextraordinary.OnthebasisofwhatshehasheardabouttheIsraelitesandtheirvictories,shehascometo
believethatYahweh,theirGod,isLordofalltheearth(2:1011).ShealsosaysthatsheknowsGodwillgiveJerichoandindeedallofCanaantoIsrael(2:9).Her
insightandfaitharethegroundsonwhichshemakesthearrangementwiththespiestosaveherownlifeandthatofherfamily(2:1214).Attheveryleastonemust
admireRahab'sastutenessinthisaffair.Acynicalreadermightsuggestthatshehedgesherbets.IftheIsraelitesfailintheirassaultonJerichoandthecitysurvives,she
haslostnothing.Sheconvincinglyliestotheking'smessengers(2:45),sothattheydonotsuspectherasanaccompliceinthespies'mission.Ontheotherhand,ifthe
IsraelitesdosucceedagainstJericho,Rahabhasgainedeverything.ButthereismoretoRahab'sactionsthanacynicalreadingallows.Inprotectingthespiessherisks

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herownlifeandshowsherselftobeacourageouswoman.Herfaithandgoodjudgmentmovehertoactboldly.
TheIsraelites,ofcourse,dosucceedagainstJericho,andwhenthecityfallssheispreparedandwaitingaccordingtoherbargainwiththespies(6:2225).Shesaves
herparents,siblings,andotherfamilymembers.Thestoryendsbypointingoutthatshe(andpresumablyherfamilyaswell)livedinIsraelfromthenon(6:25).Butthat
isnotthelastwehearofRahabintheBible.AccordingtothegenealogyinMatthew1,RahabcametooccupyaprominentplaceinIsraelasthegreatgreat
grandmotherofKingDavidandtheancestressofJesus.TheonetimeprostitutefromamongthedespisedCanaanitesnotonlyplayedacrucialroleinIsrael'sconquest
oftheland,butalsohadapartinengenderingIsrael'sgreatestkingandtheSavioroftheworld!
TheGibeonites
GibeonwasanancientandimportantCanaanitecityjustnorthofJerusalem.AccordingtoJoshua9,itsresidentsactedcleverlytodeceiveJoshuaandtheIsraelites
andtoensurethesurvivaloftheircity.TheGibeoniteswereterrifiedbythetalestheyheardofIsrael'sconqueststhroughthepowerofYahweh(9:24).Knowingthey
couldnotwinamilitaryvictory,theydecidedthattheironechanceforsurvivalwasthrougharuse.Sotheysentmessengersdressedinold,wornoutclothingwith
failingprovisionsasthoughtheyhadbeenonalongjourney(9:45).ThemessengerstoldJoshuaandtheleadersofIsraelthattheycamefromadistantcountry,which
hadheard,nevertheless,ofIsrael'smilitarysuccessesandhaddecidedtosueforpeacebymakingacovenant(9:911).Joshuaandtheleadersweresoflatteredthat
theyimmediatelyagreedtoapactwithoutconsultingYahweh(9:14).Whentheydiscoveredashorttimelaterwhothemessengersreallywere(9:16),theycouldnot
destroythembecausetheyhadtakenoathsbyYahwehnottodoso(9:1920).Instead,theinhabitantsofGibeonanditsenvirons(9:17)wereputtoworkas"hewers
ofwoodanddrawersofwater,"orslaves,fortheIsraelites(9:21,27).
ThelowlystatusoftheGibeoniteswithinIsraeldidnotlastlong,despitetheintentionsofJoshuaandtheleaders.Withinafewshortyears,thecitybecameso
thoroughlyincorporatedinto

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IsraelthatthetabernacleresidedinitssanctuaryintheearlydaysofDavid(1Chron.16:39),anditwasapparentlyatthissanctuarythatSolomonprayedandreceived
thedreaminwhichYahwehpromisedhimgreatwisdom(1Kings3:315).Nonetheless,Gibeon'scitizenswerestillpredominantlytheethnicCanaaniteswhomJoshua
hadencountered,asthestoryin2Samuel21:114shows.Here,DaviddiscoversthatafamineinIsraelisdivinepunishmentforSaul'shavingviolatedJoshua'streaty
withtheGibeonites,andhenegotiateswiththemtofindasolution.ThepointforourpresentpurposesisthatthebiblicaltextsdescribeGibeonasanimportantcityof
Israelalready,withinashorttimeafterJoshua'scovenantwiththem.ThisisnotbecauseethnicIsraelitesreplacedthecity'sCanaaniteinhabitants,butbecausethe
CanaanitecitywassimplyabsorbedintoIsrael.
AMeltingPot:TheReignofDavid
DavidisrenownedintheBibleforhisgreatmilitaryconquests,bywhichhebuiltanempireforIsrael.Inviewofthisreputationitisstrikingtonotehowmany
individualsintheBible'sstoriesaboutDavidarereferredtoexplicitlyasmembersofnonIsraeliteethnicgroups.Tobeginwithoneofthemostfamousexamples,Uriah
theHittiteislistedinthe"halloffame"ofDavid'sbestsoldiers(2Sam.23:39).HewasalsoextremelyloyaltoDavid,ashisactionsin2Samuel11show.David's
greatsinwasthathecommittedadulterywithUriah'swife,Bathsheba,andplottedUriah'smurder.ThishadnothingtodowithUriah'sethnicdesignationasaHittite,
butwasdueentirelytoDavid'sfailuretocontrolhislust.TheBibleusestheterm"Hittite"foroneofthepeoplesindigenoustoCanaan(e.g.,Gen.15:1921)whomthe
IsraelitesweresupposedtoobliterateaccordingtoDeuteronomy7:1.YetitisclearthatUriahhadbeenfullyacceptedwithinIsrael.HehadanIsraelitewifeandallthe
privilegesofanyIsraelitecitizen.Therefore,NathantheprophetcondemnsDavid'ssinagainstUriahascompletelyashewouldasimilaroffenseagainstanyIsraelite(2
Sam.12:114).
David'smostfamousindividualbattle,ofcourse,wastheonehefoughtwiththePhilistinechampion,Goliath.ThePhilistineswereIsrael'smainenemyduringthereign
ofSaulandatthebeginningofDavid'sreign.Itmaycomeasasurprise,

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therefore,tolearnthatsomeofDavid'smostloyalsupporterswerePhilistines.Accordingto1Samuel27,Saul'sinsanejealousyandrelentlesspursuitofDavidforced
himtoseekasylumwithSaul'senemies,thePhilistines.Specifically,DavidwenttothePhilistinecityofGathandsoughthelpfromitsking,Achish(27:14).Much
later,afterDavidhadbeenkingoverIsraelforseveralyears,hissonAbsalomledarevoltagainsthim(2Sam.15:112).AlargepercentageofIsraelitesjoinedthe
revolt,forcingDavidtofleeJerusalem(15:1317).Ashefled,thefirstgroupofsupporterstojoinhimwerehisroyalbodyguard,called"theCherethitesand
Pelethites."These,themostfaithfulofDavid'ssoldiers,wereinfactPhilistineswhohadfollowedhimsincehisdaysinGath(15:18),andtogetherwiththeirleader,Ittai,
theysworetoremainloyaltoDavidtothedeath(15:21).
Twomorebriefexamplesof"foreigners"whobecameapartofIsraelunderDavidwillsufficeforourpresentpurposes.AfterDavid'sarmyhadputdowntherevolt
andAbsalomwasdead,twomessengersvolunteeredtocarrythetidingsbacktoDavid(2Sam.18:1933).Oneofthemiscalledsimply"Cushite."Aswehaveseen,
thisisareferencetoapersonofAfricandescent,anditindicatesthattherewereblackpeoplelivinginancientIsraelandservinginDavid'sarmy.Finally,astoryin2
Samuel24and1Chronicles21tellshowDavidselectedandpurchasedtheplotoflandwheretheTemplewouldbebuiltinJerusalem.Heboughtitfromaman
namedAraunah(OrnaninChronicles),whoiscalledaJebusite.TheJebusiteswereanotherofthepeoplesofCanaanlistedinDeuteronomy7:1,andthepreIsraelite
inhabitantsofJerusalem,fromwhomDavidconqueredthecityaccordingto2Samuel5:610(1Chronicles11:49).Araunah'scontinuedpresencethereasa
propertyownersuggeststhatlittlechangedfortheJebusiteswhenDavidtookover.Hedidnotkillthem,enslavethem,orconfiscatetheirproperty.Hesimplyannexed
Jerusalemtohisburgeoningempire.Sincehemadethecityhiscapital,itwouldeventuallychangeradically.ButattheoutsettheJebusitescontinuedtheirlivesasusual,
onlyunderDavid'sgovernmentasresidentsofthenewnationofIsraelinsteadofasanautonomousJebusiteenclave.InalltheseexamplestheBibleindicatesthat
Israel'sethnicdiversitybegunattheexoduscontinuedunderitskingssothatthenationbecamesomethingofa"meltingpot"oforiginallydifferentethnicgroups.

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TheEmergenceofIsraelinHistory
AtthebeginningofthischapterImentionedtheevidencefromhistory,includingarchaeology,asprovidingimportantbackgroundandbalanceformuchoftheBible's
record.Oneofthemostperplexingandcomplicatedissuesfacedbybiblicalscholars,archaeologists,andhistoriansofancientIsraelinrecentdecadeshasbeenthatof
Israel'semergenceasapeopleandanation.ItisfairtosaythatthereisatpresentagrowingconsensusthatIsraelbasicallycamefromwithinCanaan.Whileoutside
influences,suchasthe"Mosesgroup"fromEgypt,mayhavehelpedtodevelopanationalidentity,byandlargeIsraelwasanindigenousdevelopment.Inotherwords,
inorigintheIsraeliteswereCanaanites,sharingacommonethnicbackgroundandculture.ThispictureaccordswithwhattheBiblesaysaboutIsraelincorporating
variousethnic,especiallyCanaanite,elements.Together,thesestoriesfurnishaforcefulresponsetothetextssurveyedintheprecedingchapter,whichuseanimosity
towardnonIsraelitesasawayoftryingtoachieveasenseofnationalsolidarityandreligious"purity."

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5
''YourPeopleWillBeMyPeople":
TheStoryofRuth
Shewasfortyfiveyearsoldin1955,awomanofquietdignitywhoworkedinadepartmentstoreindowntownMontgomery,Alabama.Butherquietwaysbeliedher
strength.ShewasalsosecretaryoftheMontgomeryNAACP.Sherodethebustoandfromwork,andovertheyearshadexperienceddifficultieswithmorethanone
busdriverforherdefianceoftheracistrules.Twelveyearsearliershehadbeenevictedfromabusforrefusingtousethebackdoor.OnherwayhomeonDecember
1,1955,shesatintheonlyvacantseat,onthefrontrowofthe"black"sectionofthebus.Twostopslater,the"white"seatswerealloccupiedwhenawhitemangot
on.Thedrivertoldthepeopleatthefrontofthe"black"seatstovacatetherow.Threeofthepeopleonthatrowmoved,butRosaParkswastiredofbeinghumiliated
forracialreasons,andshestayedput.Thedriverthreatenedtohaveherarrested,andthenmadegoodonhisthreat.FromthepolicestationMrs.ParkscalledE.D.
Nixon,leaderofthelocalNAACP.EarlythenextmorningMr.Nixonbegancallingpeopleintown,especiallyministers,todiscussplansforaboycottofthe
montgomerybussystem.AmongthosehecalledwasthetwentysixyearoldministeroftheDexterAvenueBaptistChurch,whohadmovedtoMontgomeryjusta
yearearlierafterthecompletionofhisdoctorateatBostonUniversity.Theyoungman'snamewasMartinLutherKingJr.
Thestorywewillexamineinthischapteristhatofanothercourageousanddignifiedwoman.Ruthexemplifiesotherposi

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tivequalitiesalso,asweshallsee.HerstorymaybereadasaresponsetothelawsaboutforeignersinDeuteronomy,particularlythatofDeuteronomy23:3:"No
AmmoniteorMoabitemayenterthecongregationofYahweh."
AGenealogicalClue(Matt.1:117)
TheGospelofMatthewbeginsitsaccountofJesus'lifewithhisgenealogy.ItisaheritagethatanyJewofthetimewouldhavebeenproudtohave.Accordingtoit,
Jesuswasofroyalblood,boastingdescentnotonlyfromAbrahambutalsofromDavid.ThisisanimportantpartofMatthew'soverallmessage,whichisdirectedtoa
JewishorJewishChristianaudience.ThisfactmayexplainwhyMatthew'sgenealogyforJesusdifferssomuchfromLuke's(Luke3:2338).Matthew'sgenealogy
remindshisaudiencethatJesuswasthe"kingoftheJews."AnothertitleforthekingwastheHebrewword"Messiah,"whichcorrespondstotheGreekword"Christ,"
bothmeaning"anointed."SoMatthewisalsomakingthepointthroughhisgenealogythatJesusistheanticipatedMessiahorChrist.
MostofthegenealogyforJesusinMatthewcomesstraightoutoftheOldTestament,sothatthenamesinitwouldhavebeenfamiliartoitsreaders.Again,there
wouldhavebeennofinerpedigreeamongJesus'Jewishcontemporaries.ButonefeatureofthisgenealogymayhavestoodouttoMatthew'soriginalaudience
namely,thefactthatitcontainsreferencestoseveralwomen.AsurveyofothergenealogiesintheBibleshowsthattheyusuallyaretracedstrictlythroughthemale
ancestors.Matthewmentionsfivewomen:Tamar(1:3),Rahab(1:5),Ruth(1:5),Bathshebacalled"thewifeofUriah"(1:7),andMary(1:16).Allthesewomen,
exceptofcourseMary,aresubjectsofOldTestamentstories.Eachstorybringsoutfascinatingdetailsaboutthewomenthemselvesandilluminatinginsightsintothe
charactersofthefamousmenwhoareinvolvedwiththem.Allfivewomenwereatleastaccusedofsexualimpropriety:Rahab,whomwehavetreated,wasa
prostituteRuth,asweshallsee,appeared(atleast)toseduceBoazBathshebawasanadulteressMarywasthoughttohavebeenunfaithfultoJoseph(Matt.1:18
19).Tamar'sstory(Genesis38)isthemostinterestinginthisregard.Intheguiseofaprostitute,shehadsexwithherfather

Page42

inlaw,Judah,andconceivedtwinsbyhim.Butthestorymakesitobviousthatshewasforcedbyhisbrokenpromisestotaketheseactionsinordertomaintainher
dignityasawomaninthatculture.Attheendofthestory(v.26)Judahacknowledges,"SheismorerighteousthanI."
TheinclusionofthesewomeninMatthew'sgenealogyforJesusmakesatheologicalpoint.Theybringtothereader'sattentiontherealnatureofJesus'"illustrious"
humanroots.Thewomeninthegenealogy,likeTamar,areinfactvictimsoftheirmaledominatedsociety,andspecificallyofthe"greatmen"oftheOldTestament
whoareinvolvedwiththem.TamarwasabusedbyJudah.RahabandRuthshowthattheonlyoptionsavailabletosinglewomenwereprostitutionandpoverty.
Bathsheba,accordingto1Samuel1112,wasapassivepartytothefulfillmentofKingDavid'slust.Matthewbringsthisoutbynotusinghername,callingher
instead"thewifeofUriah."Expandingfromthewomen'sstoriestoconsidertheentiregenealogy,thereaderrecognizesthatIsrael'sroyallinewasdominatedby
wickedmen.Jesus'familyhistoryisahistoryofsin.ButhereinliesMatthew'stheologicallesson:thesinlessonecameamongsinfulhumanityasoneoftheminorderto
redeemthembeforeGod.
AfinalobservationaboutthewomeninJesus'genealogyaccordingtoMatthewisespeciallygermanetoourstudyofracism.Threeofthefivewomenmentioned
hereTamar,Rahab,andRuthwerenonIsraelites.TamarandRahabwereCanaanites,RuthaMoabite.Again,thereisasubtlepoint,particularlyrelevantfor
Matthew'soriginalaudience.Theroyal,DavidiclinewhichJesusrepresentedwasnever"pure"IsraeliteorJewishallthreeofthesewomenwereinfactancestorsof
David.Jesusrepresentsandredeemsallpeople.Moreover,thesethree"foreign"womenareespeciallyadmirablecharactersfortheirintelligence,strength,and
faithfulness.WehaveseenthiswithRahabandtouchedonitwithTamar.Ruth'sstoryremains,andshemaybethebestexampleofthesequalities.
"WhitherThouGoest"(Ruth1)
ThebookofRuthisawomen'stalefromstarttofinish.Itisaboutwomenandtoldfromawoman'sperspective.Thefirstfiveversesgivebackgroundforthestory.It
issetinthetimeof

Page43

theJudges,beforetheinceptionofthemonarchy.AfaminedrivesafamilyfromBethlehemtoleavehomeandmigrateacrosstheJordantoMoab.Themandiesin
Moab,leavinghiswife,Naomi,andhertwosons.OverthespaceoftenyearsthesonsgrowupandmarryMoabitewomen.Butthenthey,liketheirfather,alsodie
prematurely,sothatNaomiisleftalonewithherdaughtersinlaw,RuthandOrpah.
Thethreewomenshareacloseandaffectionaterelationship,sowhenNaomidecidestoreturntohernativeland,wherethefaminehasabated(1:6),theothertwo
determineinitiallytoaccompanyher(1:710).Inexpressinghergratitudetothem,Naomilaysoutthethemeforthebook(1:8).Shewishesforthemthesamehesed
[&!esed]fromYahwehthattheyhaveshowntoher.Thiswordisvariouslytranslatedas"faithfulness,""kindness,"or"love."InthecontextofthebookofRuthitis
probablybestunderstoodas"lovingloyalty."Naomi'sdaughtersinlawhaveremainedaffectionatelydevotedtoherthroughouttheordealofthelossoftheirmale
relatives.NowshewishesforthemthesamekindtreatmentfromGod.
Naomidemonstratesthegenuinenessofherfeelingsforherdaughtersinlawbytryingtopersuadethemtodowhatisintheirownbestinterests.Inaman'sworld,the
onlywaytheywillbeabletofind"rest"or"security"againisbyremarrying(1:9).Andtheirchancesoffindingotherhusbandswillbebetteramongtheirownpeople.
Naomitellsherdaughtersinlawthatwithhertheyhavenohopeofsecurity,sincesheistoooldtohaveanymoresons(1:11),andevenifshecouldremarryandbear
sons,theywouldhavetowaituntilthesonsweregrowntomarrythem(1:1213).
Naomi'sspeechpersuadesoneofherdaughtersinlaw,Orpah,whodecidestoreturntoMoab.ButRuthstays.Naomitriesoncemoretogethertoturnback.Ruth
replieswithalitanyofpledgesofherloyalty,whicharewellknowntomodernreadersbecauseoftheirfrequentuseinweddings:
Donotpressmetoleaveyou,
toturnbackfrombehindyou.

ForwhereveryougoIwillgo,
whereveryoulodgeIwilllodge.

Yourpeoplewillbemypeople,
andyourGodmyGod.

Page44
WhereyoudieIwilldie,
andthereIwillbeburied.

SomayYahwehdotomeandmore
onlydeathwillseparatemefromyou.
(Ruth1:16,17)

Ruth'swordsreallyareanextraordinaryexpressionoffaithfulnesstohermotherinlaw.Sheisgivingupeverythingshehasknownherhomelandandnativeculture,
herfamilyandpeople,evenherreligioninordertoaccompanyNaomibacktoBethlehem.NaomidoesnotmakeanymoreefforttopersuadeRuthtostaybehind,
becauseherdeterminationisplain(1:18).
WhentheyreachBethlehem,Naomiisrecognizedbyformeracquaintancesthere(1:19).Shesuggests,however,anamechangeforherselftoreflectherpersonal
experiences."Don'tcallmeNaomianymore,"shesays.Naomimeans"pleasant."Hernewname,shesays,shouldbeMara,meaning"bitter,"forthathasbeenher
life'sexperienceGodhasdealtbitterlywithher(1:20).SheblamesYahwehforherproblems.Shedoesnotexplainwhy,onlythatsheleftfullbuthasreturnedempty
(1:21).
MeetingBoaz(Ruth2)
ThebookofRuthisveryintriguingtheologically.AsidefromtheblamethatNaomiimputestoYahwehforherpredicament,thebookneverascribesanyspecific
actiontohim.Itspeaksratherofanamazingsetofcoincidences.Thefirstofthesecomesatthebeginningofchapter2,whereRuth,whohasgoneintothefieldsto
gleanwhatthereapersdonotharvestontheirfirstpass,just"happens"toendupinthefieldofBoaz,who"happens"tobearelativeofNaomi'sdeadhusband(2:1
3).Boazalso"happens"tobeawealthynobleman(2:1).Ofcourse,Ruth'sactionsinthisepisodeareanothertestimonytoherillustriouscharacter.Notonlyisshe
lovingandloyaltoNaomi,butsheisalsoindustriousandgenerous.Sheexpressesnoselfpityshedoesnotbemoanherdesperatesituation.Rather,shetakesthe
initiativetodowhatshecantobetterhercircumstancesandthoseofhermotherinlaw.PerhapsitisherindustrythatfirstattractsBoaz'sattention(2:5).Atanyrate,
his

Page45

servantspointoutwhatahardworkerRuthis,notingthatshehasbeeninthefieldalldayfromearlymorning(2:7).
BoazisquiteimpressedbyRuth'sindustry.Healsoisapersonofgoodcharacter.HeiskindandgeneroustoRuth,takingherunderhiswingtomakesuresheissafe
inthefield(2:9).Healsoseestoitthatshehaswaterwhensheisthirsty(2:9)andfoodatmealtime(2:14).Heevenhashisreapersleavealittleextrabehindtomake
hergleaningeasierandmoreproductive(2:16).Butitisstillherstory,nothis.Boaz'sdeedsofkindnessareasortofrewardtoRuth,notonlyforherhardwork,
whichhehaswitnessed,butalsoforwhathehasheardaboutRuth.Herreputationasaloyalanddevoteddaughterinlawhasspreadwidelyandbecomeknownto
Boaz(2:1112).BoazrecognizestheextraordinaryunselfishnessofRuth'sleavingherfamilyandhomelandforaforeigncountry,alloutofloveforNaomi(2:11).
AllofthistakesplacebeforeRuthrealizesthatBoazisarelative.ItisnotuntiltheeveningwhenshereturnshomefromherfirstdayinthefieldthatRuthdiscoverswho
Boazis.ShebringstoNaomithefoodshehadleftoverfromhermealaswellasthegrainshegleaned.Itisanastonishingamount,aboutanephah(inmodernterms
overhalfabushel)ofthreshedbarley(2:17)!WhenRuthidentifiesBoazasthemanwhowaskindtoherandinwhosefieldshegleaned(2:19),Naomirecognizeshim
asakinsman(2:20).SheadvisesRuthtoacceptBoaz'shospitalityandremainwithhisharvestersfortheremainderoftheseason(2:2122),whichshedoes(2:23).
ANightattheThreshingFloor(Ruth3)
AttheendoftheharvestseasonNaomiconcoctsaplantohelpRuthsecureabetterfutureforherself.Boazisnowinvolvedwiththreshingthegrainthathasbeen
harvested.NaomicounselsRuthtobatheherselfanddressinherbestclothingforatriptothethreshingfloor,aflatareawherethegrainwasseparatedoutandpiled
(3:3).RuthistowatchBoazsecretlyuntilhehaseatenandliesdowntosleep.Thensheisto"uncoverhisfeet"(or"legs")andliedownuntilhedirectsherwhattodo
(3:4).
ItisnotentirelycertainwhatliesbehindNaomi'sinstructionsandRuth'sexecutionofthem.Thisepisodehasclearsexualovertones,butitishardtoknowhowfar
Ruth'sandBoaz's

Page46

intimacygoes.Theverb"toknow"(3:3)isoftenusedforsexualrelationsintheBible,andtheword"feet"isarelativelycommoneuphemismforthegenitals.So,isthe
entireexpression"touncoverthefeet"alsoidiomatic?Thatis,doesNaomitellRuthtohavesexwithBoaz?OrdoessheintendforRuthtoexposeBoaz'sgenitalsso
thathewillthinkhehashadsexwithherandwill"dotherightthing"bymarryingher?OristhesignificanceofRuth'sactionsbasedonsomeothercustom?
ThelawsinDeuteronomyprovidesomehelpforunderstandingthebackgroundofthestoryinRuth,buttheydonotalwaysapplyexactly.Deuteronomy24:1922
giveslawsaboutharvestingvariousagriculturalproductsthatarehelpfulforRuth.Alandowneristohavesomeoftheproduceleftbehindforthebenefitofresident
aliens,orphans,andwidows.Deuteronomy22:2829requiresthatamanwhoviolatesanunbetrothedvirginmustmarryherandmayneverdivorceher.Some
comparablepracticemayliebehindNaomi'sinstructionstoRuth,exceptthatRuthisawidowandnotavirgin.Finally,Deuteronomy25:510describesthepracticeof
leviratemarriage,wherebythebrotherofadeadmanisresponsibleformarryinghiswidowandfatheringandraisingasontocontinuethedeadbrother'sname.Again,
someformofthispracticeispresupposedbythestoryinRuth,butitisnotexactlythesame.NeitherBoaznorthenearerkinsmanmentionedin3:12arebrothersto
Ruth'sdeadhusband,yeteachiscalleda"redeemer"(Hebrewgo'el).
WhatevertherelationshipofthestorytoIsrael'slawsandcustoms,theinterestingthingforourpresentstudyisthatRuthdepartsfromNaomi'sinstructionsinatelling
way.ShegoestothethreshingfloorandwaitsforBoaz(3:6).Hearrives,havingeatenanddrunk(wine),sothathis"heartisgood,"thatis,heiscontent(3:7),buthis
headisprobablynotentirelyclear.AfterhefallsasleepRuth"uncovershisfeet"andliesdown,asperNaomi'sadvice.Boazawakensinthemiddleofthenightand
discoversawomanlying"athisfeet."Whenheinquiresastoheridentity,Ruth'sansweroncemorebetraysherloyalconcernforhermotherinlaw:"IamRuth,your
maidservant.Spreadyourcloak[or"wing'']overyourmaidservant,foryouarearedeemer."HerrequestthatBoaz"spreadhiscloak"overherisamarriageproposal,
andthisiscertainlyinlinewithNaomi'splan.ButRuth'saddednotethatheisa"redeemer"indicates

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thatshehasmoreonhermindthanherownmarriage.SheisalsoconcernedthatNaomiwillbecaredforandthatNaomi'shusband'slinewillbecontinued.She,
Ruth,willbeartheheirthatNaomihaslost.Ruth'sunselfishloveshinesthrough.
Inthisepisode,asinhergleaning,Ruthshowsherstrengthofcharacter.Inbothinstances,shetakestheinitiative.Itwasshewhoenteredthefieldstogatherfoodfor
Naomiandherself.Now,withBoaz,sheagaintakestheleadingrole.Itisshe,nothe,whoproposesmarriageandwhothusforcestheissueoftheresponsibilityofthe
redeemertocareforthewidowofakinsman.BoazischarmedbyRuthandblessesherforseekinghimratherthanayoungerman(3:10).Butheisalsoawarethat
thereisaredeemerwhoisacloserbloodrelativethanhe.Ruthmayhavebeenawareofthisherself,sinceshereferredtoBoazasaredeemerratherthanthe
redeemer(3:9).Nonetheless,herinitiative,especiallyonbehalfofhermotherinlaw,hasbeguntheprocessofprovidingforthewidowaccordingtotheIsraelite
customofleviratemarriage.RuthstayswithBoazatthethreshingflooruntiljustbeforedawn.Beforesheleaveshenotonlypromisestotakecareofthematterof
redemptionbutalsogivesheraquantityofbarleytotaketoNaomiasagift.Naomi'srespectforandconfidenceinBoazisapparentinherfinalstatementtoRuthin
thisscenethathewillnotrestuntilhehassettledthematterthatveryday(3:18).
IntheGate(Ruth4:112)
ThefinalsceneofthebookofRuthtakesplaceinthecitygate,whichwasthecourtroomofancientIsraelitecities.Itwasthesitewhereimportantlegalandcivic
mattersofcitiesweredecided.BoazbringsthecaseofNaomi'sredemptionbeforeteneldersofthecitywhomhehasassembled(4:12).Again,itisprovidentialthat
thekinsmanwhoisanearerredeemershowsupatthegateaboutthesametimeBoazdoes,sincethisothermanknowsnothingoftheaffair.Boazintroducesapiece
ofinformationthatisnewtothestoryNaomiownsaparceloflandthatbelongedtoherhusband,andshenowwishestosellit.Howthiscouldbeissomethingofa
mysteryinthestory,sinceNaomiandRuthhaveappearedtobepennilessheretofore.ItispossiblethatNaomididnotknowofthelandorthat

Page48

sheassumeditwaslostbecauseofherlongabsence.Itmayhavebeentakenoverbysquatters,asinthestoryoftheShunammitewoman'slandin2Kings8:16.At
anyrate,Boazpresentsthecaseasamatteroflandtoberedeemed,boughtbackintothefamilyheritage(4:4).
Whenthenearerkinsmanexpresseshiswillingnesstobuytheland,Boazintroducesanotherelementtheredeemer'sresponsibilityentailsmarryingRuthandfathering
childrenbyhersothatthelineofherhusbandwillcontinue(4:5).Thisnewconditionmeansthatthenearerkinsmanmustdeclinetobetheredeemer.Hesaysitwould
damagehisowninheritance(4:6),bywhichheprobablymeanstheinheritanceforhisownchildren.Ifbuyingthelandweretheonlythinginvolved,hecouldprofitfrom
itsproduceandrecoverhisinvestmentbysellingitlater.ButwithRuthintheequation,itwouldmeanhavingtocareforherandNaomiaswellasanychildrenRuth
wouldbear.ItwouldalsomeanthatthelandanditsproducewouldgotoRuth'sson.Thus,themanwouldnotrecoverhisinvestmentandwouldinfactdiminishthe
inheritancehewillleavetohisotherchildren.
Boazisnextinlinetoredeem.Hehasfollowedtheacceptedprocedureinfrontofwitnesses,sothathecannotbeaccusedofanyunderhandeddealing.Heacquires
Naomi'sland,anditisclearthatforhimthisentailscaringforher(4:9).HealsoacquiresRuthashiswife,withtheunderstandingthathewillraisechildrentomaintain
thenameofherformerhusband(4:10).Boazisapparentlysingleorwidowedandwithoutchildren.Heiswealthy,andnootherheirofhisismentioned.Accordingto
thecustomoftheday,asandalisexchangedbetweenBoazandtheotherrelativetosealthearrangement(4:7).TheeldersblessRuthbytheancestralmothersof
Israel,RachelandLeah(4:11),andbytheancestorsofthetribeofJudahPerez,Tamar,andJudahhimself(4:12).Ruthisfullywelcomedandintegratedintothe
nationofIsrael,thetribeofJudah,thecityofBethlehem,andtheclanofBoaz.
AGenealogicalConclusion(Ruth4:1322)
FromthestandpointofRuthandespeciallyofNaomi,thestoryendsattheotherextremefromwhereitbegan.Naomi,

Page49

whoreferredtoherselfasemptyandbitteratthebeginning,isnowfullandhappy.ThisisbecauseRuthbearsason,Obed,tocontinueNaomi'sline.Indeed,Naomiis
treatedasthechild'smother.Shenurseshim(4:16),andtheneighborwomenrefertohimasherson(4:17).ThesewomenobservethatNaomiisblessedtohavea
redeemerinBoaz(4:14),whohas"restored"Naomibybegettingasonforherandwhowilltakecareofherinheroldage(4:15).Butmostofalltheytakenoteof
Naomi'sgoodfortuneinhavingadaughterinlawlikeRuth,wholovesherandismorevaluabletoherthansevensons(4:15).ThankstoRuth,Naomibecomesthe
ancestressofIsrael'sgreatestking,David(4:17).Nevertheless,thebookendsinanirony.ThegenealogyofDavidin4:1822,whichmaybealateradditiontothe
book,traceshisancestrythroughBoaz,justastheoneinMatthewdoes,ratherthanthroughNaomi'shusbandorson.PerhapsitisonlyjustthatRuth,whogaveupso
muchforhermotherinlaw,shouldinthefinalanalysisreceivethehonorshedeservesastherealgreatgrandmotherofDavid,despiteheroriginsasaforeigner,a
Moabite.

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PARTTHREE
WHOAREGOD'SPEOPLE?

Page53

6
"YouShallHaveNoPartwithUs":
MixedMarriagesinEzraNehemiah
MywifeisfromPanamanottheCanalZone,buttheactualLatinAmericancountrysoIknowsomethingaboutinterculturalandinterethnicmarriages.Wewere
marriedinPanamaandlivedthereduringourfirstyeartogether.BecauseofitsnarrowspanbetweentheAtlanticandPacificOceans,thecountryhasbeenaglobal
crossroadssincetheNewWorldwasdiscovered,andevenmoresointhiscentury,withthecanal.Variousnativetribeswerethereinthesixteenthcenturywhenthe
Europeans,especiallytheSpanish,begantoarrive.BlackpeoplefrombothAfricaandtheCaribbeanandAsians,especiallyChinese,camelatertoworkonthecanal.
Panamaniansocietyiswellintegrated,andinterracialmarriageiscommon.Duringthetimewelivedthere,IgottoknowamannamedJoneswhoworkedonsmall
constructionprojectsandmaintenancearoundtheseminarywhereIwasteaching.IneverknewhisfirstnameeveryonejustcalledhimBrotherJones.Hewasinhis
sixtiesandretired.OriginallyfromtheStates,hehadlivedinPanamaoverthirtyyears.HehadsettledthereafterWorldWarIIwithhiswife,awomanofJamaican
extraction.Hewaswhiteshewasblack.IntheUnitedStatestheirmarriagehadbeenrejectedbyhisfamilyandwas,infact,illegalinhishomestateshortlyafterthe
war.SotheyhadmovedtoPanama,wheretheywerefreelyaccepted.
Inthischapter,wewillexamineanothermovementtowardexclusivismfromwithinancientIsrael.Actually,itisacontinuationofthethemeweexploredinchapter3,
sinceitsleaders,

Page54

EzraandNehemiah,citethelawsabouttheCanaanitesinDeuteronomyastheirauthority.ThespecificmatteratissueismarriagebetweenJewsandnonJews.
BackgroundandSetting
Ashasbeenmentioned,theDeuteronomisticHistoryrecountsaseriesofcrucialeventsthatshapedthenationsofIsraelandJudah.Thefirstofthesewasthedivision
oftheunitedkingdom,whichhadbeenruledbySaul,David,andSolomon,intotheseparatecountriesofIsraelandJudah.ThistookplaceafterthedeathofSolomon
inabout922B.C.andwascausedbyhisidolatry,accordingto1Kings11.TheheirsofDavidandSolomon,whomadeuptheDavidicdynasty,continuedtoreignin
Judah,whileIsraelwentthroughaseriesofroyalhousesestablishedbyarmygeneralswhorevoltedagainsttheirkings.Israelasaseparatenationcametoanendin
721B.C.whenitscapital,Samaria,wasdemolishedbytheAssyrianarmy.AsignificantportionofthepopulationwasdeportedtootherpartsoftheAssyrianempire,
andforeignerswerebroughtintosettlewhathadbeenIsrael.TheDeuteronomisticauthor(s)againexplainedthiseventaspunishmentforthesin,especiallyidolatry,of
thepeopleofIsrael(2Kings17).EventuallyJudahalsofellpreytoaforeignpower.SecondKings25recountshowitscapital,Jerusalem,wasdestroyedbythe
Babyloniansin586B.C.andmostofitsinhabitantsweretakenintoexiletoBabylononcemoretheresultofsin.
TheDeuteronomisticHistoryanditstheologyhadanenormousimpactonOldTestamentthoughtandliteratureduringtheBabylonianexileandbeyond.Wewillseein
thischapterthatsomeleadersandwritersgaveanarrowinterpretationtotheregulationsofDeuteronomyconcerningotherpeoples.Butwewillalsoseehereandin
futurechaptersthatotherwritersrespondedwithmoreopenness,andthatsomeofthosewriterswerethemselvesnonIsraelites.
ReturnandConflict
In539B.C.theBabylonianempirewasconqueredbythePersians,whosepoliciestowardconqueredpeoplesdiffered

Page55

fromthoseoftheBabylonians.ThenewPersianking,Cyrus,allowedpeoplefromJudahtoreturnhomebeginningin538.Becauseofthis,thebookofIsaiaheven
referstoCyrusasYahweh's"shepherd"(44:28)andMessiah("anointed,"45:1)!ThebooksofChroniclesandofEzraNehemiahendandbegin,respectively,withthe
edictofCyruspermittingthepeopleofJudahtogohomeandrebuildtheTemple(2Chron.36:2223Ezra1:14).Thiswasthefirstofseveralwavesofreturnees.
Unfortunately,littleisknownofthisfirstgroup.TheirleadermayhavebeentheSheshbazzarnamedinEzra1:511.Theyapparentlysetaboutreconstructingthe
Temple,butwereunabletodoanymorethanlayitsfoundations(Ezra5:16).
Afewyearslater,asecondgrouparrivedunderthedualleadershipofZerubbabelandJeshua(Ezra3:2).EncouragedbytheprophetsHaggaiandZechariah(Ezra
5:12),thisgroupsucceededincompletingtheTempleinthespaceofthefiveyearsbetween520and515B.C.Thesuccessofthesebuilderscameinthefaceof
stronglocalopposition,whichmayhavebeenafactorinthefailureofSheshbazzarandwhichwouldresurfaceinthelatermissionsofNehemiahandEzra.According
toEzra4:15,whenthereturneesfromJudahfirstbegantorebuild,the"peopleoftheland"(v.4)offeredtohelpbutwererebuffed.Thereasonswereethnicand
religious.These"peopleoftheland"weretheheirsofthosewhohadbeenresettledtherebytheAssyriansafter721B.C.(Ezra4:2,910).Theyconsidered
themselvesworshipersofYahwehjustlikethosereturningfromBabylon(4:2).ButZerubbabelandthosewithhimhadaverydifferentpointofview:"Youshallhave
nopartwithusinbuildingatempletoourGod"(4:3).TheyregardedtheinhabitantsofSamariaasamongrelrace,theresultofthemixingofIsraeliteswhohadbeen
leftbehindbytheAssyrianswiththeforeignpeopleswhohadbeenimportedorhadsquattedonthevacantland.ThisisessentiallytheDeuteronomisticperspectiveof
2Kings17.ThereturneesunderZerubbabelalsoconsideredtheselocalinhabitantstobereligiousapostateswhohadabandonedtheworshipofYahwehordiluted
andperverteditwithinfluencesfromforeignreligions.AllofthiswasthebeginningoftheJewishSamaritanconflictthatwewillencounterintheNewTestament.In
short,ZerubbabelandJeshuasawtheirmissionasestablishingacolonyofpureIsraelitesorJews,ethnicallyandreligiously,in

Page56

thecitythattheyviewedastheirnationalandreligiousheritage.Theirsuccessors,NehemiahandEzra,wouldadoptmuchthesameviewpoint.
EzraandNehemiah
AtdifferentpointswithinthenextcenturyandaquarterEzraandNehemiaheachcametoJerusalem.Nehemiahmadetwovisitsandsupervisedthereconstructionof
Jerusalem'scitywall.ThebooksintheBiblethatbeartheirnameswereoriginallyasinglevolume.Overtheyears,however,differentportionsofithavegottenoutof
order.Asaresult,thedatesandhistoricaldetailsofthevisitsofbothEzraandNehemiahareuncertain.Itisnotevenentirelyclearwhichofthemcamefirst.Bothwere
especiallyconcerned,liketheirpredecessors,withreinstitutingthepurityoftheJewishcommunityinJerusalemanditsworshipofYahweh.Alsoliketheir
predecessors,bothencounteredsignificantoppositionfromsomeofthelocalinhabitants.Thereasonswerevaried,butaprincipalonewaspolitical.TheSamaritan
officialswhocontrolledJerusalemsawthenewcomersasoutsidersandinvaderswhothreatenedtodiminishtheirpower(Neh.4:12[3:3334Heb.]).Bothgroups
werevyingforthefavorofthePersianauthorities,astheexchangeofletterswiththePersiancourtinEzra46shows.ButforEzraandNehemiah,thecontroversy
wasfundamentallyethnic,national,andreligious.LikeZerubbabelandJeshua,theyconsideredtheSamaritanstobeamongrelraceofreligiousapostates,whosevery
existencewasathreattotheethnicandreligiouspuritythattheysoughtto(re)establish.
Itisthisdesireforpurity,ethnicallyandreligiouslydefined,thatleadsbothEzraandNehemiahtoastrictandharshinterpretationofDeuteronomy'sinjunctionagainst
foreignmarriages.BothconsideritaseriouscrisisandoffensethatsomeoftheJewshavemarriedforeignwomen(Ezra910Neh.13:2327).However,itis
strikingthatthedefinitionofprohibitedmarriageshaschanged.BothEzraandNehemiahciteDeuteronomy7astheirauthority(Ezra9:1112Neh.13:25).Butwhile
thispassageforbidsmarriageswiththeindigenousCanaanitegroups,theprohibitioninEzraandNehemiahhasexpandedtoincludeallnonIsraelites.Nehemiah13:23
doesnotmentionanyCanaanitetribesatall,butonlywomenofAsh

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dod(Philistines),Ammon,andMoab.Ezra9:1mentionsnotonlyCanaanites,Hittites,Perizzites,andJebusites,butalsoAmmonites,Moabites,Egyptians,and
Amorites.Boaz'smarriagetoRuthwouldhavebeenforbiddenunderthisinterpretation!Moreover,Ezra10:2referstowomenfrom"thepeoplesoftheland,"whichis
nearlythesameexpressionastheonein4:4referringtotheSamaritans.Thus,theprohibitioninDeuteronomy,whichwaslimitedtothenativeCanaanitesandwas
specificallybecauseoftheirreligiouspractices,isinterpretedinEzraandNehemiahtoincludeallnonJews,apparentlyeventhosewhoseancestorsincludedmembers
oftheformerkingdomofIsrael.
Ezra'ssolutiontotheproblemisnotmuchlessharshthanthatenvisionedbyDeuteronomy,andisdrivenbythesamesenseofneedtodefineandconsolidatethe
nationinthefaceofcalamity.Ezracompelsthosewithhimto"putaway"theirnonJewishwives,alongwiththeirchildren.Thismeans,ofcourse,divorce,butits
consequenceswouldhavebeenfarmoresevereatthattimethantoday.Assuggestedinearlierchapters,anunmarriedwomaninthatsocietyhadfewmeansof
support.Ifshecouldnotremarry(andadivorcedwomanwouldhavebeenregardedtoacertainextentas"damagedgoods")orfindamalerelative(usuallyfatheror
brother)tolivewith,heroptionswerebasicallyprostitutionorbegging.Thechildrenofthesemarriageswouldhavebeenfatherlessandhomeless,withnorootswithin
aclanorfamilyandnohopeofanyinheritance.Nehemiahdoesnotspecificallymentiondivorce,thoughitseemslikelythatthiswouldhavebeenhissolutionaswell,
especiallyinlightofhissummaryclaimin13:30:"Icleansedthemfromeverythingforeign."
ContemporaryResponses
InthefollowingchapterswewillexploretheuniversalismofthebookofJonahandofwisdomliteratureintheOldTestamentasresponsestothenarrownessofEzra
Nehemiah.Beforeendingthischapter,however,itwillbeusefultomentiontwobiblicalbooksroughlycontemporarywithEzraNehemiahthatseemtodifferintheir
stancesontheSamaritansandon"mixed"marriagesandmayindeedberespondingdirectlytoEzraNehemiahaboutthesematters.

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TheChronicler's''AllIsrael"
Thebooksof1and2ChroniclesareroughlycontemporarywithEzraNehemiah.Theexactdateisdebated,butisisclearthatthesebooksaswenowhavethemin
theBiblehaveundergoneatleastonelevelofeditingincommon.Formanyyears,infact,ChroniclesEzraNehemiahwereallconsideredtheworkofasingle
individual.Thatviewhasbeendisputedinrecentdecades,partlyonthebasisofdifferencesinoutlookbetween1and2ChroniclesontheonehandandEzra
Nehemiahontheother.OneofthesecrucialdifferencesconcernstheattitudetowardthepeopleinwhathadbeenthenorthernkingdomofIsrael.Wehaveseenthat
EzraNehemiahrejectedtheseSamaritansasillegitimate,bothethnicallyandreligiously.TheyrefusedtohaveanythingtodowiththeSamaritansandcondemned
intermarriagewiththem.
Now,thebookof2ChronicletellsthestoryofthekingdomofJudah,followingtheDeuteronomisticaccountin1and2Kingsfairlyclosely.Onemajordifference,
however,isthat2ChroniclesleavesoutanyreferencetothenorthernkingdomofIsraelexceptforthoseepisodesinwhichIsraelisinvolvedwithJudah.Thisglaring
omissionwastakenforalongtimeasanindicationthattheauthor,the"Chronicler,"sharedEzraNehemiah'sdisdainfortheIsraeliteremnant,theSamaritans.There
arecertainlyindicationsthattheChroniclerregardedtheIsraelitesasapostates.ThisseemsclearfromthespeechofAbijah,kingofJudah,toKingJeroboamandthe
Israelitesin2Chronicles13:412.ButtheChroniclerdoesnottreatIsraelasalostcause.Thebookof1Chronicles(chaps.19)beginswithalistofgenealogies,
notjustofJudah,butofallthetribesofIsrael.Andthroughout1Chroniclesespeciallytherearereferencesto"allIsrael"actingandworkingtogetherintheidealage
underDavidandSolomon.In2Chronicles(30:12),HezekiahiscommendedforinvitingpeoplefromIsrael(herecalledEphraimandManasseh)tokeepthe
PassoverinJerusalem,andJosiah(34:67,33)forcarryingoutreligiousreformsinthenorth.EveninAbijah'sspeech,theintentseemstobetoenticethepeopleof
IsraelbacktotheproperworshipofGodintheTemple(13:1011).Inotherwords,theChroniclerdoesnotsimplyrejecttheSamaritansandrefusetohaveanything
todowiththem,asdoEzraandNehemiah.Quitethecontrary,theChroniclerseesthemstillaspartofGod'speople,

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Israel.Theyhavegoneastray,buttheChroniclercallsthembackandgiveseveryindicationofwantingtowelcomethembacktotherestorationofproperreligous
practiceintheJerusalemtemple.
MarriageandDivorceinMalachi2:1016
TheprophetMalachiwasanothercontemporary,roughlyspeaking,ofEzraandNehemiah.Nothingisknownofhimoutsideofthisbook.Itisnotevenclearwhether
"Malachi,"whichmeans"mymessenger,"wastheauthor'srealnameorissimplyatitle.Theideaofcovenantfaithfulnessiscentraltothebook,andonekindof
covenantthatMalachidiscussesismarriage.Thepassagewherethisdiscussionoccurs,2:1016,isdifficulttointerpret.ItaccusesthepeopleofJudahofprofaning
twocovenantsthe''covenantofourancestors"(2:10)andthecovenantofmarriage(2:14).Theyhaveprofanedthefirstcovenantby"marryingthedaughterofa
foreigngod"(2:11).Thisaccusationreferstomarriagewithforeignwomen,asinEzraNehemiah,orperhapstoidolatry.Ineithercase,theexpression"daughterofa
foreigngod"indicatesthattheoffenseis,intheauthor'sview,religiousinnatureratherthanethnic.Indeed,thewriter'sappealtocreationinverse10wouldtendto
undercuttheuseofthistextagainstanyethnicgroup.Heretherearetworhetoricalquestions:"Weallhaveonefather,dowenot?OneGodhascreatedus,hashe
not?"TheauthormaymeanJewswhenhesays"we"and"us"(notethereferenceto"divineoffspring"in2:15).However,ourtreatmentofGenesis13inchapter1
showedthatcreationatteststheunityandequalityofallpeopleinGod'seyes.
Thecondemnationofdivorceinverses1416maybeindirectresponsetothecampaignofEzraNehemiahforJewsto"putaway"their"foreign"wives.Thiswould
beespeciallylikelyif2:1012isdirectedagainstidolatry.Butevenif2:1012isagainstforeignmarriages,likeEzraNehemiah,theirpointisundercutbythe
subsequentoracleagainstdivorce.Afterall,evenmarriagewithaforeignwomanisacovenant(v.14).Thus,theprinciplesofthetextinMalachi2:1016counterthe
callinEzraNehemiahtoputawayforeignwivesandchildren,andMalachi2:1416maybeadirectrebuttalofthisaspectofEzra'sandNehemiah'smissions.

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7
"TheEarThatHearsandtheEyeThatSees":
TheNonIsraeliteOriginsofWisdominIsrael
MyolderdaughterwasjuststartingschoolwhenImovedtoMemphisin1983.Iwasastoundedatthelargenumberofparochialschoolsinthecity.Itseemedthat
eachchurchhaditsown"Christianacademy."Iwasinformedthatthiswasalegacyofreactiontodesegregationagenerationearlier.Whenblackstudentswerebused
intoformerly"white"publicschools,manywhiteparentswithdrewtheirchildren.AcademiessprangupinwhitechurchesthroughouttheSouthtoaccommodatethem.
Afurtherresultofthisphenomenonwastheeffectiveimpoverishmentofthecityschoolsystem,sincethosewithoutchildreninthepublicschoolsgenerallyopposed
measurestoraisemoneyforthem.
Recently,Iheardateacherinoneofthecity'soldestandpoorestelementaryschoolsappealforcontributionstobuyChristmaspresentsforthechildreninherclass.
Shedescribedthegenerallydismalconditionsofherclassroomthedeteriorationofthebuildingandthenearlyunbearableheatandodorsontheswelteringdaysat
thebeginningandendoftheschoolyear.Shetouchedontheviolencethattheseinnercitychildrenexperience,howitiscommonforsomeofthemtogotosleepto
thesoundofgunfire.Butwhatmovedmemost,perhapsbecausethatdaywasmydaughter'sbirthday,waswhensheexplainedthatthepresentshegavethemwould
betheonlyonesomeofthemhadeverreceived.Atthebeginningofthe

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year,shesaid,whenshefilledoutformsforeachstudentinherclass,shewouldaskforeachchild'sbirthday.Oftenshehadreceivedthereply,"Iain'tgotone.My
mommanevertol'me'boutdat."
Wisdom,whichwediscussinthischapter,wasakindofancientphilosophyandeducationalsystem.ThepresenceofwisdomthoughtandliteratureinIsraelprovides
akindofresponsetotheexclusivenessofmovementssuchasthoseofEzraandNehemiah,becausewisdomwasaninternationalphenomenon,onebasednotonany
specificreligioustradition,butonobservationofthenaturalworld.
TheNatureofWisdom
TheportionsoftheBiblethatwehavediscussedsofarallhaveincommonthattheywerewrittenbyIsraelites.EvenRuth'sstoryisnotinherownwords.Butthere
areimportantpartsoftheBiblethatwerewrittenbynonIsraelites.Thebestexamplesareinthosebooksthatrepresentwhatisknownaswisdomliterature.
"Wisdom"designatesbothatypeofliteratureandanapproachtolifethatarereflectedinthebiblicalbooksofJob,Proverbs,andEcclesiastes(alsoknownas
Qoheleth).Itwasakindofancientphilosophyorcontemplationaboutthenatureandmeaningoflife.Itsjudgmentsandconclusionsarebasednotonhistoryorspecial
revelation,asistherestoftheBible,butonobservationofandreasoningabouttheworldanditsworkings.Thus,wisdomfindsitssourceofinformationandinspiration
increation:
Theearthathearsandtheeyethatsees
Yahwehmadethemboth.
(Prov.20:12)

Theadviceitgivesisusuallyquitepracticalandsometimes"secular,"sinceinpartitisa"commonsense"approachtolifebasedondaytodayexperience:
Letyourfootbeseldominyourneighbor'shouse
lesthegrowtiredofyouandhateyou.
(Prov.25:17)

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Donotbeoverlyrighteousortoowise
Whyshouldyoudestroyyourself?
(Eccl.7:16)

Butwisdomisneverfarfrommattersofreligion.ItalsomakesobservationsaboutGodandGod'sinvolvementintheworld.Itseestheeveryday,surroundingworldas
arevelationofGodandhencepresentsakindof"naturaltheology."
OnewhooppressesapoorpersoninsultshisMaker,
butonewhoiskindtotheneedyhonorshim.
(Prov.14:31)

Sinceitwasbasedonobservationofthenaturalworld,wisdominancientIsraelwasnotlimitedtoanyonesocialstratum.Justaswithmodernaphorisms("Nothing
ventured,nothinggained,""Whatgoesaroundcomesaround,""Notimelikethepresent"),mostoftheshortoneortwoline"proverbs"intheBibleprobablyarose
amongcommonpeople,garneredfromtheireverydayexperiences.
Thegloryofyouthsistheirstrength,
butthebeautyoftheagedistheirgrayhair.
(Prov.20:29)
Alivingdogisbetterthanadeadlion.
(Eccl.9:4)

ButwisdomeventuallybecamethespecialpropertyofaneliteclassofscribeswhoweretheeducatorsinancientIsrael.Theyarecalled"thewise"inProv.24:23.The
bookofProverbs,especiallyitsfirstninechapters,statesrepeatedlythatitsobjectiveisinstruction.
Myson,forgetnotmyteaching,
butletyourheartpreservemycommandments.
(Prov.3:1)
Now,sons,listentome.
Payattentiontothewordsofmymouth.
(Prov.7:24)

Theobjectsofthisinstruction,astheseversesindicate,werespecificallyyoungmaleswhowereprobablyofthenobleclass.5 Theyweretheonlyoneswhohadthe
leisuretopursueeduca

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tion.ThismayexplainwhywisdomissostronglyassociatedintheBiblewithroyalcourts.ThevariouscollectionsinProverbsillustratethiswell:BookI"The
proverbsofSolomon,thesonofDavid,thekingofIsrael"(1:1)BookII"TheproverbsofSolomon"(10:1)BookIV"ThesealsoaretheproverbsofSolomon
whichthemenofHezekiah,thekingofJudah,copied"(25:1)andthefinalchapter"ThewordsofLemuel,thekingofMassa,whichhismothertaughthim"(31:1).
Forourpresentpuposes,itisespeciallyinterestingthatLemuelisnotanIsraelite.MassawasprobablyanareainnorthwesternArabia.Proverbs30isalsoattributed
tosomeonefromMassa,thoughheisnotdesignatedasaking:"ThewordsofAgur,thesonofJakehofMassa."6 Wisdom,infact,wasnotthepropertyofIsrael,but
wasaninternationalphenomenon,especiallywellattestedinEgyptandMesopotamia.Inadditiontochapters3031,BookIIIofProverbs(22:1724:22)isvery
similartoawisdomdocumentfromancientEgyptknownastheInstructionofAmenemopeandmusthaveborrowedfromit.Also,thestoryinthebookofJobis
similartooneoftheearliesttalespreservedfromMesopotamia.ItisnocoincidencethattheBiblein1Kings311ascribesbothgreatwisdomandextensive
internationalcontactstoSolomon.Theemphasisofwisdomonnaturalrevelationanditspractical,commonsenseapproachexplainswhyitcouldoriginateand
developinanycountry.Ofcourse,theinstancesofwisdomliteratureintheBibledoreferfrequentlytoYahweh.Butthisisbecausetheyhaveadaptedwisdomthought
toIsrael.ThereisnothinginherentlyIsraeliteorYahwisticaboutwisdom.OnemightsaythatwisdomisGod'sgiftandrevelationforallpeople.
Proverbs
"Listen,MySon"(Chapters19)
TheuseofwisdomtoeducateisnowhereclearerthaninProverbs19.Theaudienceisyoungnoblemen,asindicatedbythereferencesto"myson"aswellasthe
subjectmatter.Thetextconstantlywarnstheyoungmantostayawayfromthe"strangewoman"(2:16195:166:20357:127),whoischaracterizedasan
adulteress(2:176:267:19).Twothingsaboutthisrepeatedwarningareimportantforthisstudy.First,the

Page64

reasonsgivenforwhichsheshouldbeavoidedareeminentlypractical.Writersofotherbiblicalbooksmightappealtothedivinelyrevealedprohibition,"Thoushaltnot
commitadultery."ButthewriterofProverbsinsteadwarnsofcommonsensedangers:disease("Youwillgroanatyourendwhenyourskinandfleshareconsumed,"
5:11)andahusband'sjealousy("Forjealousyisaman'srage.Hewillnotsparewhenhetakesrevenge,"6:34).Sowhenthewritersays,"Herhouseisthepathsof
Sheol,descendingtothechambersofdeath,"thereferenceisnottosomekindofspiritualpunishmentbuttophysicaldeath,pureandsimple.
Second,theexactmeaningoftheexpression"strangewoman"is"foreignwoman."Itprobablyshouldbeunderstoodidiomaticallyasareferencetoa"loosewoman"
or"anotherwoman,"ratherthanasareferencetoanonIsraelite.Proverbs19characterizesthefaultsofthistypeofwomanasmoralratherthanethnic.Ifthe
expressionistakenliterallyasreferringto''foreign"women,itsargumentisundercutbythebasicprincipleofwisdomthatrevelationfromGodisinthecreatednature
oftheworldandisavailableforallpeopletoobserve.Itisalsoundercutbythefactthat,byitsownadmission,muchofProverbscomesfromnonIsraeliteauthors
anddocuments.
Thecontrasttothe"strangewoman,"theonewhomthewisemanwillpursue,isWisdomherself.InProverbs8,Wisdomispersonifiedasawomanwho,likethe
"strangewoman,"seekstoenticementofollowher.Thedifferenceisthatherwayleadstoprosperity(8:18).Inthesecondhalfofchapter8Wisdomisgivenavery
highplaceinthecreatedorder.Sheisthefirstofcreation(8:22)andYahweh'scompanionthroughtheprocessofcreatingtheuniverse(8:2730).Thispassage
illustratesourcharacterizationofwisdomasthefundamentalprincipleoftheuniverse.ButthelovelyimageofthatprincipleessentiallyasGod'swife,usingerotically
suggestiveimagery,isverystrikingindeedandmaywellbeborrowedfromoutsideofIsrael.
TheInstructionofAmenemopeandProverbs22:1724:22
ThissectionofProverbs,whichisoftenreferredtoasBookIII,bearsstrikingresemblancetotheEgyptian"InstructionofAmenemope."Thelatterhasthirty
paragraphs,whichexplains

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thereferenceinProverbs22:20tothirtysayings,althoughonlytenorelevenofthemarereproducedinProverbs.ThismakesclearthatitistheBiblethathas
borrowedfromAmenemopeandnottheotherwayaround,sincethe"thirtysayings"ofProverbscannototherwisebeaccountedfor.
TheEgyptianworkhasbeenadaptedtoitsnewIsraelitesetting,fortherearethreementionsofYahwehinthissection(22:19,2323:17).ThereferencestoGodas
thestrongRedeemeroftheunderprivileged(23:10)whoweighstheheartofallpeople(24:12)calltomindthescenesoffinaljudgmentintheEgyptianBookofthe
Dead,inwhichanindividual'sheartisweighedagainstthefeatheroftruth.ConcernforsocialjusticeisoneofthedistinctivethemesthatAmenemopeandProverbs
haveincommon.Inthisline,theinjunctionagainstmovingalandmarkappearstwice(22:2823:10)asasafeguardagainstdeprivingpoorfarmersoftheirheritageand
meansofsustenance.Butmostoftheadviceinbothdocumentsissecularandcommonsenseinnature,ratherthantheological.Theyalsoshareanextended
admonitionagainstdrunkennessascausingsuffering(Prov.23:2935)andeventuallyfinancialruin(23:1921).
TheWiseofMassa(Proverbs3031)
ThelasttwochaptersofProverbsarebyforeignauthorsfromMassa,probablyinnorthwestArabia(seenote6).ThesayingsofAgurinchapter30illustrateseveral
typicalfeaturesofwisdom.TheargumentfortheexistenceofGodinverse4isdrawnfromcreationandpresentedasaseriesofrhetoricalquestionsaboutGod'srole
asmakerandmaintaineroftheworld.Althoughverses114containadebateaboutGod'sexistence,Yahweh'snameismentionedonlyonceinverse9.The
numericalproverbsbeginninginverse15arebasedmainlyonthenaturalworldanditsanimalinhabitantseagleandserpent(v.19),ants,badgers,locusts,and
lizards(vv.2428),andlion,rooster,andgoat(vv.3031).Theyarecommonsenseobservationswithoutanytheologicalcontent.
TheteachingsthatLemuel,kingofMassa,receivedfromhismotherinProverbs31aredominatedbythedescriptionoftheperfector"good"wifeinverses1031
andcanthereforebe

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readasaforcefulresponsetoanydocumentagainstmarryingnonIsraelites.Thetextpraisesvirtuessuchasefficiencyandindustrybutsaysnothingaboutethnicity.
OnlythementionofYahwehinverse30connectsitspecificallywithIsrael.Theinstructioninverses19consistsofthreekindsofadmonitionsthatarefittingforyoung
nobles,especiallythecrownprince:Donotsquanderresourcesonwomen(v.3),avoid(excessive)drinking(vv.47),andjudgefairly,maintainingtherightsofthe
pooranddisadvantaged(vv.89).Again,theadviceintheseadmonitionsispracticalandrationalratherthantheologicalinnature.TheonlyreferencetoGodinthe
chapterisverse30'sremarkthatawomanwhofearsYahwehdeservespraise.
Job
ThebookofJobisessentiallyadebateonthequestionofhumansuffering:Whydobadthingshappentogoodpeople?Thequestionisaperennialoneasittoucheson
theveryheartofwhatitmeanstobehuman.Thebasicstoryisaveryoldone.AversionofitisamongthemostancientwritingsfromMesopotamia.Thebiblicalstory
mayhavebeenborrowedfromMesopotamia,althoughtheissuesitdealswitharesouniversalthattheplotandthevariouspositionsinthedebatecouldhavearisen
independently.ItissetinthelandofUz,whichisprobablyEdominsoutheasternPalestine(thesouthernareaofmoderndayJordan).SoJobwasnotIsraelite.
Theoldstorybehindthebookispreservedbyandlargeintheprologue(chaps.12)andepilogue(42:717),whichareinprose.Inthisstory,thequestionatissue
wasnotsomuchthereasonforsufferingbutratherwhyapersonshouldserveGod(notethequestionin1:9:"DoesJobfearGodfornought?").Job'ssufferingswere
atestofhisfaithfulness,andhisresponsewasexemplary:"InallthisJobdidnotsinorchargeGodwithwrong"(1:22)''InallthisJobdidnotsinwithhislips"(2:10).
Thenatureofthetestinspiredalaterwritertomakesufferingthenewfocusofthework.ThiswasaccomplishedbyinsertingthepoeticdialoguesbetweenJobandhis
friendsasadebateonthematter.
Inthedebate,Job'sthreefriends,Eliphaz,Bildad,andZophar,defendtheorthodoxposition.Theyassumetheprinciplethatsinbringssufferingandthatrighteousness
bringsprosperity.Theyassume,further,thatthereverseistruethatall

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sufferingmustbepunishmentforsinandallprosperityrewardforrighteousness.Theyconclude,therefore,thatJob'ssufferingsaredeservedpunishmentforsinsthat
hemusthavecommittedinthepast.Thus,EliphazinhisopeningspeechasksJob,
Whothatwasinnocenteverperished?
Whereweretheuprighteverdestroyed?
(4:7)

Jobalsoseemstoaccepttheseassumptions.Thedifferenceisthatheknowshehasnotsinned,soheaccusesGodofinjustice,ofafflictinghimwithoutcause.He
demandsafacetofaceencounterwithGodsothathecanmakehiscaseandhaveGodanswerhisaccusations:
IwouldspeaktoShaddai["theAlmighty"]
IdesiretodisputewithGod.
(13:3)

HealsoaccuseshisthreecompanionsoflyingforGod:
Indeed,youarewhitewashersofalie....
WillyouspeakfalselyforGod?
Willyouspeakdeceitfullyforhim?
(13:4,7)

ThebookobviouslysideswithJob.Inchapters3842Godappearstohimandquestionshimaboutcreation.ItisclearthatJobisnomatchforGod.Humanbeings
cannotcomprehendhowtheuniverseoperates,muchlessdirectit.GodhaspurposesinJob'ssufferingthathecannotgrasp.Butatthesametime,Jobunderstands
Godbetterthanhisthreefriendsdo.YahwehappearstoEliphazandannounceshisangeragainstthethree"becauseyouhavenotspokenofmerightlylikemyservant
Job."
ThebookofJobisaresponsetoDeuteronomistictheology.ThepositionofJob'sfriendsthatcalamityispunishmentforsinisveryclosetoifnotidenticalwiththe
viewpointoftheDeuteronomisticHistory,whichexplainsthedestructionofJerusalemaspunishmentforthesinsofitsinhabitants.ButJobcallsthissimpleequation
intoquestionGodisnotboundby"orthodox"principles.Thereasonsforsufferingaretoocomplicatedtobereducedtoanykindofuniversalformula.Thebook's
messageisthatGodisworthyoftrustevenwhenhumansdonot

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understandwhatliesbehindtheirtroubles.IfJobrebuffstheorthodoxexplanationofsuffering,italsotakesamorepositiveviewofnonIsraelitesthantheonethatwas
currentunderEzraandNehemiahattheendoftheexile.Jobiscalledthemostblamelessanduprightpersonontheearth(1:8),despitethefactthatheisnotan
Israelite.ThedebatebetweenhimandhiscompanionsisbasednotonthelawofMoses,butontheirownexperiences.Theirstandard,orthodoxanswerstoquestions
suchasthemeaningofsufferingarejudgedunacceptablebecausetheyareguiltyoftryingtomakeGodintheirownimageandtohedgeGodaboutwiththeirownset
ofrules.ThenatureandspiritofJobpleadagainstthenarrownessofprejudice.
Ecclesiastes
IfJobquestionsorthodoxviews,thebookofEcclesiastesdoessoevenmore.Itshareswithallwisdomliteraturethecontemplationofuniversalissuesonthebasisof
reflectiononexperienceandthecreatedorder.
Thereisnothingbetterformortalsthantoeatanddrinkandfindenjoymentintheirtoil.(2:24a,NRSV)

Asecondvoicehasglossedtheremarksofthefirst"speaker"withcommentsofamorepiousororthodoxnature.
ThisalsoIsawisfromGod'shand,forwhocaneatorfeelpleasureapartfromhim?(2:24b25)

Theconclusionofthebookespeciallyreflectsthelatterperspective:
Theendofthematter.Allisheard.FearGodandkeephiscommandments,forthisisaperson'swholeduty.ForGodwillbringeverydeedintojudgmentbecauseofeverysecret
thing,whethergoodorevil.(12:1314)

ThebookofEcclesiastesdoesnotdealdirectlywithissuesofethnicity.Rather,likeallwisdom,itiscontemplationthatisuniversalinnature,notrestrictedbyethnic
differencesornationalboundaries.Itdealswithconcernsthatallpeoplehaveincommon.Itsgroundofauthorityiscreation,inwhichallpeopleareequalbeforeGod.

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8
"IKnewThatYouAreaMercifulGod":
TheBookofJonah
Churcheswereattheheartofthecivilrightsmovementofthe1960s.Dr.MartinLutherKingJr.andmanyotherleadersofthemovementwereministers.
Predominantlywhitechurcheseachhavetheirownhistoryofresponsetothetimes.WhathappenedinoneMemphischurchwastypicalofmanysouthernchurches
acrossdenominations.Thiswasacongregationofseveralhundredmembersnearauniversity.Thechurchhadneverhadblackmembersorconsideredanyfor
membership.Theissuehadsimplyneverarisen.Then,inthe1960sablackstudentbeganattendingservices.HewasanAfricanconvertofmissionariesfromthe
denominationwhohadcometotheStatestostudy.Eventually,themanexpressedadesiretojointhechurch.Theministerdeterminedthattheman'scredentialswere
impeccableandthatraceshouldbenoimpediment.TheleadershipofthechurchagreedanddesignatedaparticularSundayforthemantopresenthimselffor
membership.Wordoftheplanspreadliketheproverbialwildfirethroughoutthemembershipofthechurch,sothatontheSundayinquestionthesanctuarywas
packed.HeseizedontheoccasiontopreachaboutallpeoplebeingGod'schildrenandtoaskhowChristianscoulddiscriminateifGoddidnot.Thesermondidnot
changeanyminds,thoughitmayhaveaugmentedthetensionintheassembly.Finally,themomenteveryonehadbeenawaitingarrived.Theministerconcludedhis
sermonandofferedaninvitationtomembershipinthechurch.Theblackmancameforward.

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Theministertookanotherfiveminutestryingtoaddressthecontroversyofthesituationandtoexplainthereasonsbehindhisandthechurchleaders'decision.When
hefinallyannouncedthattheblackmanwaswelcome,abouthalfofthecongregationaroseandleftthebuilding,nevertoreturn.Thissingleeventmorethananyother
determinedthedirectionofthatchurch.Overnight,itbecameasmallchurch,neverregainingthenumbersithadbeforethatSunday.Opennessandtolerancebecame
theguidingprinciplesinsubsequentpolicydecisions.Itspositionsmorethanonceattractedtheattentionofthelocalmedia,sothattodayitsvoiceoncommunity
mattersbeliesitssize.
ThestoryofJonah,whichwetreatinthischapter,wasintendedasaludicrousantitypeofabiblicalprophetandperhapsofIsraelasanation,inordertoshowthe
ridiculousextremestowhichnationalismandbigotrycandriveaperson.JonahwasarepresentativeforGodwhochosetotrytorunfromGodratherthantofulfillhis
responsibilityasGod'sspokesman.ButthepeoplewholefttheMemphischurchwhosanghymnsaboutspreadingthegospelandgavemoneytosupport
missionariesandthenwalkedoutwhenablackmanjoinedtheyshowthatJonah'stale,howeverludicrousitmayseem,isnotsofarremovedfromreality.
Jonah
ThestoryofJonah'sbeingswallowedbyalargefish(theBibledoesnotactuallycallitawhale)iswellknown.Unfortunately,themessageofthebookofJonahis
oftenlostinthedebateoverwhetherthestoryactuallyhappened.ButthebookisnotreallyaboutabigfishorJonah'senduranceorevenaboutamiraclefromGod.It
isaboutprejudiceandnationalismandGod'suniversallove.
JonahisuniqueamongallthepropheticbooksoftheBiblebecauseitdoesnotcontainacollectionofpropheticsermonsororacles.Thereisonlyone,verybriefand
directoracleinthebook:"Fortydaysmore,andNinevehwillbeoverthrown"(Jonah3:4).Inanothersense,though,theentirebookisasermon.Abetterwordmight
be"parody."ThecharacterofJonahisaparodyasatiricalimitationofarealprophet,anexaggerationofdistastefulqualitiesforthepurposeofteachingalesson.

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ThisisanotherfeaturethatmakesJonahunique.Unlikeotherprophets,whoareadmiredfortheircourageandforthrightness,thereisnothingadmirableaboutJonah.
TheprophetJonahismentionedjustonceoutsidethebookthatbearshisname(2Kings14:25).ThisJonahlivedandworkedineighthcenturyIsraelunderKing
JeroboamII(ca.786746B.C.).ThebookofJonahitselfwaslikelywrittenatleastthreecenturieslater,whenitsauthorandaudiencerememberedtheAssyriansas
thehatedforeignerswhohadcapturedanddestroyedthenationofIsraelin721B.C.Jonahwasprobablychosenasthesubjectfortheparodybecausehissettingin
theeighthcenturyintheshadowofthegreatAssyrianempire,headquarteredatNineveh,madehimaperfectcandidatetoteachalessonaboutprejudiceand
nationalism.TheremayalsobeanotherreasonwhyJonahwaschosen.Hisnamemeans"dove,"whichissometimesasymbolforIsraelintheBible(seeHos.7:11).
Thus,thetargetoftheparodyisnotprophetsbutanattitudeamongsomeofthepeopleofIsrael.Itistheirultranationalismandhatefulprejudicetowardotherpeople
thatthewriterwishestocounter.JonahmayevenhavebeenwrittenindirectresponsetothenarrownationalisticmovementofEzraandNehemiah.Butwhenever
Jonahwaswrittenandwhateveritshistoricalvalue,itisthemessageofthebookagainstprejudiceandadvocatingtheloveofGodforallpeoplethatspeaksmost
forcefullytoamodernaudience.
ThebookofJonahmayalsobeseenasadrama.Itdividesneatlyintothreeacts,withtwoscenesinthefinalact,andthisisthestructureweshallfollowindiscussing
it.
ActOne(1:116)
Throughoutthebook,JonahisdepictedasaludicrouscharacterwhoseunderstandingofGodisobscuredandcorruptedbyhisnationalisticnarrowness.Thenon
IsraeliteswhoareunfamiliarwithIsrael'sGod,Yahweh,actuallydisplayabettercomprehensionofwhoYahwehisthandoesYahweh'sownprophet,Jonah.
Nowhereisthisclearerthaninthefirstact.
Thefirstthreeverses(1:13)setthestageforthefirstact.JonahiscommandedbyYahwehtogotoNineveh."ThewordofYahwehcametoJonah"isthestandard
introductiontopropheticbooksandpropheticoracles.Itthusemphasizes

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Jonah'sroleasYahweh'sprophet.Whatfollows,however,isnotJonah'srecordedpreaching,butthestoryofhisattemptedflighttoTarshish.Therewereseveral
citiesnamedTarshish.ButtheonethatwasprobablyJonah'sintendeddestinationwasaportonthesouthernshoreofSpain.ItwasthefarthestpointwestofIsraelto
whichonecouldsailatthattime.Ninevehlaytotheeast.Inotherwords,JonahtriedtotravelasfarashecouldintheoppositedirectionfromtheoneYahweh
commandedhimtogo.
He"fledfromYahweh'spresence"(v.3).Jonah'sactionhereseemstoreflecttheideacommonintheancientMiddleEastthateachcountryhaditsowngodandthat
eachgod'spowerwaslimitedtohisowncountry.ButJonahhimselflaterconfessestothesailorsthatYahwehis"theGodofheavenwhomadetheseaandthedry
land"(v.9).Ifhetrulybelievesthisatthebeginningofthestory,thenhisattemptedflightisobviouslysenseless.OnlyinthefinalsceneofthebookdoesJonahexplain
whyhefled:
IsthisnotwhatIsaidwhenIwasstillinmycountry?Therefore,IhurriedtofleetoTarshishbecauseIknewthatyouareamercifulandcompassionateGod,whoisslowto
anger,abundantinlove,andrepentsofevil.(4:2)

JonahdidnotwanttopreachtotheNinevitesbecauseheknewtheywouldrepentandthenGodwouldforgivethemandnotdestroythem.ButJonahwantedNineveh
tobedestroyed!Hisattemptedflightwastheridiculousandirrationalactofadesperateman.HewasdriventoitbythehatredhefeltfortheNinevitesandthefear
thattheywouldbesavedfromdestruction.HethusactedagainsthisbetterjudgmentandhisknowledgethatYahweh'spowerwasunlimited.
Jonah'sencounterwiththesailorsontheshipinwhichhefledisremarkablyironic.Inthefirstplace,theseruggedsailors,whomJonahmusthavedespisedas
foreigners,arereligiousmen.AlthoughtheydonotknowYahweh,theybelieveferventlyintheirowngodsandcalluponthemforreliefwhenYahwehsuddenlyflings
thestormatthem(1:45a).Jonahappearslesspious.Heisasleepinthe"bowels"oftheship(perhapsahintofthisimminent"death"inthebellyofthefish).The
captainawakenshimandadmonisheshimtojointheothersinprayer(1:5b6).ThecaptainisunawareofJonah'spredicament.HowcanhepraytotheGodfrom
whomheistryingtoflee?Jonahisalsolessfaithful.Bycastinglots,thesailorsdeterminethat

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Jonahisthecauseofthestorm(1:7).Inanswertotheirquestionsabouthim(1:8),heboaststhatheisaHebrewandthathisGodisYahweh,whomadeseaandland
(1:9).Heisproudofhisnational,ethnic,andreligiousheritage.ButifJonahreallybelievesthis,howcouldhetrytorunaway?Thesailors,incontrast,dobelievein
YahwehimmediatelyandatJonah'swordaloneandtheyareterrified(1:10).Jonah'sconfessioninverse9holdsagreatertruththanherealizes.Yahwehisindeed
theLordofseaanddryland.ButtheLordofallcaresforallpeopleandallcreatures,asJonahisabouttolearn.
Mostironicofall,thesailorsaremorerighteousthanJonah.HeisdoingallhecantogetawayfrompreachingtotheNinevites,becausehewantsallofthethousands
ofthemtoperish.Butthesailorsdoalltheycan,evenriskingtheirlives,tosavethelifeofoneman,Jonah(1:13).Itisonlywhenalltheireffortsfail,andthenwithcries
forforgivenessfortakingan"innocent"man'slife,thatthesailorsfollowJonah'sadviceto"fling"himoverboard(1:1215)intotheverystormthatYahweh"flings"at
theship.Whenthestormimmediatelyceases,thesailors'faithinYahwehisdeepened,andtheysacrificeandmakevowstohim(1:16).
ActTwo(1:172:10[2:111Heb.])
Thesecondacttakesplaceinsidethefish.MostofitisthepsalmthatJonahrecites.ThatpsalmisnotentirelyappropriatetoJonah'ssituationinthestory.Itdoesnot
mentionthefishoranyofJonah'speculiarcircumstances.Itdoesdescribebeingthrownintothesea,thoughitsaysthatYahwehratherthansailorscastthepsalmist
there(Jonah2:3).ItusestheseainparallelwithSheolandthePit,whicharereferencestotheunderworld,theabodeofthedead.Allofthesearemetaphorsfor
extremesuffering,perhapsdisease,thatbroughtthepsalmisttothebrinkofdeath.Butthepsalmoveralldoesnotlamentthepsalmist'scondition.Rather,itisapsalm
ofthanksgiving,praisingYahwehandexpressinggratitudeforhavingrescuedthepsalmistfromcrisis.Again,thisdoesnotfitwellwiththestory,sinceJonah,notyet
rescued,recitesthispsalmfromthebellyofthefish.Thus,thepsalmwasevidentlynotcomposedforthestoryofJonahbutwasborrowedfromelsewhere,andmay
evenbealaterinsertionintothebook.

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WhatisimportantforourtreatmentofthebookistonoticethatJonahneverexpressesregretforhisactionsorhisattitude.Heis,perhaps,sorrythathewascaught
andthathewasforcedtospendtimeinsidethefish,butheisnotrepentant.HewillgotoNinevehtopreachonlybecausehehasnoalternative.Hehaslearnedthathe
cannotfleefromYahweh,buthehasnotchangedhisattitudetowardtheNinevites.Obstinateandunrepentant,heremainsthestereotypicalbigot.
ActThree,SceneOne(3:110)
Jonahagainreceivesthepropheticcall,as"thewordofYahwehcametohimasecondtime,"commandinghimtogotoNineveh(3:12).Thistimeheobeys(v.3a),
thoughonlybecausehehasseenthefutilityoftryingtoflee,andnotbecausehisattitudehaschanged.Ninevehisdescribedasanenormouscity,whichwouldtake
threedaystotraverse(vv.3b).Thepointofthecity'ssize,aswillbemadeclearattheendofthebook(4:11)isthatitisfullofpeople.
Jonahgoesaday'sjourneyintothecityandproclaimshismessage.ItisbrusqueandreflectsJonah'sloathingofhistask:"Fortydaysmore,andNinevehis
overthrown!"(3:4).Nevertheless,perhapsbecauseofitscurtness,themessageconvictsthepeopleofNineveh.Likethesailorsearlier,theseforeignersbelieveinGod
(3:5).Whatismore,unlikeJonah,theyrepenteverysingleoneofthem,fromthekingondowntothepoorestcitizen,byroyaldecree,insackclothandashes,with
fasting(3:59).EventheanimalsshowmorecontritionthanJonah(v.8)!AllofthisinthehopethatmaybeGodwillalsorepentandchangehismindaboutdestroying
Nineveh(v.9).AndGod,impressedbythepeople'sresponse,doesindeedhalttheplanneddestruction(3:10).
ActThree,SceneTwo(4:111)
Jonahisirritatedandangeredbyallthisrepenting(4:1).HeisannoyedandfrustratedatGod'smercifulnature(4:2).ItwasGod'smercythatmotivatedhimtofleein
thefirstplace,andhehasnowdecidedthatsinceGodissogracious,lifeisnotworthlivinganylonger(4:3).
YahwehdeterminestotryoncemoretoteachJonahales

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son.JustashehaddesignatedalargefishtoswallowJonah(2:1),sonowhedesignatesaplanttogrowupattheplacewhereJonahiswatchingoverthecity(4:6).
Jonahdelightsintheplantandtheshadethatitprovideshim.ButthenGoddesignatesfirstawormtokilltheplant(4:7)andthenasultrywindtooppressJonah(4:8).
Therepetitionoftheverb"designate"or"ordain"reemphasizesthepointthatYahwehcontrolsallnaturalforceson"theseaandthedryland."Jonahissomiserable
andfrustratedwiththesunbeatingdownonhimthatoncemorehewishesheweredead(4:8).Hefeelsthesameangeranddiscomfortatthedeathoftheplantthathe
feltatYahweh'snotdestroyingthecityofNineveh!
JonahdefendshimselfatYahweh'squestioning(4:910).Hisanger,heclaims,isjustified.YahwehusesJonah'sfeelingsofangerandfrustrationtotryoncemoreto
getthestubbornprophettounderstanddivinemercy.Jonahfeltsorryfortheplantwhenitdied(4:10).Heissoincrediblyhardhearted,sobereftoffeelingsforanyone
buthimself,thattheclosestYahwehcancometocommunicatingtohimasenseofcompassionistousetheplantinwhichJonahhastakenpleasure.Theimplicationis
thatJonahreallyfeelssorryforhimself,sincehehadnotsownornurturedtheplant.Yahwehhasasimilarsenseofpityandcompassionforthethousandsofpeoplein
Nineveh,nottomentiontheanimals(4:11).
Conclusion
Jonahisaludicrous,pitiful,anddespicablecharacter.Hisnarrowprejudiceandbigotryhavemadehimthatway.Hisstoryshowstheridiculouslengthstowhich
racismcanleadaperson.Jonahcaresforplantsmorethanpeople.God'smercyangershim.Eventhe"heathens,"whodonotknowtheonetrueGod,displayabetter
senseofmoralityandatruerunderstandingofGod'snaturethandoesJonah.Thebookendswithanobjectlesson.ItrecordsnoresponsefromJonahtoYahweh's
finalquestion.ItisnotclearwhetherJonahfinallygotthemessage.Butthequestionremainsopenforeveryreaderofthebook."Godsolovedtheworld"isnotjustan
emptyconfession,butmakesadifferenceinthewaypeopleofdifferentracial,ethnic,cultural,andsocialbackgroundslivetogether.

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9
''HimShalltheNationsSeek":
Isaiah'sVisionofUniversalHarmonyandOtherPropheticTexts
Untiltherecent"MillionManMarch,"itwasthelargestrallyevertodescendonWashington,D.C.OveraquarterofamillionpeopleassembledontheWashington
mallinfrontoftheLincolnMemorialonAugust28,1963.ItwasthebrainchildofA.PhilipRandolph,inhisseventiesatthetime,whohadachievedimportant
concessionsforunemployedblacksfromRoosevelttwodecadesearlier,byplanningtoconductalargescaleprotestofthesamenatureinthecapital.Amongthe
leadersofthemarch,thefocusofconcerninthehoursimmediatelybeforetheprogramwasthespeechbyJohnLewis,chairmanofSNCC.TheArchbishopof
Washingtonconsideredcertainstatementsinittobetoomilitant,andthreatenedtowithdrawiftheywerenotchanged.ThelossoftheCatholicconstituencyposeda
seriousthreat,andthespeechwasrewrittenatthelastminute,thoughthenewversioncouldberegardedasstronger.Today,overthirtyyearslater,itisnotLewis's
speechthatisbestremembered,butthefamous"Ihaveadream"speechofDr.MartinLutherKingJr.King'sopening,"Fivescoreyearsago,"wasreminiscentof
Lincoln'sGettysburgaddress.HereferredtoLincoln'sEmancipationProclamationandthehopeforfreedomstillunfulfilledthatithadbroughttoAfrican
Americans.HequotedtheDeclarationofIndependenceanditsyetunrealized,selfevidenttruth"thatallmenarecreatedequal."ButthedocumentthatKingquoted
themost,whichinfactpervadedthe

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spiritofhisspeech,wastheBible.Notsurprisingly,King'sspeecheswerefilledwithreferencestotheBible.Hewas,afterall,apreacher.Allthequotationsand
allusionsinKing'sWashingtonspeecharefromaparticularsectionoftheBiblethepropheticbooks.Again,thisisnottoosurprising,sinceKingwaslikeabiblical
prophetinmanyways.Inthischapter,wewillfocusonprophetictexts,specifically,twopassagesfromIsaiahthat,likeKing'sspeeches,expoundavisionforthe
future.Wewillalsobrieflytreatpassagesfromotherpropheticbooks,whichusetheCushitesasillustrationsfortheirmessage.
TheNatureofBiblicalProphecy
TheprimaryroleofprophetsintheBibleisnottopredictthefuturebuttopreachtotheircontemporaries.Anoldadagestatesthattheyaremoreconcernedwith
forthtellingthanwithforetelling.Mostoftheir"predictions"arereallythreatsabouthowGodwillpunishthepeopleofIsraelandJudahinthefutureiftheydonot
changetheirwaysandliveaccordingtodivineprescription.Theyaddressedtheircontemporariesaboutsocial,political,andreligiousproblemsoftheirday,justas
Kingdid.TheprophetAmos,forexample,criticizedthepeopleofeighthcenturyIsrael(ca.750B.C.),especiallytheupperclasses,fortheircallousmistreatmentof
thepoor.HetoldthemthattheirworshipofGodwasvainunlesstheywould"letjusticerolldownlikewaters,andrighteousnesslikeaconstantstream"(Amos5:21
24).Twentysevenhundredyearslater,KingquotedAmos5:24inhiscallforfairtreatmentofAfricanAmericans.
Atthesametime,therearepassagesintheprophetsthatdescribeanidealvisionforthefuture,andKing's"dream"speechsharesthecharacterandspiritofthese
passagesaswell.
Everyvalleyshallbeexalted,everyhillandmountainshallbemadelowtheroughplaceswillbemadeplains,andthecrookedplaceswillbemadestraightandthegloryofthe
Lordshallberevealed,andallfleshshallseeittogether.(Isa.40:45)

Thistext,alsoquotedbyKing,isfrom"Second"or"Deutero"Isaiah.Thereisnobookof2IsaiahintheBible,butscholars

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usethisdesignationforchapters4055ofthebookofIsaiah.7 Thisisbecausethesechapterspresupposeanentirelydifferenttimeandsetofconcernsfromthoseof
theprophetIsaiahafterwhomthebookisnamed.The"first"Isaiah,whosepropheciesareincludedinchapters139,wasroughlyacontemporaryofAmosinthe
eighthcenturyB.C.WhileAmospreachedinIsrael,IsaiahworkedinJudah.Butchapters4055reflectadifferentsettingspecificallyin539538B.C.ThePersian
king,Cyrus,hasjustcometopowerandisabouttoreleasethecaptivesfromJudahinBabylonsothattheycanreturntoJerusalemandrebuildtheTemple,thecity,
andtheirlives(44:28).Thus,40:2saysthatJerusalem'spunishmentisover.Thequotationabove,from40:45,describesthepreparationofthe"highwayinthe
wilderness"(v.3)betweenBabylonandJerusalem,bywhichthepeopleofJudahwillreturn.Itisallpartofavisionaryportrait,a"dreamspeech,''abouttheglorious
returnoftheexilestotheirhomeland.KingusedthatdescriptionofthelevelingofthehighwaytoarticulatehisvisionofequaljusticeinAmerica.
VisionsofHarmonyinIsaiah
Isaiah139alsocontainssomestrikingvisionsaboutthefuture,thoughtheseareunrelatedtothereturnfromBabylonofIsaiah4055.Oneoftheseisafamous
textsharedbyIsaiahandMicah(thetranslationbelowisfromIsaiah,butMicahisalmostidentical):
Itwilltranspireinthelatterdays
thatthemountainofYahweh'stemple
willbeestablishedattheheadofthemountains,
andraisedabovethehills.
Thenallthenationswillstreamtoit.
Manypeopleswillcomeandsay,
"Come,letusgotothemountainofYahweh,
tothetempleofJacob'sGod
sothathemayteachushisways
andwecanwalkinhispaths."
ForthelawwillgoforthfromZion
andYahweh'swordfromJerusalem.
Hewilljudgebetweenthenations

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anddecideformanypeoples.
Theywillbeattheirswordsintoplowshares
andtheirspearsintopruninghooks.
Nationwillnotraiseswordagainstnation,
norwilltheylearnwaranymore.
(Isa.2:24||Micah4:13)

ThefactthattheseversesenvisiontheidealworldasoneofpeacebetweenallnationsledtotheirbeinginscribedontheUnitedNationsbuildinginNewYork.Itisa
beautifulworldthatisimagined,whereweaponsarenolongernecessaryandareconvertedtofarmimplements.Thesourceofthisharmonyisreligion.Yahwehhimself
adjudicatesbetweennations,soallwarscease.Indeed,thecenterofitistheTempleofYahwehinJerusalem(alsocalledZion).AllthenationsacceptYahwehas
GodandflocktotheTempleforreligiousinstruction.Tobesure,thevisionisnationalisticandegocentricinasense.Butitisstillnoteworthyforourdiscussionof
racismthatthecoreoftheidealworldandfutureisaccordandpeacefulexistenceamongallpeoplesoftheearth.
Anevenmoreidealizedvisionofpeaceisfoundjustafewchapterslater,inIsaiah11:19.
Wolfwillresidewithlamb,
leopardliedownwithkid.
Calf,lion,andfatlingtogether,
withasmallchildleadingthem.
Cowandbearwillfeed
togethertheiryoungwillliedown.
thebearwilleatstrawlikethecow.
Nursinginfantwillplayatviper'sbore.
Weanedchildwillputhishandintheserpent'shole.
Theywillneitherharmnordestroy
inallmyholymountain.
FortheearthwillbeasfulloftheknowledgeofYahweh
Asthewaterscoveringthesea.
(Isa.11:69)

Thepeaceenvisionedhereismorethanthemereabsenceofconflict.ItistheutterharmonyentailedbytheHebrewwordshalom.Itistrulyuniversal,asitincludesall
ofcreation.Animalsthatarenormallyenemiesresidetogetherinperfecttranquil

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lity.Theendoftheworldinthisvisionhascomefullcircletoitsbeginning.ThisisareturntothepristinestateofcreationintheGardenofEden.Thereisharmonyof
Godwithhumans,humanswithoneanother,humanswiththeanimals,andtheanimalsamongthemselves.Whatbroughtaboutthelossofthisharmonyonalllevels,
accordingtoGenesis23,washumandisobediencesin.ButsuchharmonyhasremainedGod'sintentionfromcreation.
Again,thispassageisnationalisticinitsoutlook.God'sresidenceintheGardenisnowtheTempleinJerusalem("myholymountain,"v.9).ItistheroyalheirofDavid
inJerusalem(the"shoot"or"root"ofJesse,vv.1,10)whobringsaboutthissituation.Heisthewarriorwhoensuresjusticeforthepoorbyslayingthewicked(vv.3
5).Safeguardingtherightsofthepoorwasoneoftheking'sprimaryresponsibilitiesintheideologyofmonarchyintheancientMiddleEast.Thevision,indeed,stems
fromtheroyaltheologyoftheDavidicdynastyinJudah.Thisparticulartext,however,wasprobablywritteninthepostexilicperiod(afterca.538B.C.),sinceit
presupposesthatDavid'sdynastyhasbeencutoff("stumpofJesse''in11:1).ItlooksforwardtoafutureMessianicage,"Messiah"beingaroyaltitle("anointed")for
therestoredDavidicking,anddescribesthatageinvisionaryterms.Christians,ofcourse,seeJesusasthefulfillmentofthisMessianicexpectation.Thus,Revelation
5:5intheNewTestamentalludestoIsaiah11:19whenitreferstoJesusasthe"RootofDavid."ButChristiantheologyhasgenerallyfailedtostressthe"horizontal"
dimensionofharmonyamongdifferentpeoplethatisimplicitintextslikeIsaiah11.Instead,Christianityhastendedtofocusonthe"vertical"relationshipofthe
individualtoGod.AndChristianhistory,withitsmultiplewarsandpersecutions,hascertainlyfallenshortoftheidealvisioninthesetexts.Inthefollowingchaptersof
thisbookwewilldealwithNewTestamenttexts,whichevinceasstrongaconcernforthishorizontalthemeastheOldTestamentpassageswouldleadustoexpect.
ButfirstwemusttreattwospecificpassagesfromOldTestamentprophetsthatcontainreferencestotheCushites.Thesereferencesmightbeconsideredracistand
havebeenusedthatwayinthepast,sotheyrequireanalysisintheirhistoricalandliterarycontextstodeterminewhattheprophetineachcaseissayingtohisaudience.

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TheCushitesinOtherPropheticTexts
"AreyouIsraelitesnotliketheCushitestome?"saysYahweh."DidInotbringIsraelupfromthelandofEgypt,thePhilistinesfromCaphtor,andAramfromQir?"(Amos9:7)

Asmentionedearlier,AmosconfrontedsocialandreligiousillsoftheeighthcenturyIsraelites.Becauseoftheirsins,heproclaimedthatjudgmentfromGod,inthe
formofadevastatingmilitarydefeatbyaforeignpower,wasimminent.Amos'stopicin9:7iselection.Itisatopicwhichsurfacesearlierinthebookaswell.The
reasonisspelledoutin3:2:
YouonlyhaveIknownfromallthefamiliesoftheearth,
soIwillvisitallyourguiltydeedsuponyou.

God's"knowing"Israelisawayofexpressingrelationship.IsraelwasYahweh'schosenpeople,theonlyoneswithwhomhehadaspecialrelationship.Assuch,they
wereespeciallyculpableforthesinstheycommittedbecausetheyshouldhaveknownbetter.Electioncarriesspecialresponsibility.
Amos9:7hasanevenstrongermessageaboutelection.Israel'ssinshaveestrangedthemfromYahwehtothepointthathenowdeniesanyspecialrelationshipwith
them,deniesthattheyarehischosenpeople!Theversehastwoparts.ThefirstpartcomparestheIsraelitestotheCushites,theresidentsofEthiopiaorNubia,who
wereblackskinned.Buttheirskincolordoesnotnecessarilyhaveanythingtodowiththisverse.
TocomparetheIsraeliteswiththeCushitesprobablydoesnotinitselfmeantosayanythingdisdainful,muchlessanythingreprehensible,aboutthem.Theyarementionedsimply
asrepresentativeofforeignandremotepeopleswholiveontheoutermostperipheryoftheknownworld.IfIsraelisthesameastheyinthesightofYahweh,thenitcannotclaim
anykindofprivilegedposition.8

ThementionofNubia(Cush)inIsaiah18:1asthefrontierofthefamiliarworldconfirmsthisunderstanding.AmosissayingthatYahwehhascometoregardthe
IsraelitesastheyregardtheCushitesdistantanddifferent.Asthechosenpeople,IsraelshouldbeclosertoGodthananynation,butthisisnotthe

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casebecausetheirsinhasalienatedthemfromGod.IsraelisnomorespecialinGod'seyesthanthosewhoinhabittheremotefringeoftheMiddleEasternworldthe
Cushites.
Thesecondpartoftheversefurtherillustratesthepoint.Amossaysthattheexodus,inwhichYahwehbroughtIsraelupfromEgypt,hasnothingtodowithelection.It
doesnotmakeIsraelspecial,becauseYahwehalsodirectedthemovementsofotherpeoplessuchasthePhilistinesandAramaeans.Thenextversethreatensthe
destructionofIsrael.Butheretheyarecalled"thesinfulpeople"ratherthan"Yahweh'speople."Theonlythingthatmakesthemstandoutistheirsin,andforthat
reasontheyarenowchosenforpunishment.Aspartofthepunishment,toaddtotheirony,verse9describeshowtheformerlychosenpeoplewillbescatteredamong
theothernations.
CanaCushitechangehisskinoraleopardhisspots?
Thenyouwhoareaccustomedtodoingevilcoulddo
good.
(Jer.13:23)

UnlikeAmos,Jeremiah'sreferencetoNubiansclearlyhastodowithskincolor.Otherwise,hismessageinmanywaysissimilartoAmos's.Jeremiahprophesiedabout
twohundredyearsafterAmostothesouthernkingdomofJudah(ca.627580B.C.).JustasAmoshadthreatenedtheimpendingdestructionofIsrael,which
occurredundertheAssyriansin721B.C.,soJeremiahwarnedthatthesinfulnessofJudahwouldbringaboutthedestructionofJerusalematthehandsofthe
Babylonians,whichcameaboutin586B.C.TheoraclethatbeginsinJer.13:20alludestoanarmyinvadingfromthenorth,andtheverseimmediatelyfollowingours
(13:24)saysthatYahwehwillscatterJudahamongthenationsjustasinAmos9:9.Jeremiah'spointinverse23isthatthepeopleofJudahhavebecomesousedto
behavingwickedlythatithasbecomepartoftheirnature.TheycannomorechangetheirsinfulwaysthanaNubiancouldchangeskincolororaleoparditsspots.As
withtheAmospassage,thisversedoesnotdisparageNubiansorblackskinnedpeople.Thereisnothingatallwrongorundesirableabouthavingblackskin,any
morethanitisundesirableforaleopardtohavespots.Indeed,theexamplesoftheNubianandtheleopardseemtohavebeenchosenfortheirdistinctiveness,features
inwhicheachinturncouldbesaidtotakepride.Hereinliesan

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importantdifferencewithwhatJeremiahsaysaboutthepeopleofJudah.ThecharacteristicsoftheNubianandtheleopardareinnate,butthebehaviorofthepeopleof
Judahislearned.Thewordtranslated"accustomed"means"learned"or"taught."Thepeoplehavetrainedthemselvestodowrong,andhavenowbecomesoadeptat
itthatitispartoftheirnature.

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PARTFOUR
CHRISTANDTHECHURCH

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10
"TheSpiritoftheLordIsUponMe":
TheMissionofJesusintheGospelofLuke
FannieLouHamerwasafoundingleaderoftheMississippiFreedomDemocraticParty,whichsentdelegatestothe1964DemocraticNationalConventioninAtlantic
Cityinanefforttobeseatedinplaceofthe"regular"Democraticdelegatesofthestate.Aftergruelinginterviewsbythecredentialscommitteeandintensenegotiation
withpartyleaders,theywereofferedthecompromisesolutionoftwoatlargevotesintheconvention.ManyconsideredthisavictoryfortheM.F.D.P.,butthey
turneditdownandlefttheconvention."Wedidn'tcomeherefornotwoseatswhenallofusistired,"repliedMs.Hamer.Inherarticle"SickandTiredofBeingSick
andTired,"writtenfouryearslater,9 Ms.Hamersaidthefollowing:
NowIwanttosayawordortwoaboutthechurchesandthisracesituation.Itravelquiteabitacrossthecountry,andalotofthekidsareasking,"IsGodalive,orishedead?"
Nowtheymeanitwhentheyaskthatquestion.They'renotjusttryingtobesmartorsomethinglikethat.AndIthinkIknowwhatmakesthemaskthatquestion:itisthe
hypocrites,theblackandthewhitehypocrites,whomakethemaskthatquestion.Thehypocriteswhodotoomuchpretendingandnotenoughactualworking,thewhiteministers
andtheblackministersstandingbehindapodiumandpreachingalieonSunday.Forwhatthekidsarenowaskingissomethinglikethis:"IfthisisChristianitythatisbeing
offeredinmostofthechurchesaroundthis

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land,thenwedon'twantanypartofit.Lookatwhatishappeningallovertheland,andthechurchesdon'tseemtopayanyattentiontoit."Wehavealmostdrivenouryoung
peoplefromGodwiththisbigactofhypocrisy.WehavetotakethemseriouslyIknowIdowhentheysaythatGodisnotGodifheletsallthesehugechurchespourmillions
ofdollarsintobuildingsfortheirownpeople,andletsthekidsintheirownneighborhoodgowithoutfoodandwithoutclothingandwithoutdecentshelter.
EverybodyknowsthatthemostsegregatedhourinAmericaistheeleveno'clockchurchservice.Butthereissomethingworsethanthat.Thatiswhenyouseethesewhiteand
blackhypocritesinalloftheirfineclothescomeoutofaworshipservice,andturnuptheirnoseatakidinrags,oramandrunkonthestreet,andaskthemselves,"Nowwhat's
wrongwithhim?"Theyneverask,"Whyisthatkidinrags?""Whyisthatmandrunk?"Theyneverstoptothinkthatitwassomethingthatputthekidinrags,justasitwas
somethingthatdrovethatmantodrink.
Justasit'stimeforAmericatowakeup,itislongpasttimeforthechurchestowakeup.Thechurcheshavegottosaythattheywillhavenomoretalkthat"becauseyourskinisa
littledifferent,you'rebetterthantheyare."ThechurcheshavegottorememberhowChristdealtwiththepoorpeople.Hesaid,"ThespiritoftheLordisuponme,becausehehath
anointedmetopreachthegospeltothepoorhehathsentmetohealthebrokenhearted,topreachdeliverancetothecaptives,andrecoveringofsighttotheblind,tosetatliberty
themthatarebruised"(Luke4:18).Jesuswasn'tjusttalkingaboutblackpeople,oraboutwhitepeople,hewastalkingaboutpeople.There'snodifferenceinpeople,forPaulsays,
"Godhathmadeofonebloodallnationsofmenfortodwellonallthefaceoftheearth"(Acts17:26).Thatmeansthatwhetherwe'rewhite,black,red,yelloworpolkadot,we're
madefromthesameblood.

ThenextfourchapterswilltracetheologicalthemesinthreedifferentNewTestamentwritersthatrelatetoourtopicofracism.WebeginwithLuke,thephysicianand
companionofPaul(Col.4:142Tim.4:11Philemon24),whowroteboththeGospelofLukeandthebookofActs,fromwhichMs.Hamer

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quotes.HerchoiceoftextsfromLuke'sworksisespeciallyappropriate,becauseoneofthemajorthemesinhistwovolumeworkisthattheChristiangospelisfor
everyone.InActs,thefirsthistoryofChristianity,Lukerecountsthestruggleintheearly(Jewish)churchovertheacceptanceofGentileconverts,oneofwhomwas
Lukehimself.HehighlightsOldTestamenttexts,suchasthosetreatedinthelastchapter,whichenvisiontheMessianicageasoneofuniversalacceptanceand
harmony.InhisGospel,asMs.Hamersuggests,LukeemphasizesJesus'missiontoGentilesandSamaritansbutalsotoallgroupsandclassesofpeople,especially
thosewhowereoutcastsintheeyesofmainline,upperclassJewishsocietywomen,thepoor,thosewithphysicaldefectsandchronicillnesses,andthoseincertain
despisedprofessionssuchastaxcollectors.
Luke1:14thePreface
IntheprefacetohisGospel,Luketellshowhewentaboutcompilinghisaccount,readingother"narratives"ofJesus'life(1:1)andinterviewingeyewitnesses(1:2).The
workiswrittentoacertain"Theophilus"(1:3),whoisalsotheintendedaudienceforthebookofActs(Acts1:1).ThisTheophilusisotherwiseunknown.Thenameis
obviouslyGreek,andthefactthatLukeaddresseshimwiththetitle"mostexcellent"hasledsometospeculatethathewasanofficialofsomesort.Thiswouldaccount
forLuke'sgenerallypositiveportrayaloftheRomangovernmentinbothLukeandActs.OthershavepointedoutthatthenameTheophilusmeans"loverofGod,"and
haveproposedthatitdoesnotrefertoarealpersonbutissymbolicforanyseekerofreligioustruth.Ineithercase,thenameindicatesthatLuke'saudiencemayhave
beenatleastprimarilyGreekandhintsataconcernonhisparttoshowthatChristianity,whichbeganinJewishcircles,wasforeveryone.
Luke1:52:52Jesus'Birth
LikeMatthew,LukebeginsbyrecountingJesus'birth.ButLukeistheonlyGospelthatdetailstheroleofthewomen,MaryandElizabeth,inthestory.Jesus'birthis
closelytiedtothatofhiscousin,JohntheBaptist.John'smother,Elizabeth,praisesGodforshowingspecialfavortoherwhenshelearnsofher

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pregnancyinoldage(1:7,2425).Herfaithcontrastswiththatofherhusband,Zechariah,whoisincredulousattheannouncementoftheangelGabrieland
consequentlyisstruckdumbuntilthebirth(1:823,6264).ItisElizabethwhofirstnamesJohn(1:5963).Sheisalsoapparentlythefirsthumantorecognizewho
Mary'schildwillbe(1:3945).GabrielalsovisitsMarywiththeannouncementofherpregnancy(1:2638).Lukealonerecordsthevisit.Maryisperplexedatthe
announcement,sincesheisnotmarried(vv.3435),butsheneverdoubtsitsveracity(v.38).Luke'sisalsotheonlyGospeltoincludetheMagnificat(1:4655),the
beautifulpoemutteredbyMarywhenshegreetsElizabeth.Finally,thestoryoftheadolescentJesus'visittotheTemple,whichispeculiartoLuke(2:4151),
concludesbynotingthatMaryguarded"allthesethings"aboutJesusinherheart.
ThosewhocelebrateJesus'birthinLuke'saccountlaudhisuniversalmission.TheangelswhoappeartotheshepherdsinthevicinityofBethlehemproclaimthathis
birthmeans"peaceonearthamongpeopleofgoodwill"(2:14).Theoldman,Simeon,whowasawaitingaglimpseoftheMessiahbeforehisdeath,saidthatJesus
wasGod'ssalvation"preparedbeforeallthepeoples"andthathewouldbe"alightforrevelationtoGentiles[ornations]"(2:3132).
Luke3:234:30theBeginningofJesus'Ministry
LukeexplicitlybeginshisaccountofJesus'ministryproperin3:23bynotinghisage(aboutthirty)andthenimmediatelygivinghisgenealogy.Matthew1:117also
givesagenealogyforJesus,butthetwodifferinseveralrespects.MostnoteworthyisthefactthatMatthewbeginswithAbrahamandfollowsthelinedowntoJesus,
whileLukebeginswithJesusandtraceshisrootsallthewaybacktoAdam.ThisillustratesthedifferenttheologicalorientationsofMatthewandLuke.Matthew,who
apparentlywroteforapredominantlyJewishorJewishChristianaudience,emphasizesJesus'Jewishorigins.NotonlyisheasonofAbraham,butMatthewshows
himtobeadirectdescendantofDavidthroughtheroyalline.Thus,JesusistrulytheDavidicMessiahorChrist(bothwordsmean"anointed"),the"kingoftheJews."
Luke,however,makesanotherpoint.JesusisdescendednotjustfromAbraham,butfromAdam.Heisnotjust

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Jewish,buthuman,andhisministryisnotjusttoJews,buttoallpeople.
Jesuswasimpelledtobeginhisministry,accordingtoLuke,bytheHolySpirit,whocameuponhimathisbaptism(3:2122).ItwastheSpiritwholedhimintothe
wildernesstobetempted(4:113),andhavingpassedthatobstacle,hereturnedinthepoweroftheSpirittohisnativeGalilee(4:1415).Inhishometownof
NazarethontheSabbath,hespokeonthetextfromIsaiah61:"TheSpiritoftheLordisuponme."Hetoldthosepresentinthesynagoguethathehadfulfilledthattext.
ThefulfillmentlaynotjustinthepresenceoftheSpirit,butinthedeedsheperformedmotivatedbytheSpirit:preachinggoodnewstothepoorandreleasetocaptives,
restoringsighttotheblindandlibertytotheoppressed.Hewasaddressingtheneedsoftheunderprivilegedanddisenfranchisedinthatsociety.Moreover,inhis
remarksonthistextJesuscitedwhatwasevidentlyapopularsaying,"Noprophetiswelcomeinhisowncountry"(4:2324).HeillustratedtheproverbwithtwoOld
Testamentstories.ElijahandElishahadbothdonemiraculousdeedsfornonIsraelitesratherthanforneedypeopleintheirowncountry(4:2527).Hewastellinghis
fellowcitizensofNazareththattheydidnothonorhimbecausehehadgrownupintheirmidst,andsohewouldnotdomiraclesthere.Theybecamefuriousandtried
tokillhim(4:2830).Thisstory,whichLukeelaboratesfarmorethantheotherGospels,hintsthatmostJewswouldrejectJesusandpointsoutGod'slovingconcern
forallpeople,GentilesaswellasJews.
Luke7:1150Jesus'ContinuingMinistry
ThroughoutLuke'sGospel,Jesus'ministryexemplifiestheinterestsmentionedintheepisodeinNazareth.Itfocusesonthe"undesirables"oftheday.Thereisperhaps
nobetterexampleofthisthanthematerialinchapter7.Webeginwith7:1117,theaccountofJesus'revivingthesonofthewidowofNain.Theepisodeisvery
similartothestoriesofElijah(1Kings17:1724)andElisha(2Kings4:1837),towhomJesusmadereferenceinhisspeechinNazareth.Infact,1Kings17:1117
isthecontinuationofthestoryaboutthewidowofZarephaththatJesusmentionsinLuke4:2526.InLuke7:1823,JohntheBaptist,whohasbeenimprisonedand
isperhapsstartingtodoubthim

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self,sendssomeofhisfollowerstoinquirewhetherJesusisindeedthepromisedMessiah.Jesus'answerin7:22echoesIsaiah61,fromwhichhequotedinNazareth:
theblindsee,thelamewalk,thelepersarecleansed,thedeafhear,thedeadareraised,andthepoorreceivethegoodnews.JesusgoesontopraiseJohn'sministry
(7:2428)andtherebytojustifytheoutcasts,liketaxcollectors,whohadbeenconvertedbyhimwhilethereligiousleadersrefusedJohnand''rejectedGod's
purpose"(7:2930).HethencontrastsJohn'sministrywithhisown(7:3135).Johnwasaustereanddemandedrepentance.Jesusbefriendstaxcollectors(likeLevi,
see5:2732,andZacchaeus,see19:110)andsinners.Intheverynextstory(7:3650),heallowsa"sinfulwoman"towashhisfeetandcontrastsherpenitencewith
theselfrighteousnessofhisreluctanthost.
ThewomanwhowashedJesus'feetisjustoneofmanywomenofimportanceinLuke.WomenmayhavebeensecondclasscitizensinfirstcenturyPalestine,butthey
hadaspecialplaceinJesus'ministryaccordingtoLuke.Jesus'mostloyalfollowersincludedseveralwomen,anditwastheywhosupportedhimfinancially(8:13).
Theyweretheoneswhodiscoveredtheemptytomb(24:111).ThewomanwhowashealedofherconstanthemorrhagewhenshetouchedJesus'garment(8:4348)
showedexemplaryfaith,greaterthanthatofJairus,therulerofthesynagoguewhosestorysurroundshers(8:4042,4956).Anotherexemplarywomanwasthe
poor,namelesswidowwhosegiftoftwocoinstotheTempletreasurywasallshehad(21:14).
Luke7:110theCenturion'sSlave
InthiscontextofJesus'missiontothelowerrungsofthesocialladder,twostoriesdealingwithnonJewsstandout.Inthefirst,anunnamedRomancenturionhada
belovedslavewhobecamequiteill,sohesenttoaskforJesus'help.Jesusheadedtowardhishouse,butthecenturionwouldnotpermithimtoenter.Heshoweda
goodunderstandingofJesus'powerandauthority."Justsaythewordandmyservantwillbehealed"(or"letmyservantbehealed")wasthemessagehesenttoJesus.
Jesuswasamazed."NoteveninIsraelhaveIfoundsuchfaith!"hesaid.TheprimeexampleoffaithinLukecomesnotfromanIsraelitebutfromaGentile,aRoman
soldier.

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Luke17:1119theSamaritanLeper
InJesus'day,JewsdespisedSamaritans.Theprejudicewasethnicaswellasreligious.JewsregardedSamaritansasforeignerswhosereligionwasaperversionof
legitimateJudaism.TheanimositywassogreatthatmostJewswouldhavenothingtodowithSamaritans,evengoingtotheextremeofwalkingmilesoutoftheirway
inordertoavoidpassingthroughSamaritanterritory.SamaritansreciprocatedbyrefusingtoservefoodordrinktoanyoneonthewaytowardJerusalem.
Luke17:1119tellsofJesus'encounteringtenlepersinavillageontheoutskirtsofSamaria.Leprosywasahorrible,disfiguringdisease.Beingafflictedwithitthen
waslikehavingcancerorAIDStoday.Sinceitwasconsideredincurableandhighlycontagious,itsvictimswerequarantinedandsociallyostracized.Theywerecalled
"unclean,"andwererequiredtoshoutthiswordwhenevertheyapproachedotherpeople.ThetenleperswhomJesusmethadheardofhim.Astheykepttheir
distancetheyaskedforhishelp:"Havemercyonus!"(17:1213).Jesustoldthemtoshowthemselvestothepriests.Priestswereinchargeofdeclaringpersonstobe
"clean,"thatis,curedofleprosy.Astheywentinsearchofapriest,theirdiseasedisappearedandtheywerehealed(17:14).Onlyoneoftheten,however,returnedto
thankJesusandtopraiseGodforhisnewfoundhealth.HewasaSamaritan(17:16).Jesusexpresseddismaythat"thisforeigner''alonehadreturnedtopraiseGod
(17:1718).TherewasnothingwrongwithbeingaSamaritan,butJesushopedformorefromhisownpeople.AswiththeRomancenturion'sexampleoffaith,the
primeexampleofgratitudeinLukealsocomesfromanonJew.ButtheSamaritan'sgratitudewasalsoashowoffaith.HemadetheconnectionbetweenJesus'deed
andhisidentity.HerecognizedthehandofGod,whomhepraised.
Luke10:2537theGoodSamaritan
Asinhishealingministry,soinJesus'teachingsinLukethe"undesirable"elementsofsociety,suchasthepoor,haveaspecialplace.Thus,Luke'sversionofthe
beatitudereads"Blessedareyoupoor,foryoursisthekingdomofGod"(6:20),whereasMatthewhas"Blessedarethepoorinspirit..."(Matt.5:3)and

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Luke'sJesuspronouncesacorresponding"Woetoyouwhoarerich..."(6:24),whichislackinginMatthew.InLuke14:1214,Jesuscounselshishosttoinvitethe
poorandphysicallydeformedthosewhocannotrepayhimtohisbanquets,soastobuildcreditwithGod.
Inoneofhisteachings,thefamousparableofthe"goodSamaritan,"Jesuscountersexactlythekindofprejudicethatracismrepresents.TheparableisuniquetoLuke,
andfurthershisthemeofGod'sloveinChristbeingforallpeople.Butitismorethanastorywiththeblandmoralof"Benicetoeveryone."Ithasasharpedge,which
Jesuswieldedwithskillagainsthisopponents.Theparablesubtlyandbrilliantlyunderminesattitudesofprejudicebyforcinghisinquisitorstocommendtheirenemies
andthusdenouncetheirownbias.SincetheherointheparableisaSamaritan,itsmessageisagainaboutbothethnicandreligiousprejudice.
Thecontextoftheparableissetin10:2528.A"lawyer"asksJesusaquestion.Theprofessionofthislawyerisnotquitethesameasthatweknowtoday.Heisrather
someoneversedintheOldTestamentlaw,andisseenthereforeasanauthorityasmuchinreligiousmattersasinsecularones.Hismotiveinraisingthequestionisnot
sincere.HedoesnotseektolearnfromJesusbuttotesthim,presumablyinordertofindsomegroundstocriticizehim.Heasks,"WhatshouldIdotoinheriteternal
life?"Jesusturnsthequestionbackontheman:"Whatiswritteninthelaw?Howdoyouread?"Thisistosay,"Youaretheexpertinthelaw.Youtellme.''Thelawyer
hasthechancetodemonstratehisexpertiseandmustgiveastraightanswer.HisresponseisarecitationofDeuteronomy6:5:"YoushalllovetheLordyourGodwith
allyourheart,soul,strength,andmind."10Thisversefollowswhatisknownastheshema',"Hear,OIsrael,YahwehisourGod,Yahwehalone."Thesetwoverses
makeuptheconfessionthatconstitutesIsrael'snationalandreligiousidentity.Thelawyer'sanswer,inotherwords,isanexpressionofethnicandreligiouspride.He
adds,"And[youshalllove]yourneighborasyourself,"whichisnotanintegralpartoftheconfessioninDeuteronomy,butderivesfromLeviticus19:18.
ThecombinationofthesetwoquotationsmakesitapparentthatthelawyerseekstousethemtolimitthepeopleofGodbyexcludingthosewhomheregardsas
ethnicallyandreli

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giouslyunacceptable.InthecontextoftheconfessionofIsrael'snationalidentity,the"neighbor"canonlybehisfellowJews.Thoseofotherethnicoriginsareexcluded
butnotallJewsareacceptable,either.Deuteronomy6:45standsatthebeginningofthelawofMosesinDeuteronomyandintroducesaninjunctiontokeepallofthe
lawandteachittofuturegenerations(6:69).Infact,keepingthelawferventlywouldseemtobewhatitmeanstoloveGod,atleastinDeuteronomy.Hence,those
whodonotkeepthelawareexcludedonreligiousgrounds.Sincethelawyerisinchargeofstudyingthelaw,heandotherslikehimdrawthelinesdeterminingwhatis
properinterpretationandpracticeofthelawandwhatisnot.Heandhiscolleaguesdecidewhomtoacceptandwhomtorejectonreligiousgrounds.
Despitethelawyer'snarrowinterpretation,theanswerhehasgivenisagoodone.OneshouldloveGodandone'sneighbor.SoJesusapprovesofhisanswer(10:28).
Butthelawyernowappearsratherfoolishforhavingansweredhisownquestionandhasexposedhisinsinceritybyshowingthathehadananswerallalong.Sohe
continuesthedialogueinaneffortto"justifyhimself,"ortosaveface.PerhapshealsowantedvindicationforhisinterpretationofthelawortohaveJesusadmitthathe
(thelawyer)wasoneoftherighteous.Heasksanotherquestion:"Justwhoismyneighbor?"HemusthavebeenthinkingthathehadJesuswherehewantedhim.If
JesusindicatedthatonlyJewsfitinthecategoryofneighbor,hewouldbeinagreementwiththelawyer'snarrowinterpretationandexcludethoseamongwhomhehad
gainedafollowing.If,ontheotherhand,Jesusweretogiveanexplicitlyinclusivedefinitionofneighborthatitmeansallpeoplehewouldseemtobedownplaying
theimportanceofkeepingthelaw'scommandments,whichwouldbetantamounttoadenialofJudaism.ItseemedthatJesuswastrapped.
AsonotheroccasionswhenJesusisfacingaseeminglyunanswerablequestion,hereplieswithaparable.Likeallparables,thestorythatcomprisesitisdrawnfrom
everydaylifeandcouldhaveactuallyoccurred.Inthisinstance,JesustellsofamangoingfromJerusalemtoJericho,whoisrobbed,beaten,andlefttodie.Thestory
isquitepossibleandpresumesacommonoccurrence.TheroadbetweenJerusalemandJerichopassedthroughruggedandbarrencountry,whichheldmany

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hideoutsforbanditsandruffians.Itwasnotoriousforthedangeritposedtotravelers.
Itisinthedetailsaboutthosewhoencountertheinjuredmanthattheparablebecomespointed.Firstapriestpassingby(v.31)andthenaLevite(v.32)comeupon
theman,butbothcontinueontheirjourneyswithoutstoppingtohelp.Jesusdoesnotexplainwhytheydonotstop.Perhapstheyareafraidfortheirownsafety.
Perhapstheyareinahurry.Perhapstheythinkthatthemanisalreadydeadandareconcernedthattouchinghimwillmakethemrituallyunclean.Whatisimportantis
nottheirreasonsforcontinuingon,buttheiridentity.Theyarereligiousleaders.Theyarelikethelawyer.Theyhavetherightethnicpedigreeandtherightreligious
beliefs.IfanyonewouldmakehislistofthosewhoareacceptabletoGod,priestsandLeviteswould.ButasJesusforcesthelawyertoadmitmomentarily,inhis
parablethepriestandLevitearenotneighbors.
ThenaSamaritancomesalong.Ifthelawyercouldhaveexcludedanyonefromhislist,hewouldhaveexcludedSamaritans.Heprobablyhatedthemworsethan
Gentiles.AtleasttheGentilesdidnotclaimtobepartofthechosenpeople.SamaritansworshipedYahwehandthoughtofthemselvesaspartofIsrael.Butintheeyes
ofthelawyerandthoselikehimtheSamaritanswereheathensandapostates.TheSamaritaninJesus'parableisremarkable.Withoutregardtotheinjuredman's
ethnicity,hehascompassionforhimandhelpshim(v.33).Hetendstotheman'swoundsthebestthathecanandthencarrieshimtoaninnforbetternursing(v.34).
Hepaysfortheman'slodgingandmedicalexpensestwodenarii,abouttwodays'wagesandpromisestoreimbursetheinnkeeperforanyotherexpensesheincurs
(v.35).
ThenJesusturnstheconversationbacktothelawyer.Hedoesnotresponddirectlytothelawyer'squestionbutagainforceshimtoanswerhimself:"Whichofthese
threeinyouropinionprovedneighbortothemanwhofellamongthethieves?"Jesushaschangedthelawyer'squestion.Thelawyerinitiallyasked,"Whoismy
neighbor?"Hewasinterestedindrawinglinesbetweenthosehemusttreataspeersandneighborsandthosehecouldscornasenemiesandinferiors.ButinJesus'
parablethepotentialneighborsarenotthosewhoarebefriended,butthosewhoareinapositiontobefriendtheyare

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thedoersratherthantherecipientsofneighborlydeeds.Thelawyerismadetoidentifywiththemaninneed.ThelawyerknowshehasbeenmanipulatedbyJesus,and
hisresponsetoJesus'questionbarelymaskshisresentment.Hecannotbringhimselftosay"theSamaritan"butinsteadreplies,"Theonewhotreatedhimwith
mercy"(v.37).Thencomesthefinalinsult.Jesustellsthelawyer,''Goanddolikewise."InanswertohisrequesttoidentifyhisneighborJesushasheldupaSamaritan
andsaid,"Belikehim."Thereis,ofcourse,amorallessonherethatoneshouldtreatallpeopleasneighborsregardlessofethnicity(orrace),religion,orsocialstatus.
Butthelessonhasarazorsharpedgeonitsotherside:prejudiceofanykindisfoolishandwrongthepersonwhoisruledbyitisunacceptabletoGod.
Luke24:3653toAllNations
LukecloseshisGospelbyrecountingJesus'postresurrectionappearancesandhisascension.Hethenbeginshissecondvolume,Acts,byoverlappingtheaccountsof
Jesus'reunionwithhisdisciplesinJerusalemandhisascension.AftertwoofthedisciplesencounterJesusonajourneyfromJerusalemtothenearbyvillageof
Emmaus,theyreturntoJerusalem,wheretheyfindtheelevenapostlesgatheredandinformthemthattheyhaveseenJesus(24:1335).Jesussuddenlyappearsinthe
midstofthegatheringandprovestothemthatheisalive"intheflesh"(24:3643).HebeginstoinstructthemaboutOldTestamentscripture,showingthemthathis
deathandresurrectionhave"fulfilled"it(24:4446).Thenextstepisthatthesalvationhehasthusprocured,forgivenessofsins,"shouldbepreachedinhis[the
Messiah's]nametoallthenations[orGentiles]beginningfromJerusalem"(24:47).Anotherpossiblereadingis"BeginningfromJerusalem,youarewitnessesofthese
things"(24:48).Ineithercase,thegoodnewsofJesusistogoforthfromJerusalemtotheentireworld.ThecapstonetotheGospelofLukeisthatfellowshipwith
GodisnolongerlimitedtoonepeoplesalvationinChristisavailableforeveryone.

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11
"NothingCommonorUnclean":
GrowingPainsoftheEarlyChurchintheBookofActs
Hewasshort,thin,quickasarabbit,andworethickglasses.HisnamewasJames.Hewasblack,andhewasmyfriend.Hestoppedbeingmyfriendonedayin
eighthgradescienceclass.Itwasthespringof1968.MomentouseventsweretakingplaceinMemphis,butthatwasaworldawayatthetimeforme.Ihadseen
newsfootageonTVofblackpeoplebeingchasedbydogsandsprayedbywatercannon,butthatwastheSouth.IntheWest,wherewelived,thosethingsweren'ta
problemforusatanyrate.
MaybeitwasfromTVthatIlearnedtheword.Iknewitwasaninsult,butitdidn'tmeananythingtome.Inscienceclassonthatspringdayin1968JamesandIhad
gottenintoanargument.Idon'trememberwhatitwasabout.AllIknowisthatIsuddenlybecameveryangry,andthat'swhenIsaidit,thewordthatruinedmy
friendshipwithJames.Icanstillseethelookonhisfacethemomentitcameoutofmymouth.Ithunginthespacebetweenus,withhiseyesfixeduponitinshock,
hurt,andrage."Whitetrash!"herespondedautomatically.Butthatnamemeantnothingtome.Itdidnotcutmetothequickasmyinsulthadhim.Heturnedaway.We
spokenomorethatdayorforseveraldaysthereafter.Intruth,Idon'trecalleverspeakingtoJamesafterthat,thoughIamsureImusthave,evenifitwasnolongeras
afriend.Myfamilymovedawayafewmonthslater,andIneversawJamesagain.Iheardlater

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thatinhighschoolandcollegeJamesbecameamemberofamilitantorganizationthatadvocatedseparatismfromwhitesocietyandviolenceagainstit.Ihavenever
doubtedthatmybetrayalcontributedtohischoice.ItwastheoneandonlytimeIevercalledanyone"nigger."
Theearlychurch,asdescribedinthebookofActs,Luke'ssecondvolume,alsostruggledwithethnicdifferences.Specifically,thefirstChristians,whowereJews,
wereuncertainaboutpreachingthegospeltotheGentiles.EventhoughtheybelievedJesustobetheMessiahinfulfillmentofOldTestamentpassageslikeIsaiah2:24
andMicah4:13andIsaiah11:19,theydidnotimmediatelyperceivethesignificanceoftheuniversalharmonyinthosevisionsfortheirnewmovement.InActs,Luke
showshowGod'sowninterventioninthecontroversyleftnodoubtabouttheacceptanceofGentiles.Luke,himselfaGentilewritingatalaterdate,wishestomake
clearthatfromthebeginningthewillofGodwasthatthegospelbeavailabletopeopleofallraces.
JerusalemandJudea
Acts1:8"YouWillBeMyWitnesses"
LukebeginshisaccountofthechurchwhereheendedhisstoryofJesuswithhispostresurrectionappearancetothedisciplesandhisascension.Acts1:19overlaps
withLuke24:4453.Thedisciples,notfullygraspingJesus'missionandthusstillexpectinghimtoestablishanearthlykingdom,ask,"Willyounowrestorethe
kingdomtoIsrael?"JesusrepliesthatGod'stimetableisnottheirbusiness(Acts1:7),butthattheyarecalledtobewitnessestoJesusinJerusalem,Judea,Samaria,
andtotheendoftheearth(1:8).ThisreplyservesasasortofoutlineforthebookofActsashetracesthespreadofChristianityineverwidening,concentriccircles
throughPalestineandSyria,toAsiaMinor,andfinallytoRomeitself
Acts2:147EachinHisOwnNativeTongue:TheBeginningoftheChurch
ThesecondchapterofActsrecordsthefamous"dayofPentecost"sermonofPeter,wheninasensethechurchbegan.Thebeginningwassignaledbythefallingofthe
Spiritonthedisci

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plesjustastheSpirithadcomeonJesusatthebeginningofhisministry(Luke3:21224:1,14).BecausePentecostwasanimportantJewishholiday,therewere
piousJews"fromeverynationunderheaven"stayinginJerusalem(Acts2:5).Whiletheysharedanethnicandreligiousheritage,theirnationaloriginsandcitizenships
werediverse.Soweretheirnativelanguages.Hence,itwasremarkablethateachpersonheardthedisciplesspeakinginhis(thesewerealloralmostallmen)own
nativelanguage(2:611).Asanumberofscholarshaveobserved,theologicallythisstoryisareversaloftheTowerofBabelepisodeofGenesis11.There,God
separatedthelanguagesbecauseofhumansin.ButinActsanewactofGodbringspeopletogether.InChristthebarriersoflanguageandcultureareovercome.The
intensityofthefellowshipofthenewChristians,describedattheendofthechapter,illustratesthestrengthoftheirnewunity.
TwiceinthecourseofthesermonhepreachesonPentecost,Peterreferstotheuniversalinvitationofthegospel.HisquotationfromtheprophetJoelcontainstheline,
"WhoevercallsonthenameoftheLordshallbesaved"(Acts2:21cf.Joel2:32).Then,towardtheendofthesermon,hesaysthatthepromise[ofsalvation]is"toall
whoarefaroff,whomevertheLordourGodcalls"(2:39).Peterdidnotcomprehendthefullsignificanceofhisownwordsandthetruebreadthofthepromise's
validity.Inthecontextofthisspeechtothe"menofIsrael"onPentecost,hemuststillhavebeenthinkingonlyofJews,albeitJewsinallpartsoftheworld.However,it
wouldsoonbemadecleartohimthatGod'sintentionforthegospelwasmuchlarger.
Acts6:1CulturalDifferences:HellenistsandHebrews
Anytimepeopleofdifferentbackgroundscometogetherforanycauseorpurpose,frictionsareboundtoemerge.Theearlychurchwasnoexception.Thefirstsuch
frictionwasahintofothersthatwouldariseinthefuture.TheinitialfollowersofJesushadbeenmoreorlesshomogeneousinculturalandethnicbackground,butas
thechurchgrewitbecamemorediverse.ThatgrowingdiversityisreflectedinActs6:1,wherethoseofHellenisticbackgroundbegantocomplainthattheywerebeing
treatedunfairly.TheseHellenistswereJewswho

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hadadoptedGreekcultureandwereGreekspeaking,asopposedtothoseJewswhospokeAramaicandhadresistedabsorptionintobroaderGreekculture.There
wereconvertstoChristianityfrombothgroups.
ThespecificcomplaintoftheHellenistswasthatthecontributionstoaidwidowswerenotbeingdistributedequitably,sothatthoseofHellenisticbackgroundwere
beingneglected.Thecomplaintwaslegitimate,andwhenitcametotheapostlestheydetermineditwasnecessarytoact.Severalpointsaboutthecourseofactionthey
adoptedaretellingforourstudy.First,theapostleswantedtofindafairsolutiontotheproblem.Theythereforeaskedthedisciplestochoosesevenmentotake
chargeofthematter(6:3).Tojudgefromtheirnames,whichareallGreek,thesevenwhowerechosenwereapparentlyHellenists(6:5).Asecondpoint,then,isthat
theapostles,mostofwhomwereHebrewsratherthanHellenists,didnotdemanduniformityincultureorpoliticalorientation.Third,theythemselveswereoccupied
withpreachingthewordofGodanddidnotwanttosurrenderthatresponsibilityto"servetables"(6:2).Forthem,faithinChristwasthemostimportantthing,andthe
umbrellaofChristianitywaswideenoughtoencompassdifferentculturesandviewpointspeacefully.
Samaria
Acts8:1b25thePreachingofPhilip
Twoofthesevenspecialservantschoseninchapter6arerenownedinActsfortheirpreaching,andtheirministriesarerelated.Stephen'ssermon,reiteratedinchapter
7,soangeredhisaudiencethathebecamethechurch'sfirstmartyr.HisdeathinitiatedthepersecutionofthechurchledbySaul(8:1b3).Butintheoverallschemeof
thebookofActs,ithadanimportantbenefit.ThediscipleshadbeencaughtupintheexcitementoftheirnewlifeandnewmovementandhadneglectedJesus'words
aboutbeinghiswitnessestotheworldbeyond.Now,though,theywerescatteredthroughoutJudeaandSamaria(8:1),andastheyscatteredtheyspreadthewordof
Christ.
Philip'ssuccessinSamariaisdocumented(8:46).Whatisparticularlyimportantistheconfirmationofhismessagethroughsigns(8:6)showingdecisivelythatGod
acceptsSamar

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itansaswellasJews.Furthermore,whenPeterandJohnvisittheSamaritanChristianstolayhandsonthem,theHolySpiritfallsonthemjustasitfellontheJewish
disciplesinJerusalematthebeginning.Themessageisclear:thereisnodifferenceinGod'seyesbetweenJewsandSamaritans.Botharefullmembersofthenew
salvationcommunity.Lukesummarizesthechurch'sgrowthtothisstagein9:31:"ThechurchthroughoutallJudea,Galilee,andSamariahadpeace.Itincreased,being
builtupandcontinuinginthefearoftheLordandthecomfortoftheHolySpirit."
ToAlltheWorld
Acts8:2640theFirstGentileConvert
ThefirstGentileconverttoChristianityaccordingtoActswasablackman.Therehadbeencasesofproselytes(i.e.,ethnicGentilesconvertedtoJudaism)who
becameChristians,suchasNicolaus(Acts6:5).ButthefirstGentiletobecomeaChristianwithoutfirstbecomingaJewwastheEthiopianofficialinActs8.Thebrief
descriptionofthismanin8:2728indicatesthathewasanextraordinaryindividual.HewasanEthiopianorNubianandthereforeablackman.Hewasagovernment
official,ministeroftreasureforthequeenofEthiopia("Candace"wasnotanamebutaroyaltitle).Hewas,therefore,trustedandtrustworthy.Hewaswealthy,
travelinginhisownchariotwithaprivatedriver.Hewasculturedandwelleducated.Philip,whohadbeensentdirectlytothemanbydivineorder(8:26),foundhim
reading(inGreek?orHebrew?)fromhisowncopyofthebookofIsaiah.Hewasalsoaverypiousman,havingtraveledallthewayfromEthiopiatoJerusalemto
worship.Whatmakesthisevenmoreextraordinaryisthatthemanwasaeunuch.AccordingtoDeuteronomy23:1,thisconditionwouldhavepreventedhimfrom
participatingfullyintheTempleworshipforwhichhehadtraveledsuchagreatdistance.Thisexplainshishopefulquestionin8:36:"Whathindersmybeingbaptized?"
ForamanwhosephysicalconditionasaeunuchandGentilebothmattersbeyondhiscontrolhadkepthimfromfullcommunionwithGodandhisfellowbelievers
allhislife,thegoodnewspreachedbyPhilipmusthaveseemedalmosttoogoodtobetrue.Hehadlistenedintentlyto

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Philip'smessageandbelieveditinstantly.So,whenhelearnedthatfaithwastheonlycriterionforsalvation11regardlessofhisphysicalnature,hehadhischariot
stoppedandwasbaptizedonthespot.
Lukesaysnothingmoreaboutthenewconvertotherthan"hewentonhiswayrejoicing"(8:39).HewasthebeginningofthethrivingChristianchurchinEthiopia.
Luke'saccountinthebookofActsturnswestandfollowsthechurch'sgrowthtowardRome,theheartoftheempire.Iftheearlyevangelistshadchosenadifferent
strategy,thecenterofChristianitymightwellhavebeeninAfricaratherthaninRome.12Nevertheless,theEthiopian'sconversioncontainsaveryimportantlesson
abouttheallinclusivenatureoftheChristianreligion.Personsofeveryraceareeligibletobefullmembers.Physicalfeaturessuchasskincolor,wholenessofbody,or
healthhavenobearingonone'sacceptabilitybeforeGod.Thedoortothekingdomwas(andis)wideopen.Thechallengewas(andis)togetthispointacrosstothe
communityofthesaints.TheissuewouldcometoaheadwiththenextconversionofaGentilereportedbyLuke(Acts10).Lukeplacesmorestressonthesecond
Gentileconversionbecauseithadagreaterimpactontheearlychurchandbecausetheconvert,Cornelius,wasaRomancenturion.Buttheplaceofpriorityasthefirst
GentileconvertstillbelongstotheAfricanofficial.
Acts9:15MyInstrumentbeforetheGentiles:TheConversionofSaulofTarsus
BeforerecountingthenextGentileconversion,LukesetsthestageforitbytellingaboutthemanwhomorethananyoneelsewouldevangelizetheGentileworld.Saul
wasintroducedattheendofchapter7astheringleaderofthosewhostonedStephen(7:58).HetookchargeoftheearlypersecutioninJerusalem(8:3),andasthe
churchspreadtoJudea,Samaria,andbeyond,Saulfollowedthreateningly(9:1).
Saul'sconversioncameashewasonhiswaytoDamascustoarrestChristiansthereandreturnthemtoJerusalemfortrial(9:12).Christappearedtohimandtold
himtoawaitfurtherinstructions(9:36).ThebrightlightthatwaspartofChrist'sappearanceblindedSaulsothathewaitedforthreedaysinthedarkinDamascus
(9:79).WhenaChristianinDamascus

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namedAnaniaswastoldbytheLordinavisiontogotoSaulsothathecouldrecoverhissight,AnaniasobjectedthathehadheardofSaul'sdevastatingpersecution
(9:1014).ButhewastoldtogoanywaybecauseSaulwasGod's"choseninstrument"tobringthenameoftheLord"beforeGentilesandkingsandthechildrenof
Israel"(9:15).ThemissiontotheGentileswasabouttobegininearnest.
Acts10:111:18NothingCommonorUnclean:TheConversionofCorneliusandItsRepercussions
SincetheconversionoftheEthiopianeunuchwasanisolatedincidentintheministryofPhilip,whowasfleeingJerusalem,itescapedthenoticeoftheearlyChristian
leadersinthatcity.ButtheconversionofCorneliusandtheGreeksinAntiochraisedtheissueofthestatusofGentileChristians,particularlyinregardtothepracticeof
circumcision.
CorneliuswasaRomansoldier,acenturionbyrank,whowasstationedinPalestineinthecityofCaesarea.Hewasalsooneofthoseknownas"Godfearers"(10:1
2),thatis,GentileswhodevoutlyworshipedtheGodofIsraelbutwhohadneverofficiallybecomeproselytestoJudaismbyundergoingtheprocedureofcircumcision.
Anangel,whoappearedtoCorneliusduringoneofhisprayertimes,toldhimtosendforPeter,whowasstayinginJoppa(10:38).
Meanwhile,Peterwashavingavisionofhisown(10:916).Hesawalargesheetlikeobjectloweredfromheaven.Itcontainedallkindsofuncleananimals,thatis,
animalsthatcouldnotbesacrificedoreatenaccordingtoOldTestamentlaw.Peterwastoldto"arise,killandeat,"buthedeclined,saying,"Bynomeans,Lord,forI
havenevereatenanythingcommonorunclean."Thevisioncametohimthreetimes,asawayofreinforcingitsimportance,butitsmeaningwasnotexplained.Hewas
puzzlingoveritssignificancewhentheenvoysfromCorneliusarrived,andtheHolySpirittoldhimtoaccompanythem(10:20).ThevisionandtheSpirit'scommand
wereimportant,becausePeterwasbreakingJewishtaboosbyhavinganythingtodowiththemessengers.Hehadhostedthemandwasnowonhiswaytomeetand
staywiththeirmaster.Hehadbeguntounderstandthepointofhisvisionthatotherpeoplewerenot

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"common"or"unclean"inGod'sviewandthatheshouldnotthinkofthemthatway(10:2829).
AfterhearingCorneliusrelatethevisionthathadledhimtosendforPeter(10:3033),theapostlebegantopreachthestoryofJesus.Heprefacedhisremarksby
sayingthathenowunderstoodthat"Godisnotonetoshowpartiality,butineverynationwhoeverfearshimanddoesrightisacceptable"(10:3435).BeforePeter
couldfinish,however,theHolySpiritcameuponthelisteners(10:44).TheJewswhowerepresentwereamazedbecausetheyunderstoodwhattheSpirit'spresence
meant.ThiswastheGentilePentecost.TheSpiritcameuponthemjustastheSpirithadcomeuponJesusatthebeginningofhisministryandupontheJewishdisciples
onthedayofPentecost.TheyspokeintonguesjustastheJewshadatthebeginningofthechurch(10:45).ThiscouldonlymeanthatGentilesweresuitable
candidatesforsalvationjustasmuchasJews.ThecomingoftheSpiritleftnodoubtaboutGod'sacceptance.Peterasked,"Cananyoneforbidwaterforbaptizing
thesepeoplewhohavereceivedtheHolySpiritjustaswehave?"(Acts10:47).Thequestionwasrhetorical.NoonecouldforbidbaptismfortheGentilesbecause
Godhadalreadyapprovedthem.
BaptizingGentileswasstillnew,soitwasinevitablethatPeter'sactionswouldcomeunderfire.WhennewsofCornelius'shouseholdreachedtheleadersinJerusalem,
Peterwascalledintojustifywhathadhappened,especiallybythosecalledthe"circumcisionparty,"thatis,thegroupthatadvocatedmaintainingsegregationbetween
JewsandGentiles(11:13).Theyasked,accusingly,whyPeterhadfellowshippedandeveneatenwithuncircumcisedGentiles.Peter'sdefensewassimple.Hehad
donewhatGodtoldhimtodo.Herecountedhisvision,withitsmessagethattherewasnolongerany"commonorunclean"person(11:410).Healsotoldofhis
journeywithCornelius'sservantstohishouseatthedirectionofGod(11:1114).Peter'smostforcefulargument,though,wasthegiftoftheHolySpirittotheGentiles,
justastotheJews."GodgavethesamegifttothemastouswhenwebelievedintheLordJesusChrist"(11:17).SotheconversionofGentileswasnotreallyPeter's
doing.ItwasGod's.Peterhadnochoiceinthematter."WhowasIthatIcouldwithstandGod?''Todenythegospeltoanygroupofpeopleortosegregateanygroup
asinferiororsecondclasscitizensofthekingdomistowithstandGod!TheJewspresentatPeter'sexplanation

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recognizedthatitwasGodandnotPeterwhohadmadethedecisiontoadmitGentiles,andtheyrejoicedinit(11:18).
Acts11:1926CorneliusNotAlone:TheGreeksinAntioch
WhenthefirstChristiansscatteredfromJerusaleminthewakeofStephen'smartyrdom,theyspreadthewordaboutJesusastheywent.ThesewereJewishChristians,
andtheyspoketoJewsinsynagoguesandelsewhere.ButaboutthesametimeasCornelius'sconversion,someJewishChristians,whowereprobablyHellenists,in
AntiochbegantotelltheGreeksthereaboutJesus,andtheGreeksbelievedinlargenumbers(11:1921).WhentheJerusalemleadershiplearnedofthis,theysent
Barnabastoinvestigate.AswithPeterandCornelius'shousehold,Barnabassawthat"thehandoftheLordwaswiththem"(Acts11:21)sothathewasconvincedthat
the"graceofGod"(v.23)hadgenuinelybeengiventotheGentilesaswellastoJews.
Acts13:1352:TotheJewFirstandAlsototheGreek:Paul'sModusOperandi
Luke'saccountofthebeginningofthechurchinAntiochofPisidiainchapter13illustratesSaul's(nowcalledPaul)approachtomissionactivitywhereverhewent.He
enteredthesynagogueontheSabbath(13:14),andthentookadvantageoftheopeninvitationtospeak(13:1516)inordertopreachaboutJesus.Hisbeganwitha
recitationofIsrael'shistoricaltraditions(13:1722).WiththementionofDavid,PaulintroducedJesusandrecountedhislifestoryasthefulfillmentofOldTestament
scriptureandtheMessianicexpectation(13:2341).ManyoftheJewsandproselyteswerepersuadedbythemessageandfollowedPaulandhiscomrades(13:42
43).Butsomevieweditasathreatandmountedanopposition(13:45).Inresponse,PaulannouncedthathewasturningtotheGentiles,citingIsaiah49:6:"Ihaveset
youasalighttotheGentiles[or"nations"]tobesalvationtotheendoftheearth"(13:47),andtheGentilesinturnrejoicedtobeincluded(13:48).Thispattern
rehearsesLuke'sstructuralschemefortheentirebookofActsandoneofitsprimarymessages.ThegospelofJesusChristis

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forallpeople.ItspreadfirstamongtheJews,inJesus'Palestinianhomeland,andfromtheretopersonsofeveryraceandethnicityintheworld.
Acts15:135:TheWatershed:TheJerusalemConference
DespitethesuccessofthegospelamongtheGentilesandeventhesignsfromGodthataccompaniedtheirearlyconversions,fullacceptanceofthemwasdifficultfor
someJewishChristians.Thesepeople,whocametobeknownas"Judaizers,"insistedthattheGentileshadtogothroughMosestogettoChrist,thatis,theyhadto
followtheMosaiclaw,particularlythecustomofcircumcision,inordertoattainfullsalvation(15:1).Theseteacherscame,notsurprisingly,fromJudea,butthey
followedthechurchasitgrewandspreadtheirdoctrineamongtheGentileconverts.WhentheyreachedAntioch,theystirredupquiteacontroversy,sogreatthatthe
churchtheredecidedtosendPaulandBarnabastoJerusalemforadecisiveansweraboutthematter.
InthemeetingoftheapostlesandeldersinJerusalemthereweretwoprincipalspeakerswhosewordsLukerecordsPeterandJames.Peterrecalledhisexperience
inpreachingtoCornelius'shousehold.God'swillinthematterwasclear,hesaid,fromthefactthattheHolySpirithadcomeontheGentilesjustasithadonthe
JewishdisciplesatPentecost(15:8).Thus,God"madenodistinctionbetweenusandthem"(15:9).Bothgroups,JewandGentilealike,wouldbesavedbythegrace
oftheLordJesus(15:11).
AfterPaulandBarnabashadconfirmedPeter'swordsbyrecountingGod'scontinuing"signsandwonders"amongtheGentiles,especiallyinAntioch(15:12),James
offeredacompromisesolution.HebeganbycitingaversionofAmos9:1112.13ThequotationreferstothereestablishmentoftheDavidicdynastybytheMessiah
(rebuildingthedwellingorboothofDavid)inorderthatalltheGentiles(ornations)mayseektheLord.TheimplicationofthisquotationandJames'suseofitis
staggering:thepurposeforsendingChristwasthattheGentilesmightseektheonetrueGod.SinceGod'splanallalongwastobringGentilesintofellowshipwithJews
asadherentsofGod,theGentilesmustbeacceptedasfullmembersinChrist'skingdom.James

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goesontosuggest,therefore,thatinordertofurtherthisfellowshiptheGentilesbeencouragedtorefrainfrompracticesthatwerecommoninGreekandRoman
culturebutwereespeciallyoffensivetoJews(v.20cf.v.29).TheseprohibitionsseemtobedrawnlargelyfromLeviticus1718andaremainlydietaryregulations.
Theyincludedeatingmeatthatwas"sacrificed"ordedicatedtoothergods(called"pollutionsofidols"inv.20)andtheeatingofblood(whichincludedmeatthatwas
slaughteredbystranglingsincethebloodwasnotdrainedfromthecarcass).TheprohibitionagainsteatingbloodderivedfromthecovenantwithNoah(Gen.9:4),not
fromthelawofMoses,andwasthusregardedbyJewsasuniversalinapplication.Theremaininginjunctionagainst''unchastity"probablyreferstosexualrelationswith
familymembersthatwerecommonamongGentilesbutconsideredincestuousbyJews.TheJerusalemleadersadoptedJames'sproposalandsentalettertothe
GentilechurchesbythehandofBarnabasandSilas.
ThisconferenceandthedecisionitreachedisawatershedinthebookofActs.Acts115clearlyshowsthatinJesusChrist,Godhascalledallpeopleintofellowship
withhim,sotheJerusalemleadershipcouldreachonlyoneconclusionabouttheacceptanceofGentilesintothechurch.SinceGodhadalreadyacceptedthemfullyby
givingthemtheHolySpirit,JewishChristianscoulddonolessthanwelcomethemasequalsintothecommunityoffaith.Theinstructionsthatweresentoutfrom
JerusalemwereintendedtofacilitatefellowshipbetweenJewishandGentileChristiansbyencouragingtheGentilestoavoidpracticesthatwouldbeparticularly
offensivetoJews.Theremarkablethingabouttheconference,especiallyJames'sspeech,istheveryimportantplacethatitassignstohumanfellowshipasGod'sgoal
insendingChristtoearth.Despitethis,Christiansinthesubsequentcenturieshavenotgenerallyattachedthesamedegreeofimportancetothishorizontalaspectof
Christiancommunity,buthavebeencontentwithseveredcommunitiesandlimitedorhinderedcommunion.Theemphasishasbeenontheindividual'srelationshipwith
Godratherthanonone'srelationshipwithothers.Butperhapsthefirstisimpossiblewithoutthesecond(Matt.5:2324).
ThecontroversyresolvedinActs15isimportantforanotherreason.ThequestionbeforetheconferencewasnotjustthetheoreticalacceptanceofnonJewsintothe
church.Itwas

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whetherGentilesweretobeacceptedastheywereuncircumcisedintothechurchonalevelequalwithJewishChristians.Itwasthereforeanissueofdiversityas
muchasunity.TheJewishChristianswhowantedtheGentilestobecircumcisedwereuncomfortablewiththediversitytheyoffered.TheseJudaizerswantedthe
Gentilestobecomelikethem.ItisagainstthisbackgroundthatLukepresentedthemessageofActs.Theconferencecouldreachonlyoneconclusion.Theevents
leadinguptoitleftnoroomfordoubt.GodgavetheHolySpirittotheGentiles(Acts10:444711:1518).Barnabaswitnessedthe"handoftheLord"amongthe
Gentiles.Peter,Paul,andBarnabastestifiedtotheconferenceaboutwhatGodhadalreadydoneamongtheGentiles.Itwasclear,therefore,thatGodhadalready
acceptedtheGentilesastheywere.Godwelcomednotonlyallpeople,butthediversitytheybroughtaswell.
PaullefttheJerusalemconferencetoreturntohisministryamongtheGentiles.InActs17:2231,thesermonquotedbyFannieLouHameratthebeginningofthe
precedingchapter,PaulpreachestoaGreekaudienceinAthenswhodonotsharethebackgroundofhisusualJewishaudiences.Asinourchapteroncreation,he
observesthatallpeopleshareacommonancestorandarethereforerelatedasbrothersandsisters(v.26).Healsonotes,inlinewithwhatwehavelearnedabout
wisdom,thatthecreationprovides"natural"revelationforallpeople(vv.2728)andtestifiestoGod,whomtheAtheniansworshipasunknown,astheLordofheaven
andearthandthefundamentalprincipleforalllivingthings(17:2425).ButthedecisionoftheJerusalemconferencedidnothalttheeffortsoftheJudaizersandPaul
wouldspendagreatdealofhisministrycombatingthemonessentiallythesameissuefacedbythatconference,asweshallseeinafuturechapter.

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PARTFIVE
THEMANDATETOINTEGRATE

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12
"ThatTheyMayAllBeOne":
UnityandFellowshipintheWritingsofJohn
ThreeyearsofmyboyhoodwerespentinasmallNewMexicotownwhilemyfathergentlyshepherdedanaginganddiminishingcongregationthroughtheprocessofa
mergerwithanotherchurchintown.Therewasalsoa"colored"congregationinthecommunity,whichbycoincidencehadhiredanewministeralsonamedMcKenzie,
whoarrivedintownaboutthesametimemyfamilydid.Heandhiswifequicklybecameourfavoritehouseguests.Ifwevisitedtheirhomelessoften,itwasonly
becausetheywerenewlywedswhilemyparentshadfourenergeticboys.Therewererunningjokesabouthowwewerebrothersandsistersbutnotkin,relatedbut
notbyblood,anditwasnotunusualforustoreceiveeachother'stelephonecalls.Visitstoeachother'schurches,however,wererareandlimitedtospecialoccasions,
andthepossibilityofamergerbetweenourtwocongregationswasneverbroached.Theywereonoppositesidesoftown.WhenIfirstsawthefacilitiesofthe
"coloredchurch"thesmallbuildingandthefoldingchairsinsteadofpewsIaskedwhytheydidnotjustjoinusandwastold,"Theywantitthisway."Infact,
everyonewasclearlymorecomfortablewiththingsastheywere.
Inthischapterandthenext,Iproposetorevisitthequestionofmyyouthbyputtingforward,perhapsstillnaively,theprovocativethesisthattheNewTestament
makesastrongtheologicalcaseagainstsegregationofchurchesalongraciallines.Toputitinthestrongestterms,fromtheperspectiveofNewTestamentauthorslike
JohnandPaul,segregationisnot

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justundesirable,butisanaffronttoGodanddefeatstheverypurposeforwhichChristcametoearth.
TheGospelofJohn
ThePrologue(John1:118)
LikeLuke,theGospelofJohntracesJesus'rootsbacktocreation,thoughinaverydifferentway.JohndoesnotgiveagenealogyforJesus,asdoMatthewandLuke.
Instead,theGospelofJohnbeginswithaprologueonJesus'spiritualorigins.ItslanguageisreminiscentofthecreationaccountinGenesis1:"Inthebeginningwasthe
Word,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod."JohnreferstoJesusasthe"Word"(Greeklogos).TheallusiontoGenesis1:1isobvious.Throughout
thecreationaccountinGenesis1,Godcreatesbymeansofthespokenword:"Godsaid,'Lettherebe...'andtherewas..."Hence,"Allthingscameintobeing
throughhim''(John1:3)and"inhimwaslife"(1:4).JohnisalsoprobablyplayingontheideaofthewordofGodthatinspiresthebiblicalwritersandcharacters.Butin
additiontothese"Hebrew"notionsoftheword,Johnisalludingtotheidea,commoninGreekphilosophy,ofthelogosasthefundamentalandallpervasiveprinciple
oftheuniverse.Thus,nothinghascomeintobeingwithouttheWord(1:3).ThepointisthatJohnstyleshismessageinsuchawaythatitwillbecomprehensibleand
appealingtobothJewsandGreeks.
John'smessageabouttheWordstressesitsuniversalapplicability.HestatesspecificallythatthelifebroughtbytheWordwasthelightofallpeople(1:4).Theworld
wascreatedthroughtheWord,sotheworldbelongedtotheWord.TheWordcametotheworldasoneofitsown(1:10).TheWord'sownpeopledidnotaccept
him(1:11)anallusiontoJesus'rejectionbyhisown,similartothepassageinLuke4:1630,whichwetreatedinchapter10.Buttoeveryonewhodidreceivehim,
theWordgavethepotentialtoberebornasachildofGod(John1:1213).Johnsaysnothingaboutrestrictionsbasedonethnicityoranythingelse.Thewayintothe
kingdomisopentoall.JohngoesontosaythattheWordbecameflesh.Hedoesnotspecifyanyparticular"brand"orraceofflesh.Inv.17hecontraststhelawgiven
throughMoseswiththegraceandtruth

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giventhroughJesusChrist.Thus,the"we"inv.16,whohaveallreceived"graceupongrace,"refersnotjusttoJewsbuttoallpeople.Justas"allflesh"intheworld
werecreatedthroughtheWord,sothehopeofferedthroughtheWordisavailabletoallpersons,ofanyethnicidentity.
TheWomanattheWell(4:142)
UnlikeLuke,whichtellsofseveralencountersbetweenJesusandnonJews,intheGospelofJohn,Jesusdealsalmostexclusivelywithhiscompatriots.Onestriking
exceptionisthestoryinJohn4oftheSamaritanwomanwhomJesusmeetsatthetownwell.Ethnicandreligiousprejudiceprovideimportantbackgroundtothisstory.
WehavealreadydescribedthestronganimositythatexistedbetweenJewsandSamaritansinJesus'day.ThehatredwassostrongthatJewstravelingnorthfrom
JerusalemtoGalileegenerallypreferredtobypassSamariaaltogether.Thismeantlengtheningtheirjourneyconsiderably,becausetheywouldhavetotraveltothe
JordanRiver,crossit,travelnorthontheeasternsideoftheriver,andthencrossitagaintoenterGalilee(seeamapofancientPalestine).TheSamaritansreciprocated
thishatred.Typically,Samaritanbusinesses(vendors,inns,etc.)wouldservetravelersheadedawayfromJerusalembutrefuseservicetoanyonegoingtowardthat
city.Ofcourse,JewsandSamaritanstriedtoavoiddealingwitheachotheratallandcertainlydidnotsocialize.
Onthisparticularoccasion,JesusandhisdisciplesdidpassthroughSamariaandstoppedatthetownofSychar(4:5).Hesattorestnearthetownwellwhilehis
discipleswentinsearchoffood(4:6,8).Drawingwaterinthatsocietywascustomarily"women'swork,"sotherewasnothingstrangeaboutawomancomingtothe
wellwhileJesuswasthere(4:7).Thetimeofdaywhenshecame,however,aboutnoonaccordingtov.6,seemssomewhatunusual.Drawingwaterwashardwork,
andonewouldexpectthatwomenwouldusuallycomeearlyinthemorningwhenitwascooler.Somehavesuggestedthatthiswomancamelaterinthedaybecause
shewasostracizedforherratherscandalouslife(4:1718).WhatwasmostunusualtothewomanwasthatJesus,aJewishman,woulddeigntospeaktoher,a
Samaritanwoman(4:9).NotonlydidJewshavenothingtodowithSamaritans,asthetextherenotes,butasarulemen

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didnotspeaktowomeninpublicinthatsociety.ThuswhenJesus'disciplesreturn,theyaresurprisedtofindhimtalkingwithawoman(v.27).Perhaps,then,the
womanasksherquestioninv.9notpurelyoutofsurprisebutforherownamusementtogoadJesusalittle.Sheprobablythinksthathemustbeverythirstyindeed
tocondescendtospeaktoher.ButJesus'answertothewomanisequallyprovocative.Hesaystoher,ineffect,"Youshouldbeaskingmeforadrink"(4:10).He
thencapturesherinterestbymentioning"livingwater,"whichperpetuallyquenchesthirstandwhichisinhispowertogive(4:1314).Thissoundsveryattractivetothe
woman,becauseofthefreedomitoffersherfromtheburdensometaskoffetchingwatereachday(4:15).
Jesusswitchestopics."Gocallyourhusband,"hetellsher(4:16).Thesuddennessofthechangeinsubjectmaybeeditorial,assomescholarshavesuggested.Thatis,
John,theauthorhere,returnstotheoriginalstorythatishissourceforthisepisode.Butfromaperspectiveoftheoverallnarrative,thechangeisquiteeffective.Byit,
Jesusinitiatesamovementintheconversationfromphysicalmatterstodeeper,spiritualones.Thewomanhasnohusband(4:17),becauseshehasbeenmarriedfive
timesandcurrentlyliveswithyetanotherman(4:18).Herfailedrelationshipsandpresentcohabitationcallhermoralstandardsintoquestionandwouldprobablymake
herapariahinhersociety.Itisnowonderthatshenowquicklychangesthesubject.SheturnstooneoftheprimarysourcesoffrictionbetweenJewsand
SamaritanswhethertheproperplaceofworshipisMountGeriziminSamariaorJerusalem(4:20).Itisaveryprovocativequestion,whoseansweralmostany
answercouldeasilyoffend.Toanswer,"Jerusalem,ofcourse,"withmostJewswouldoffendthewomananddriveheraway.ButtotaketheSamaritansideby
answering"MountGerizim"wouldbedisingenuousandoffensivetoJesus'disciplesandprobablyJohn'sreaders.Jesus'answer,therefore,isbrilliantandunexpected
(4:2124).ItisnotwhereoneworshipsGodthatcountsbuthow,thatis,withwhatattitude.WhenthewomanmentionstheexpectedMessiah(4:25),Jesusreveals
thatheistheMessiah(4:26).Atthatmomentthedisciplesreturn(4:27),andthewomangoesbacktohervillagetoannounceherdiscoverytoherneighbors(4:28).
Thewoman'swisdomissuggestedbythewayinwhichshe

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approachesherfellowtownsfolkwiththenewsabouttheMessiah.ShedoesnotsimplydeclaretothemherconclusionaboutwhoJesusis.Sheknowsthatasa
womanwhosemarriagesandcurrentlifestyleareknown,thevillagerswillnotlistentoher.Insteadsheraisesthequestion,"Hecouldn'tbetheMessiah,could
he?"(4:29),thusinvitingthemtoseeforthemselves.SotheyflocktoJesuswithcuriousandopenminds(4:30),andhedescribestheirapproachasfieldsripefor
harvesting(4:35).ManyofthemdoindeedcometobelieveinJesus(4:3941),andperhapsitis,astheyclaim,becausetheyseeandhearforthemselves(4:42).
Nevertheless,itwasthewoman'sexperienceandtestimonythatfirstopenedthedoortothem.
ThisbeautifulstoryportraysJesusasapersonwhoignoredthesocialbarrierscommoninhisdaybarriersbasedongender,ethnicity,andevenreligion.AsinLuke,
inthisstoryJesusfoundthatthemostreceptivepersonisoftentheonewhoistheoutcastorpariah.ThereweremanydifferencesbetweenJesusandthewoman,
manyreasonsforhimtoignoreher.ShewasareviledSamaritan,awoman,andasinner.Butnoneofthesethingsmattered,andintheendhegaveherthelivingwater.
TheGoodShepherd(10:1118)
ThewellknownmetaphorofJesusasthegoodshepherdcomesfromJohn10.Justasadevotedshepherdriskshislifeforthesheepunderhiscare,soJesuslayshis
lifedown,hesays,forhissheep(10:11,15).Jesusaddsinv.16thathehasothersheepofdifferentfoldsthathemustbringinalso.Then,hesays,therewillbeone
shepherdandoneflock.ThewordsinthisversealludetotheadditionofGentilestothe"flock,"thecommunityofthesaved.Whatisparticularlyremarkableabout
thesestatementsistheenormousvaluetheyplaceontheformationofaunifiedcommunityofbelievers.Christiansoftenthinkinindividual,"vertical"terms:"Jesusdied
tosaveme."TheperspectiveofJohn10:16isquitedifferent.Thegoodshepherdcametobringsheepfromdifferentfoldstogetherintoasingleflock,andhelays
downhislifeforthemall.TheversehintsatanideathatPaulwillstateexplicitlythatthereasonforJesus'incarnationwastounitehumanbeings.

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ThatTheyMayAllBeOne(17:2023)
OntheeveofJesus'arrestandsubsequentcrucifixion,theGospelofJohnrecountsthemovingprayerforthedisciplesinJohn17.Jesusasksforprotectionontheir
behalfnotfromthepersecutionthatwillcometothembecauseoftheirfaith(v.14)butfrom"theevilone"(v.15)whowilltemptthemtoapostasyanddisloyalty
throughthatpersecution.Heendstheprayerwithaspecialpleaforunitynotonlyforthosewhoarehisfollowersatthetimebutforall"thosewhowillbelieveinme
throughtheirword"(v.20).ThemodelistheunityofJesuswithGod,the"Father"(v.21).Infact,Jesussummarizesthegoalofhisentiremissiontoearthasbeingto
effectperfectunitybetweenGod,himself,andhisfollowers(v.23).ItisthroughtheperfectunityamongthebelieversthattheworldwillrecognizeJesus(v.23).
Again,ashintedinthegoodshepherdpassage,God'sactinChristisdescribedinthispassageasadualprocess,involvingunitinghumanstooneanotherandhumanity
asawholetoGod.ItisnoaccidentthatJesus'prayerforunityoccursimmediatelybeforehistrialanddeath.God'spurposeinsendingJesustotheearthandtothe
crossisunity,bothhorizontallyandvertically.Jesusdiedtobringpeopletogether!
RemainingintheFellowship(1John)
AnotherstrikingreferencetotheimportanceoftheChristiancommunityisfoundintheletterof1John.Itisnotcertainwhethertheauthorofthisletterwasthesame
JohnwhowrotetheGospel,thoughthelanguageofthetwobooksisoftensimilar.LiketheprologuetotheGospel,1Johnopensbyreferringto"thebeginning"(1:1).
FirstJohnalsospeaksofJesusasthe"Word,"andtheauthorsayshewasawitnesstothe"Wordoflife"thatwaswiththe"Father''andhasbeenrevealedto"us,"
apparentlyareferencetoJesus'earliestfollowers(1:2).FirstJohngoesontosaythatthereasonheandtheotherearlydisciples("we")testifiedabouttheWordwas
sothatthosewhohear(specificallyhisaudienceforthebookinthiscase)mightjoininfellowshipwiththosedisciples.AsintheGospel,thewriterof1Johnsuggests
thatJesus'coming,"therevelationoftheWord,"wastobringpeopletogether,or,asheputsit,into

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"fellowship"witheachother.TheGreekwordforfellowshipiskoinonia,anditcouldalsobetranslated"community."Thecommunityofwhich1Johnspeaksincludes
notonlyhumansbutGod"theFatherandhisSonJesusChrist''(1:3).
Theprecisesituationaddressedbytheletterof1Johnisuncertainandcanonlybesurmisedfromthecontentsoftheletteritself.Apparently,though,1Johnaddresses
achurchconfrontedwithatypeofearlyheresyknownasGnosticism(fromtheGreekwordfor"knowledge,"socalledbecausetheGnosticsclaimedtopossess
special,esotericknowledgeaboutGodandJesus).MuchofthelanguageinthebookconsistsoftermsandimagesthatwerecommoninGnosticwritings,andseveral
ofthebook'sassertionsseemdesignedtocounterGnosticteaching.Forexample,thecontrastin1:510betweenlightanddarknessseemstodrawonGnosticjargon.
Themessage,however,isagainstGnosticthought.Godislight,buttheGnosticswalkindarkness.Theysaythey"know"Godbutareliars,becausetheydonotkeep
God'scommands(2:4).TheauthorsaysthatthosewhotrulyknowGodlistento"us"(4:6).
IncombatingtheGnosticinfluence,theauthorof1Johnstressestheimportanceof"remaining"inthe"fellowship"botharekeywordsintheletter.Thisisapparently
becausemanyoftheGnosticshavealreadyleftthechurch,claimingtofollowahigher"knowledge":"Theywentoutfromus,butwerenotofus"(2:19).Insodoing
theyhaveturnedtheirbacksonthekoinonia("fellowship"or"communion")ofthechurch.Thus,throughouttheletter,thisJohnencourageshisreaderstoremain
faithfultoorabideinwhattheylearned"fromthebeginning"(2:24).Remaininginthechurchisthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeatheternallife(2:25).FirstJohn1:7
explainswhythisisso:"Ifwewalkinthelightashehimselfisinthelight,wehavefellowshipwithoneanother,andthebloodofJesushisSoncleansesusfromallsin
(NRSV)."ItisinthekoinoniaofthechurchthatthebloodofChristisatworkcleansingthefaithful.ThusJohncansaythatnoonewhoabidesinhimsins(3:6).The
effectingofcommunityamonghumanbeingsisnotonlyasignificantpartofthereasonforChrist'scominganddeath,itisalsowithinthatcommunitythatthecleansing
bloodofChristisatwork.Itistrulythesalvationcommunity.OnlybyremaininginthefellowshipistherecommunionwithGodand

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cleansingfromsin,sothattoleavethechurchistowalkawayfromsalvation.
FirstJohnalsoequatesremaininginthechurchwithlove.TheessenceoftheChristianmessageislove(3:11)aselflesslovethatevenmeanslayingdownone'slife
(3:16).Thosewholovetheirbrothersandsistersstayinthecommunityandthusinthelight(2:10).IftheGnosticsreallylovedtheirfellowChristians,theywouldhave
remainedinthechurchtosharethespecialknowledgetheyclaimedtopossess.ButthosewhodonotlovedonotreallyknowGod(4:8).Notonlyiscommunionwith
GodtobefoundinthechurchbutGodislove(4:8),sotoremaininthechurchistoabideinloveandhencetoabideinGod(2:28).
Conclusion
ThetheologyoftheGospelofJohnandtheletterof1Johnoffersasignificantchallengetothesegregationofchurchesalongraciallinesasiscommonlypracticedin
thiscountry.BothbooksmakethepointthatGod'spurposeintheincarnation,theWordbecomingflesh,wastobuildcommunity,toestablishfellowshipamongall
peopleandbetweenpeopleandGod.TheGospelmakesclearthatallpeopleareeligibleforinclusioninthisfellowship.TheSamaritanscannotbeexcluded,because
theprincipalsourceofdivisionbetweenthemandtheJewsisremovedinthenewepochinitiatedbyChrist.Theplaceofworshipisnolongerimportantitisthe
properattitudethatcounts.Jesus'finalprayerfortheunityofallhisfollowers,ontheeveofhisarrestandcrucifixion,showsjusthowsignificanthumanunityisitis
thereasonChristdied!In1John,thewriterassertsthatsalvationcanonlybefoundinthecommunity(koinonia),becauseitistherethatthecleansingbloodofJesusis
atwork.Thosewholeavetoformaseparatecommunityofwhattheyregardasthesuperiororeliteor"knowledgeable"haveinfactturnedtheirbacksontheloveof
God.Howmuchmorewouldthisapplytothosewhoexcludeothersfromtheircommunitiesonthebasisofraceorrefusetohavefellowshipwithotherswhomthey
regardasraciallyinferior!InthefinalchapterofthisbookwewillseethatPaulputsforwardatheologicalcaseagainstsegregationthatisequallyforceful,ifnotmore
so.

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13
"ManyMembers,YetOneBody":
UnityinDiversityintheWritingsofPaul
RiotingeruptedintheblackcommunityofthecityofMemphisaftertheassassinationofDr.MartinLutherKingJr.inApril1968.Acrosstownlivedawhitemanalso
namedLuther,whoownedabusinessinoneoftheareaswhereriotingwastheworst.Hisstorewasburnedandlootedatotalloss.Insteadofbeingbitter,hetookit
asacalltoserve.Aleaderinhischurch,heconvincedhisfellowleadersthattheyshouldbeginanoutreachministrytoblacksectionsofthecity.Theypurchasedan
oldschoolbusandstartedpickingupchildrentobringthemtoSundayschoolandchurch.
Theresponsewasoverwhelming,andsoontheyaddedmorebusesandmoreroutes.Sinceoneoftheroutespassedclosebyasistercongregation,theleadersfeltthat
theyshouldmakeacourtesycalltoarepresentativeofthatcongregation,seekingapprovaltoevangelizeinitsneighborhoods.Theyweresurprisedbythereaction.
"We'rehappyforyoutorunyourbusesoverhere,"theyweretold,"becausethemorecoloredsyouimport,themoreofyourwhitemembersareleavingandcoming
here."Still,theleaderswerededicatedtotheoutreachministry.Theytookprideintheconvictionthatitwasapositiveresponsetotheracialdivisionofthecityandthe
rightthingtodo,evenatthecostofsomewhitemembers.
AsthenumberofblackfacesinSundayschoolclassesandchurchincreased,however,otherproblemsarose.Thenew

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childrenwereunaccustomedtothesolemnityoftheworshipservicesandwereoftendisruptive.TheyalsolackedtrainingintheBible,sotheSundayschoolteachers
becamefrustratedorhadtosimplifytheirlessons.Regularmemberscomplainedthattheirchildren'sneedswerebeingoverlooked.Adecadeorsolater,theleadership
decidedtodesignateclassesspecificallyfor"outreach"childrenandtoisolatethemintheirowncontrolledsettingforworship.Followingthis,visitorsandprospective
memberswereassuredthattheseparationofwhiteandblackchildrenwasnotraciallymotivatedbutbasedondifferenteducationalanddisciplinaryneeds.Leaders
continuedtoboastabouttheir"outreachministry,"butwiththesegregationof''outreach"children,interestamongbothwhiteworkersandblackchildrenwaned.
Eventually,theprogramdiedout.Nofurthermeasuresatintegratingthechurchwereeverattempted.
Despitetheprogressofthecivilrightsmovementinthe1960sandthefollowingdecades,racismisstillverymuchanissueinthiscountry.Racialintegration,whichhas
creptintoschools,businesses,andotherinstitutionsinAmerica,tragicallyhasmadelittleheadwayinitschurches.FannieLouHamer'sobservationabouttheSunday
morningchurchservicebeingthemostsegregatedhourinAmericaisastruetodayasitwastwentyyearsago.Thischapterwillcoveranothertheologicalmandatefor
integration,thistimefromPaul,whosecaseforitisevenstrongerthanJohn's.
TheJudaizercontroversythatLukedescribesintheearlydaysofthechurchdidnotinstantlydissipatewiththedraftingoftheletterfromtheJerusalemconferencein
Acts15.WhenPaulwentonfromAntiochtospreadthegospelamongtheGentilesinotherplaces,hefrequentlyhadtocombatthesameJudaizingefforts.Therewas
nothingwrongwithkeepingJewishritualpracticesmanyJewishChristianscontinuedtodojustthat.AndJewishChristianshadalsoacceptednonJewsintothe
church,atleasttheoretically.Thequestion,again,waswhetherGentilesweretobeacceptedastheywereorwhethertheyshouldberequiredtoobserveJewish
customs,particularlycircumcision.AtseveralpointsinhiswritingsPauldealswiththeissueofbalancingtheunitythatshouldexistinthechurchwiththediversitythat
individualChristiansbringaspeopleofdifferentracial,cultural,andsocialbackgrounds.

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AllIsraelWillBeSaved:Romans911
Paul'slettertotheRomansisregardedbymanyNewTestamentscholarsastheclearest,mostextensiveexpositionofhistheology.Inchapters911hediscussesthe
relationshipbetweenJewsandGentiles.Hebegins(9:110:3)withGod'selectionofIsraelandhisowndevotiontohispeople.Hisgreatdesireisfortheirsalvation
(10:1),andhesayshecouldwishtobedamnedfortheirsake(9:3).ButdespitetheadvantagestheJewshadasthechosenpeople,thingshavechangedinChrist.He
istheend(inthesenseof"fulfillment"or"objective")ofthelaw,sothatrighteousnessisnowavailabletoallwhobelieveinhim(10:4).Asaresult,thereisnolonger
anydistinctioninGod'seyesbetweenJewsandGentiles(10:12),but"everyonewhocallsonthenameoftheLordwillbesaved"(10:13cf.Joel2:32).Paulgoeson
toarguethatthisdoesnotmeanthatGodhasrejectedthechosenpeople,Israel(11:110),butthattheirdisobediencehasallowedtheinclusionoftheGentiles
(11:1116).Heusestheanalogyofatree(11:1724):Israelisthattree.Someofitsbrancheswerebrokenoff,butthisallowedothers(theGentiles)tobegraftedon.
Eventually,however,''allIsraelwillbesaved"(11:26).Thisisadifficultpassage,andscholarsdebatewhetherPaulisreferringtoethnicIsrael(i.e.,Jews)orspiritual
Israel(i.e.,theentiresalvationcommunity,regardlessofethnicity).PaulmaywellhaveharboredahopethattheJewsasawholewouldonedayacceptChrist.But
whateverhisunderstandinginthatregard,hispointthatGodnowacceptsallpeopleiswhatisimportantforus.
NeitherJewNorGreek:TheBookofGalatians
Paul'slettertotheGalatians,morethananyother,recallshiscontinuingstruggleswiththeJudaizers.Hebeginstheletterbypronouncingacurseonanyone,evenan
angelfromheaven,whowouldpreachtotheGalationchurchesadifferentgospelfromthatwhichtheyheardatthebeginning(1:79).Herecountshisownconversion
andsaysthathewasspeciallychosenbyGodtocarrythenameofJesustotheGentiles(1:1317).Hispointisthathereceivedthegospelthathepreachesdirectly

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fromJesusandnotfromanyhumanagent(1:1112).The"differentgospel"towhichherefersandagainstwhichhewarnstheGalatiansapparentlyhastodowiththe
Judaizercontroversy,becausehelaunchesinchapter2intoadiscussionoftheissueofcircumcision.Again,heaffirmsthathismissionistotheGentiles(the
"uncircumcised,"2:7).EvenPeterandBarnabas,hesays,weredeceivedbytheJudaizers'insincerity(2:1114).Hegoesontoarguethatcircumcisionand
uncircumcisionareinsignificantforsalvation,sinceapersonisjustifiedbeforeGodnotbyworksofthelaw,butbyfaith(2:1521),andthisfaithisaccessibletoall
people,JewsandGentiles.InhisthirdchapterPaulcitesAbrahamhimselfasanexampleofthisprinciple.Abrahamwasdeclaredrighteous,notbyvirtueofhisethnic
backgroundorofhisfollowingthelaw,butbecauseofhisfaith(3:614).Thelawwasimportantasa"disciplinarian"toconveypeopletoChrist(3:1922).Butnow
faithhascomeandthelawisnotnecessaryanymore(3:25).AccesstoGodisnolongerthroughethnicidentityoradherencetothelaw,butratherthroughfaithin
JesusChrist(3:26).Thus,anyonewhohasbeenbaptizedintoChristhasputonChrist.EthnicdistinctionsareinsignificantasfarasGodisconcerned.
ThereisneitherJewnorGreek,thereisneitherslavenorfree,thereisneithermalenorfemaleforyouarealloneinChristJesus.(Gal.3:28,RSV)

OneBodywithManyParts(1Cor.12:1230)
WhenPaulsaysthatthedifferencesofraceorethnicity,gender,andsocialstatusnolongerexistinChrist,hedoesnotmeanthatGod'sintentionistoobliteratethe
differencesbetweenpeoplethatmakeeachpersonauniqueindividual.Christiansobviouslyretaintheirseparateidentitiesasmenandwomenandasmembersof
differentcultures,races,socialgroups,andsocioeconomiclevels.Paulisexpressingaparadox:inthechurchthereisdiversityinunity.Moreover,thisdiversityisnot
merelyamatterofnecessity.ItisagiftfromGod.Itiswholesomeandbeneficial.Partofthechurch'sstrengthliesinthediversityofitsmembers,asPaulmakesclear
inhisanalogyofthebodyin1Corinthians12.

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IntheCorinthianchurchtherewereseveredivisionsovervariousmatters,including"preacherloyalties"(1:1117)andsocialstatus(chap.11).Therewereeven
lawsuitsbetweenChristians(6:18).Paulwrotetothisbadlydividedchurchinordertoreunitethem:
Iappealtoyou,brethren,bythenameofourLordJesusChrist,thatallofyouagreeandthattherebenodissensionsamongyou,butthatyoubeunitedinthesamemindandthe
samejudgment.(1Cor.1:10,RSV)

Asoneofthepreacherstowhomloyaltywasbeingclaimed,Paulwrote,"IsChristdivided?WasPaulcrucifiedforyou?Orwereyoubaptizedinthenameof
Paul?"(1:13,RSV).Christdiedtobringpeopletogether,nottocauseseparationintowarringfactions.
In1Corinthians1214PaulturnstoanothersourceofdivisionintheCorinthianchurchthedifferentspiritualgiftsexercisedbyvariousmembers.Heusestheimage
ofthebodytoillustratetheprincipleofdiversityinunity.ThechurchisthebodyofChrist.Likeahumanbody,itisone,asingleunit,yetwithmanymembers(12:12).
Aseachindividualbodyhasaspirit,sothemembersofChrist'sbodysharethedivineSpirit(12:13).Yet,themembersofthisbodyarediverse.Theycomefrom
differentraces,cultures,sociallevels,andsoon(12:13).Theyalsohavedifferentfunctionsinthebodyofthechurch,accordingtotheirvariousgiftsandabilities.This
diversityisaccordingtotheplanandpurposeofGod(v.18),whoisthedistributorofthegiftsofthemembers(vv.2830).
Paulpaintsaludicrousimageofthebody.Itwouldberidiculousforafoottosecedefromthebodybecauseitwantstobeahand(v.15)orforaneartoleavethe
bodybecauseitcannotbeaneye(v.16).ItisequallyludicrousforamemberofChrist'sbodytopoutoutofenvyofanothermember'stalentsandfunctioninthe
church.YetthisisapparentlywhatsomeoftheCorinthianChristiansweredoing.Thechurchneedsthediversityofitsmembers,withtheirdifferentfunctionsand
talents.ThegiftsthatallowforthatdiversityareGodgiven.
AnothersetofludicrousimagesdescribedherebyPaulisconceivedofasaresultofonemember'sconceitatitsownfunctionandabilities.Thisimagewasalso
inspiredbyaproblemintheCorinthianchurch,wheresomegiftswerebeingvaluedmore

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thanothersandthosewhopossessedthemwerebeingprivilegedaboveothermembers.Again,itisridiculoustoimagineaneyeregardingtheearasuselessorthe
handbelievingthefoottobeunnecessary(v.21).InbothsetsofludicrousexamplesPaul'spointisplain.Notonlydoesthebodyasawholeneedthediversityofits
membersbutthemembersneedoneanother'sdiversityoffunctions.Thebeautyofthebodyisinitsvariousmembers.Eachmemberperformsitsindividualfunction,
butallaredirectedtowardacommongoal.Allmembersworktogetherforthegoodofthewhole.Soitshouldbeinthechurchaswell.Christiansshouldprizetheir
differentgiftsandabilities.Withoutthemthechurchwouldbeboringandunabletoaccomplishverymuch.
TheabsurdityoftheCorinthians'pettysquabblingovergifts,theirjealousiesandconceits,isillustratedbytheimageofthebodyasasingleorgan(vv.1719).Abody
thathadonlyeyesformemberscoulddonothingbutsee(v.17a).Asixfootearcouldnotsee,smell,walk,ortalk(v.17b)itcouldonlyhear.Thebodyneedsits
diversity,andsodoesthechurch.Eachmemberandthatmember'sfunctionareimportanttothebodyandtothechurch.Godhasdesignedthechurchinthisway.
EnvyandconceithavenoplaceinthebodyofChrist.Ifeveryonewerethesame,therewouldbenobody(v.19).
AnotherpointdrawnbyPaulfromthisanalogyofthebodyhastodowiththehonorascribedtothevariousmembers(vv.2225).Hereagainthereisaparadox.
Thosebodypartsthatseemweakestandreceivetheleastrecognitionareoftenamongthemostimportantforthefunctioningofthebody.SoitisinthebodyofChrist.
PaulsaysthatGodhasarrangedthechurchsothatthosememberswhoreceivethemosthonorareactuallytheinferiorones,andthosewhoaremostimportantare
leasthonored.PaulisespeciallyaddressingthesituationintheCorinthianchurchwithregardtothosewhohadthegiftofspeakingintongues.Althoughitisoneofthe
mostobviousandenviedgifts,Paulsaysthatitisamongtheleastimportantforthechurch.Thus,thosewhospeakintonguesshouldnotbeconceited.Other,less
noticeablegiftsareactuallymorenecessaryforthebody.Perhapsthesamepointcouldbeappliedtothechurchtodayaswell.ThoseChristianswhoreceivetheleast
honorandrecognitionmayactuallybetheoneswhoaremostessentialtothechurch.

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God'sobjectiveinarrangingthebodyisintimatesympathyamongthemembersinwhichthemembersexperienceallthingsequallytogether(v.26).Onemayexpand
onthisaspectoftheanalogybyraisingludicrousquestions,asPaulhimselfdidearlier.Ifthehandisinjured,doesthehandalonesuffer?Isnottheentirebody
affected?Ifonewinsarace,dothefeetalonereceiveaprize?Isnottheentirebodyhonored?WhatPauldescribeshereistruekoinonia,"fellowship"or
"community."Allmemberssharethehonororsufferingthatcomestoanyindividualmember.Allmembersworkforthegoodofthebody,notforthemselves.This
unselfishnessisbestdescribedaslove.Indeed,koinoniaandagapeareintimatelyrelatedandverysignificantforthedevelopmentofthebodyofChrist.Itisno
accidentthatthegreatpassageonlove,1Corinthians13,immediatelyfollowsPaul'suseofthebodyimageryin1Corinthians12:1230.Paul'sdescriptionofloveis
notanabstractdefinition,butistailormadeforthesituationoftheCorinthianchurch.Loveisthe"greatestgift"(12:3113:13).Itistheoppositeofenvyandconceit,
whichPaulridiculesandcombatsbymeansofthebodyanalogy(13:47).Withoutlove,thegiftsoverwhichtheCorinthiansarefightingareuseless(13:13),and
unlikethosegiftsloveneverends(13:813).LovedescribestheactiveattitudethatChristiansmustexercisetowardoneanotheriftheyaretomaintaintheunityofthe
bodyofChristandcarryouttheirvariousfunctionswithinhisbody.
PaulenlargesontheanalogyofthebodyinRomans12:48.HerehestatesthatChristiansaremembersofoneanotherinthebodyofChrist.Helistssomeofthe
functionsandgiftsthatdistinguishChristians.Theseincludeprophecy,service,teaching,exhortation,contributing,andgivingaid.Paulencourageshisreaderstouse
theirgiftsforthegoodofthebody.ItisclearthatthelistintheseversesisnotintendedtobeacompletesetofallpossiblegiftsandfunctionsofChristians.However,
everyChristiansurelypossessesatleastoneofthegiftsinthislistinsomemeasure.EverymemberhasagiftandfunctioninthebodyofChrist(v.6)everyChristianis
significantforthechurch.Hence,Pauladmonisheshisreadersnottothinkmoreofthemselvesthantheyought(v.3).Again,asin1Corinthians1213,itisno
accidentthatafterdiscussingthediversityofgiftsinthebodyofChrist(Rom.12:48),PauladmonishestheRomanstolove(12:910).Hetellsthemtoloveone
another

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genuinelyandtoworktogiveoneanotherthegreaterhonor(v.9).Unselfishloveisessentialifthediversemembersaretomaintaintheirunity.
InEphesians4:11thereisanotherpartiallistofthegiftsgivenbyGodtodifferentpartsofthebodyofChrist.Thislistincludesapostles,prophets,evangelists,pastors,
andteachers(orteachingpastors).ThesegiftsspecificallyarementionedbecausetheletteraddressesChristianswhoarefacingfalsedoctrine.Itsparticularconcernis
thatthereadersbepreparedtofacethosewhowouldleadthemastray,soitconcentratesonthosewhohavegiftsrelatingtoteaching.Thisisnottosaythattheseare
theonlygiftsandministriesorevennecessarilythemostimportantones.Thefunctionofthepeoplewiththesegiftsis"toequipthesaintsfortheworkofministry"(v.
12).Theirpurposeistokeepthechurchfrombeing"tossedtoandfroandblownaboutbyeverywindofdoctrine,bypeople'strickerybytheircraftinessindeceitful
scheming"(v.14,NRSV).Thosewhoarethusledastrayareimmaturechildren(v.14).Theoppositeconditionisthatofmatureadulthood(v.13).Thechurch,asthe
bodyofChrist,istogrowanddevelopintomaturityjustasthephysicalbodygrows.Correctteachingwillhelpthebodytogrow,buttheelementthatreallyholdsthe
bodytogetherislove.Thus,thebodygrowswhenitsmembersspeakthetruthinlove(v.15).Itisinlovethatthebodyupbuildsitself(v.16).Loveisthetruesignof
spiritualmaturity.Oneisagainremindedof1Corinthians13:11,wherePaulcontrastschildishthinkingandactionswiththematurityoflove.
BreakingDownBarriers(Eph.2:1122)
OneofthemostamazingpassagesinthewritingsattributedtoPaul,indeedinalloftheNewTestament,isthisonefromEphesians2.MostNewTestamentscholars
doubtthatPaulactuallywroteEphesians,butseeitinsteadastheworkofadiscipleclosetoPaul.Itisalsouncertainwhethertheletterwasoriginallydestined
specificallyfortheEphesians.Theinitialgreetingisgeneralanddoesnotmentionanynames.Thephrase"inEphesus"in1:1istextuallydubiousandmaynothavebeen
intheoriginalletter.Thusthebookmayactuallyhavebeenageneralletterorhomilythatcirculatedamong

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churchesinAsiaMinor.Butwhateveritsorigin,itdevelopsPaul'stheologyandattachesenormoussignificancetohumanfellowshipintheworkofChristandinthe
church.NopassagetestifiesmoreforcefullytoGod'shatredofracismthanEphesians2,andbecauseofthisitisanappropriatetextwithwhichtocloseourstudy.
Earlierinthischapter,thewriterexploresthegracegiventoChristiansthroughfaithinChrist.Allpeople,hesays,regardlessofrace,weredeadinsin(2:13).But
God'slove,againforallpeople,bringslife,hope,andsalvation(2:47):
ButGod,whoisrichinmercy,throughhisgreatlovewithwhichhelovedusevenwhileweweredeadinsins,madeusalivetogetherwithChrist.(Eph.2:45)

Salvation,therefore,isnotamatterofraceornationalityorofadherencetoacodeoflawsorrules.Rather,itisamatterofGod'sgraceactivatedthroughfaith.
Forbygraceyouhavebeensavedthroughfaith,andthisnotofyourselvesitisGod'sgift.(Eph.2:8)

ThesecondhalfofthechapterdescribestheeffectsofGod'sgraceonrelationshipsbetweenhumansinthechurch.TheGentiles,sayverses1113,wereonce"far
away"fromthesalvationcommunity.TheywerealiensandforeignerstoIsrael,notincludedinGod'scovenantwiththechosenpeopleandthereforewithouthope.But
inChristtheyhavebeenbrought"near."Christhasbrokendownthe"dividingwallofhostility"thatkepttheGentilesout(2:14).Asaresult,theGentilescannowbe
admittedtothesalvationcommunityasfullmembers.TheunitybetweenJewandGentileiseffectedinChrist'sfleshbyhiscomingintheflesh,asahuman,andinhis
body,thechurch.
ThewordusedtodescribetheworkingofGod'sgraceis"peace."Jesushimselfis"ourpeace"(v.14)becausehebrokedownthewallthatseparatedJewsand
Gentiles.Inverse15,thewriterdefinesthatwallasthelawthe"commandmentsandordinances"thatdistinguishedJewsfromGentiles.InChrist,hesays,thatwallis
removed.Itisnotnecessaryforeithergrouptokeepthelaw,becausesalvationisthroughGod'sgraceinChrist.Paul'suseof"peace"hereispregnantwithmeaning.
JewsandGentilesarebothreconciledandunited.Thedescriptionof

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Jesus'workaspeacemakerhereseemstoplayondifferentconceptsofpeace.Oneconceptisthemerecessationofconflictasinv.14,wherethedividingwallof
hostilityisremoved.ThisisthemeaningoftheGreekwordforpeace,eirene.TheotherconceptistheHebrewnotionofshalomharmonyandcompleteness.The
Semiticconceptisfoundparticularlyinv.15,whereChristcreatesanewindividual.InChrist,GodhasnotonlyremovedthecauseofhostilitybetweenJewsand
Gentiles(theGreekmeaningof"peace"),buthasalsobroughtaboutcompleteunityandtranquillity(shalom).Christhasdonethisbycreatinginhimselfonenew
personinplaceofthetwohostileindividuals(v.15).Finally,Jesuseffectspeaceintwodirectionsatoncehorizontallyandvertically.Hereconcileshumanstoone
anotherandthenthenewhumanitytoGod.Christhaspresentedthenewlycreated,unifiedhumanitytoGodforreconciliationthroughthecross(v.16).Thus,inChrist
bothJewsandGentilesareatpeacewithGod(v.17)andhaveaccesstoGodthroughtheSpirit.Inverses1721,themetaphorchanges.InChrist,Gentilesaremade
partofthe"houseofIsrael"(v.19).TheearlyChristianleadersarethefoundation,andJesushimselfisthecornerstoneofthestructure(v.20).Itisaliving,spiritual
building,atemple,inwhichbothJewishandGentileelementsthriveandgrowjointly(vv.2122).
WhatismoststrikingaboutthispassageisthesignificanceitascribestohumanrelationshipsasapurposeforChrist'scominganddeath.Thewritersaysthatoneofthe
mainreasonsforthecomingofChristwastobringpeopletogether.ThepassagedescribesreconciliationwithGodandreconciliationbetweenpeopleasresultsofthe
sameactofChrist.Theyarebothpartofonepackage!Moreover,asitisstatedhere,thehorizontalreconciliationcomesfirst.ChristunitesJewsandGentilesinorder
topresenttheonenewpersontoGodforreconciliation.ThetextclearlystressestheimportanceofharmonyamongChristians.Thesignificancethatitattachestothis
horizontalreconciliationasamajorpurposeforthedeathofJesusisastounding,giventhefactthatChristianshavetendedtooverlookthisdimensionandtothinkof
reconciliationasoccurringonlyvertically,betweenGodandpeople.

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SummaryandConclusions
Whiledifferencesofcultureandespeciallyracehavebeenthefocusofourstudy,theyarenottheonlypotentialbarrierstoharmonyamonghumans.Thewritings
attributedtoPauldealwithother"dividingwallsofhostility"broughtaboutthroughdifferencesofgenderandsocialstatus.Galatians3:28isworthquotingagain:
ThereisneitherJewnorGreek,thereisneitherslavenorfree,thereisneithermalenorfemaleforyouarealloneinChristJesus.(RSV)

FirstCorinthians12:13introducestheanalogyofthechurchasbodythisway:
ForinoneSpiritweallwerebaptizedintoonebody,JewsorGreeks,slavesorfree,andallweregiventodrinkofoneSpirit.

InColossians3:11PaulspeaksofthenewlifeinChristthatisavailabletoallpeopleregardlessofethnicandsocialdifferences:
ThereisneitherGreeknorJew,circumcisedoruncircumcised,barbarian[awordfornonGreekspeakers],Scythian[theepitomeofpagans,accordingtoRomans],slave,orfree,but
Christisallinall.

InthelettertoPhilemon,Paulevenmediatesbetweenarunawayslaveandhismaster.TheirrelationshiphaschangedbecauseOnesimusis"nolongeraslavebutmore
thanaslave,abelovedbrother"(v.16).ThepointthroughoutthePaulinematerialisthatthedifferencesthatseparatepeoplefromoneanotherandleadtoprejudice
anddiscriminationdonotmatterinGod'seyes.ThecapstonetothisargumentisEphesians2,whichsaysthatChristcametounitepeopleofallkinds.
UnitywithdiversityisasimportantforthechurchtodayasitwasfortheNewTestamentchurch.ThetemptationforChristiansofallerasistorequireconformity.
Perhapsitishumannatureforindividualstobeuncomfortablewithpeopledifferentfromthemselves.Hence,thetendency,sincetheJudaizers,hasbeenforChristians
toformcongregationsmadeupofhomogeneousmemberspeopleofthesameraceandsociallevel,

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whodressalike,thinkalike,evenlookalike.Thus,itisnoaccidentthatchurchesintheUnitedStateshavebasicallyformedalongraciallines.ButtheNewTestament
describesChristiansintermsofunity,notuniformity.ThereisnodoctrineofsegregationintheNewTestament.Itscredoisnot"separatebutequal"itis"differentbut
united."Christiansofallracesandethnicities(nottomentionsociallevelsandgenders)areequalinGod'seyes.Butthisdoesnotmeantheyarethesame.Thechurch's
healthandstrengthlieinthediversityofitsmembers.MaybetheshapeofU.S.churcheswouldbedifferentiftheChristiansunderstoodthepremiumthattheBibleasa
wholeplacesonhumanharmonyandthattheNewTestamentplacesonthediversityofindividualmemberswithintheunityofChrist'sbody.

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NOTES
1.HenryHamptonandSteveFayer,withSarahFlynn,VoicesofFreedom:AnOralHistoryoftheCivilRightsMovementfromthe1950sThroughthe1980s
(NewYork:BantamBooks,1990).ThebookisapublicationoftheinterviewsonwhichtheacclaimedPBSseriesEyesonthePrizeisbased.
2.''Yahweh"isGod'snameintheOldTestament.SomeEnglishtranslationsrenderitas"Jehovah"or"Lord"(inallcapitals).
3."Sarai"(meaningunclear)isalsochangedtoSarah,meaning"princess."
4.MostEnglishtranslationsof1Samuel15:32haveAgagtheAmalekitekingcomecheerfullysaying,"Surelythebitternessofdeathispast,"asthoughhehasreceived
areprievefromSaul.Butthereisatextualprobleminthisverse,andabetterreadingisthatAgagisbroughtboundinchains(orpossibly"trembling")andsays,"Is
deathasbitterasthis?"SeetheNRSVtranslation.Inotherwords,AgagwasnotreprievedorwelltreatedbySaulatallandwascertainlynotcheerful.Withhis
peopleannihilated,heexpectedandperhapslongedfordeathhimself.
5.TheNRSVunfortunatelyobscuresthenatureofthebook'saudiencebytranslating"son"as"child."
6.TheHebrewwordmassa'inbothProv.30:1and31:1canalsomean"oracle."Thus,31:1canbetranslated,"ThewordsofLemuel,aking,anoraclewhichhis
mothertaughthim."ThemainproblemwiththisinterpretationisthatProverbs31doesnotcontainanoracle.TheNRSV'stranslation,"ThewordsofKing
Lemuel..."issimplyincorrect.In30:1,thewordmassa'isprobablyanadditioninfluencedbyitsoccurrencein31:1.Itisrepetitiveinawaybecauseanotherword
meaning"oracle"

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occursimmediatelyafterit.Itisalsointrusiveandmustbechangedsomehowinordertomakesenseofit.Thus,whiletheHebrewtexthas"theoracle,"theNRSV
changesittoread"anoracle,"andtheRSVaddseitheraprepositionorasuffixtogetthetranslation"ofMassa.''Itremainsclearthatchapter31isascribedtoa
nonIsraelite,sincenokingofIsraelorJudahwasnamedLemuel.ItislesscertainthatAgurof30:1wasnonIsraelite.
7.MostscholarsseeIsaiah5666asanevenlateradditiontothebook,andcallit"ThirdIsaiah."
8.HansWalterWolff,JoelandAmos,HermeneiaCommentary(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1977),347.
9."SickandTiredofBeingSickandTired,"byFannieLouHamer.OriginallypublishedinthejournalKatallageteBeReconciled,thequotationhereisfroma1972
reprintedversioninTheFutureandtheHope:EssaysofSouthernChurchmen,ed.WillD.CampbellandJamesY.Holloway(GrandRapids:Wm.B.Eerdmans
PublishingCo.),16264.ReprintedbypermissionofWillD.Campbell.
10.Thefinalphrase,"andwithallyourmind,"isnotinDeut.6:5butwaseitheraddedbyLukeorwasintheversionofDeuteronomythathehad.
11.Theadditionaldialogueofv.37("Philipsaid,'Ifyoubelievewithallyourheartyoumay.'Andhereplied,'IbelieveJesusChristtobethesonofGod'")fitsthe
momentwellbutisnotinthebestancientmanuscriptsofthebookofActs.
12.IowethisobservationtoCainHopeFelder,"Race,Racism,andtheBiblicalNarratives,"inStonytheRoadWeTrod:AfricanAmericanBiblical
Interpretation,ed.CainHopeFelder(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1991),143.
13.CarefulreaderswillnoticethatJames'scitationdiffersfromAmos9:1112intheirEnglishversions.ThisispartlybecauseJamesapparentlymixesinelementsof
otherpassages(especiallyIsa.45:21)andpartlybecausehecitesadifferentversionofAmostobeginwith.Theversionhecitessupportshisargumentaboutthe
Gentiles,andthisistheimportantpoint.

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FORFURTHERSTUDY

Chapter1
"IntheImageofGod"
McKenzie,StevenL."Cush"and"Ham/Canaan,Cursingof."InTheOxfordCompaniontotheBible,editedbyBruceM.MetzgerandMichaelD.Coogan,145,
268.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1993.
Rad,Gerhardvon.Genesis:ACommentary.Rev.ed.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1972.
Speiser,E.A.Genesis.AnchorBible.GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Co.,1964.
VanSeters,John.ProloguetoHistory:TheYahwistasHistorianinGenesis.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1992.
Westermann,Claus.Genesis:APracticalCommentary.TranslatedbyDavidE.Green.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1987.

Chapter2
"AlltheFamiliesoftheEarth"
Pritchard,JamesB.,ed.AncientNearEasternTextsRelatingtotheOldTestament,3ded.,withSupplement.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1969.
VanSeters,John.AbrahaminHistoryandTradition.NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1975.

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Chapter3
"YouMustUtterlyDestroyThem"
Craigie,PeterC.TheProblemofWarintheOldTestament.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1978.
Dearman,Andrew,ed.StudiesintheMeshaInscriptionandMoab.Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1989.
Hobbs,T.R.ATimeforWar:AStudyofWarfareintheOldTestament.Wilmington,Del.:MichaelGlazier,1989.
Kang,SaMoon.DivineWarintheOldTestamentandtheAncientNearEast.BZAW177.Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,1989.
Lind,MillardC.YahwehIsaWarrior:TheTheologyofWarfareinAncientIsrael.Scottdale,Pa.:HeraldPress,1980.
Rad,Gerhardvon.HolyWarinAncientIsrael.TranslatedbyM.J.Dawn.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1991.
Stern,PhilipD.TheBiblicalHerem:AWindowonIsrael'sReligousExperience.BrownJudaicStudies211.Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1991.

Chapter4
"AMixedCrowd"
TheAnchorBibleDictionary.EditedbyDavidNoelFreedman,etal.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1992.Thefollowingarticlesmaybeofinterest:
DavidW.Baker,"Cushan,"I:121920
RitaJ.Burns,"Zipporah,"VI:1105
LeonardJ.Greenspoon,"Rahab(PERSON),"V:61112
NielsPeterLemche,"Hebrew,"III:95
GeorgeE.Mendenhall,"Midian,"IV:81518
VanSeters,John.TheLifeofMoses:TheYahwistasHistorianinExodusNumbers.Louisville,Ky.:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1994.

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Chapter5
"YourPeopleWillBeMyPeople"
Campbell,EdwardF.Ruth.AnchorBible.GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Co.,1975.
Fewell,DannaNolan,andDavidMillerGunn.CompromisingRedemption:RelatingCharactersintheBookofRuth.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/JohnKnox
Press,1990.
Gow,MurrayD.TheBookofRuth:ItsStructure,Theme,andPurpose.Leicester,England:Apollos,1992.
Hubbard,RobertL.,Jr.TheBookofRuth.NewInternationalCommentary.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1988.
Sasson,JackM.Ruth:ANewTranslationwithaPhilologicalCommentaryandaFormalistFolkloristInterpretation.2ded.Sheffield:JournalfortheStudyof
theOldTestament,1989.
Trible,Phyllis."Ruth,Bookof."InTheAnchorBibleDictionary.Vol.5,84247.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1992.

Chapter6
"YouShallHaveNoPartwithUs"
Blenkinsopp,Joseph.EzraNehemiah:ACommentary.OldTestamentLibrary.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1988.
GlazierMcDonald,Beth.Malachi:TheDivineMessenger.SBLDissertationSeries98.Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1987.
Japhet,Sara.I&IIChronicles:ACommentary.OldTestamentLibrary.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1993.
Klein,RalphW."EzraNehemiah,Booksof."InTheAnchorBibleDictionary.Vol.2,73142.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1992.
McKenzie,StevenL.,andHowardN.Wallace."CovenantThemesinMalachi,"CatholicBiblicalQuarterly45(1983):54963.
Williamson,H.G.M.Ezra,Nehemiah.WordBiblicalCommentary.Waco,Tex.:Word,1985.
.IsraelintheBooksofChronicles.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1977.

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Chapter7
"TheEarThatHearsandtheEyeThatSees"
Crenshaw,JamesL.UrgentAdviceandProbingQuestions:CollectedWritingsonOldTestamentWisdom.Macon,Ga.:MercerUniversityPress,1995.
Murphy,RolandE.TheTreeofLife:AnExplorationofBiblicalWisdomLiterature.AnchorBibleReferenceLibrary.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1990.
."WisdomintheOT."InTheAnchorBibleDictionary.VI:92031.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1992.

Chapter8
"IKnewThatYouAreaMercifulGod"
LaCocque,Andr,andPierreEmmanuelLaCocque,Jonah:APsychoReligiousApproachtotheProphet.Columbia,S.C.:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,
1990.
Limburg,James.Jonah:ACommentary.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1993.
Sasson,JackM.Jonah.AnchorBible.NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1990.
Trible,Phyllis.RhetoricalCriticism:Context,Method,andtheBookofJonah.Minneapolis:Fortress,1994.
Wolff,HansWalter.ObadiahandJonah:ACommentary.TranslatedbyM.Kohl.Minneapolis:Augsburg,1986.

Chapter9
"HimShalltheNationsSeek"
Holladay,WilliamL.Jeremiah.Vol.1.HermeneiaCommentary.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1986.
Kaiser,Otto.Isaiah112:ACommentary.2ded.TranslatedbyJ.Bowden.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1983.
Paul,ShalomM.Amos.HermeneiaCommentary.Minneapolis:FortressPress,1991.
Seitz,Christopher.Isaiah139.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1993.

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Ward,JamesM.Amos&Isaiah:ProphetsoftheWordofGod.Nashville:AbingdonPress,1969.

Chapter10
"TheSpiritoftheLordIsUponMe"
Fitzmyer,JosephA.TheGospelaccordingtoLuke.2vols.,AnchorBible.GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Co.,1981,1985.
Jervell,Jacob.LukeandthePeopleofGod:ANewLookatLukeActs.Minneapolis:Augsburg,1972.
Sanders,JackT.TheJewsinLukeActs.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1987.
Wilson,StephenG.TheGentilesandtheGentileMissioninLukeActs.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1973.

Chapter11
"NothingCommonorUnclean"
Barrett,C.K.TheActsoftheApostles.Vol.1.TheInternationalCriticalCommentary.Edinburgh:T.&T.Clark,1994.
Conzelmann,Hans.ActsoftheApostles.HermeneiaCommentary.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1987.
Haenchen,Ernst.TheActsoftheApostles:ACommentary.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1971.
Williams,DavidJ.Acts.NewInternationalBiblicalCommentary.Peabody,Mass.:Hendrickson,1985.

Chapter12
"ThatTheyMayAllBeOne"
Barrett,C.K.TheGospelaccordingtoSt.John.2ded.London:SPCK,1978.
Brown,RaymondE.TheGospelaccordingtoJohn.2vols.AnchorBible.GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Co.,1966,1970.
Bultmann,Rudolf.TheGospelofJohn:ACommentary.TranslatedbyG.R.BeasleyMurray.Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1971.
.TheJohannineEpistles.HermeneiaCommentary.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1973.

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McKenzie,StevenL."TheChurchin1John."RestorationQuarterly19(1976):21116.
Morris,Leon.TheGospelaccordingtoSt.John.NewInternationalCommentary.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1971.

Chapter13
"ManyMembers,YetOneBody"
Barrett,C.K.EssaysonPaul.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1982.
Fitzmyer,JosephA.PaulandHisTheology:ABriefSketch.2ded.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall,1989.
Kaylor,R.David.Paul'sCovenantCommunity:Jew&GentileinRomans.Atlanta:JohnKnoxPress,1988.
Keck,LeanderE.PaulandHisLetters.ProclamationCommentaries.2ded.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1988.
Robinson,JohnA.T.TheBody:AStudyinPaulineTheology.Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1952.
Martin,RalphP.Ephesians,Colossians,andPhilemon.Interpretation.Atlanta:JohnKnoxPress,1991.