I3.

MASS TRANSFER AND DIFFUSION

I3.1. INTRODUCTION
The movement of one type of molecules through other types of molecules is influenced by the
concentration gradient, the physical and molecular properties of the participating species and
the external forces. These factors affect the rate of transfer of the molecules. This molecular
interaction is the basis of determining the rate of mass transfer, which is important in the design
of mass transfer equipment such as gas absorbers, humidifiers, distillation columns, and others.
To simplify the discussion, only binary system will be considered in this presentation.
There are two types of diffusion that will be considered. One is molecular diffusion, which is
highly influenced by concentration gradient, and the other is eddy or turbulent diffusion, which
is influenced not only by concentration gradient but also by the movement or mixing of the
material due to some external applied force.

I3.2. MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

Consider a binary system where a certain species A is moving at an average velocity uA in a
bulk of material containing species B moving at an average velocity of uB. Let us assume that
the mixture is moving at a bulk velocity uo referred to a stationary observer. Then the molar
fluxes of A and B may be determined by the Ficks Law of diffusion
I OA c A u A uO DAB

dc A
dZ

(I3 1)

I OB cB u B uO DBA

dcB
dZ

(I3 2)

where IoA is the molar flux of A through a plane moving at uO and cA and cB are the
concentrations of species A and B while DAB is the diffusivity of A relative to B and DBA is the
diffusivity of B relative to A. The diffusivities are transport properties which may be
determined experimentally or estimated from empirical equations in terms of the physical and
molecular properties of the diffusing components.
In design calculations, what is more important is the diffusion flux, not relative to the
movement of the bulk but relative to a stationary observer. These diffusion fluxes, N A and NB
are given by
NA = cAuA

(I3 3)

NB = cB uB

(I3 4)
1

while the total flux of the entire bulk, N is given by

N = NA + NB = m uo

(I3 5)

If uA, uB and uo are eliminated from Eqs. (I3 1) and (I3 2), we get the equations
I OA N A

I OB N B

cA

( N A N B ) DAB

cB

( N A N B ) DBA

dc A
dZ

(I3 6)

dcB
dz

(I3 7)

If we add Eqs. (I3 6) and (I3 7), it can easily be seen that
(I3 8)

IOA + IOB = 0
and

(I3 9)

DAB = DBA = Dv

That is, the sum of the molar fluxes relative to the movement of the bulk is zero and, for binary
system, the diffusivity of A relative to B is the same as the diffusivity of B relative to A. Here,
we will just refer to this as the volumetric or mass diffusivity, Dv with units of m2/s or ft2/hr. It
is important to note that the diffusivity is based on the movement of the entire bulk and not on a
stationary position. For gases, the diffusivity can also be expressed in terms of molar units, Dm
defined by
Dm Dv m

Dv PT
RT

(I3 10)

where the units of Dm is in moles/time-length and m is in moles per unit volume.

Solving for the molar flux relative to a stationary observer, N A from Eq. (I3 6), we get
N A Dv

dc A c A

(N A NB )
dz m

(I3 11)

It is seen that the diffusion flux, NA is composed of two terms, the molecular diffusion flux as
given by Ficks Law and another type of flux which we can consider here as convective flux or
phase drift.
The differential equation presented in Eq (I3 11) may be solved by considering two ideal
steady state diffusion models. These are Equimolar Counter Diffusion and Unicomponent
Diffusion. An example of the former is encountered in the rectification of volatile components
where both can co-exist in both phases such as ethanol-water system. An example of the latter
2

is in the absorption of a soluble component from an inert gas that is insoluble in the solvent
where the soluble component is able to penetrate the solid-liquid interface while the inert gas
becomes stagnant since it cannot diffuse to the liquid phase.

I3.3. EQUIMOLAR COUNTER DIFFUSION

When the molar flux of A and B are moving at equal rates and in opposite direction,
NA = - NB

or

NA + NB = 0

(I3 12)

Equation (I3 11) reduces to

N A Dv

dc A
dz

(I3 13)

This equation may be integrated for the total molar rate of diffusion, N TA, if the diffusion area,
A, perpendicular to the direction of motion is constant,
c c
NTA
Dv A1 A 2
A
z2 z1

(I3 14)

It is to be noted that for constant area, the concentration profile is linear across the direction of
diffusion. If the diffusion area is not a constant, it must be expressed in terms of z and the
differential equation solved applying the limits from z1 to z2..
For ideal gases, the diffusion equation may be expressed in terms of partial pressure, pA, that is,
cA

pA
RT

(I3 15)

or
D dp A
NTA
v
A
RT dz

(I3 16)

I3.4. UNICOMPONENT DIFFUSION

For unicomponent diffusion of A through a stagnant component B, then NB = 0. Equation (I311) becomes,
dc
c
N A Dv A A N A
(I3 17)
dz m
since cA + cB = m, the above equation may be converted to
3

 c dc
NTA
Dv 1 A A
A
cB dz

(I3 18)

If this is expressed in terms of the mole fractions of A and B, that is xA and xB, the above
equation can be integrated in the form of
Dv c A1 c A 2
NTA

A
z2 z1 xB ln

(I3 19)

where xBln is the logarithmic mean of the mole fraction of B at point 2 and point 1.
For ideal gases, Eq. (I3 18) may be expressed in terms of pA,, that is,
D P dp A
NTA
v T
A
RTpB dz

(I3 20)

if the diffusion area is constant, with pB = PT pA, the above equation can be integrated to give
NTA Dv PT
P pA2

ln T
A
RT z PT p A1

(I3 21)

It is noted that the concentration profile for this case is non-linear but logarithmic.

I3.5. EVALUATION OF DIFFUSIVITIES

The volumetric diffusivity, Dv for gases and liquids may be determined experimentally or from
empirical correlations based on the kinetic theory of gases. Some of the more important
equations are presented here.

I3.5.1. From Empirical Equations

1. For gases, Chen and Othmer Equation. (McCabe and Smith, 1976)

0.01498T
Dv

1.81

pTCA TCB

1
1

M A MB

0.1405

0 .4
CA

0.5

0. 4 2
CB

(I3 22)

2. For gases, Gilliland Equation. (Brown, et al., 1950))

DG

0.0166T

1
1
PV A 3 VB 3

1
1

M A MB

(I3 23)

3. For gases, Chapman and Engskog Equation (Geankoplis, 1997))

1/ 2

DAB

1.8583x107 T 3/ 2 1
1

2
P AB D , AB M A M B

(I3 24)

4. For liquids, Stokes-Einstein Equation (Geankoplis, 1997))

DAB

9.96 x10 16 T

VA1/ 3

(I3 25)

3. For Liquids, Wilke and Chang (Treybal, 1968)

D AB

7.4 10 8 M B T
0.5

(I3 26)

'V A0.6

Other empirical equations maybe found from literature. The nomenclature used in these
equations is found in the Appendix.

I3.5.2. From Experimental Data

Sources of diffusivity data can be found in Perry and Green (1984), Green, et al. (1997),
McCabe, et al. (2001), Geankoplis (1995) and other textbooks.
If the diffusivity is given at a particular reference temperature, say 273K and 1 atm, it is
possible to estimate the diffusivity at a desired temperature and pressure by making use of the
empirical equations as the basis. If the calculation is based on Chen and Othmer correlation, the
equation becomes
T 1.81
Dv f

(I3 27)

or

Dv T P
1

1.81

T
Dv 273,1atm

273

1

p

(I3 28)

I3.6. TURBULENT DIFFUSION

5

The equation for molecular diffusion may be modified and applied to turbulent diffusion by
introducing a correction M referred to as the turbulent or eddy mass diffusivity. Thus, Eq. (I3 1) may now be written as
I oA DAB M

dc A
dz

(I3 29)

I3.7. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

For equimolal counter diffusion, IoA = NA. The above equation can therefore be integrated
across a film thickness of (z2 z1), to give
NA

DAB M
(c A1 c A 2 )
z2 z1

(I3 30)

This equation is then simplified by expressing it in terms of a convective mass transfer

coefficient, kc based on the movement of the entire bulk phase.

N A kc' (cA1 cA2 )

(I3 31)

For mass transfer of A in a non-diffusing B, Equation (I3-19) may be modified to give

NA

( DAB M ) c A1 c A 2
z2 z1
xB ln

(I3 32)

NA

kc'
(c A1 c A2 ) kc (c A1 c A2 )
xB ln

(I3 33)

which may be simplified to

The mass transfer coefficients kc and kc have a unit of m/s or ft/hr. It is possible to express
these coefficients in terms of other units depending on the driving forces used in the defining
mass transfer equation. Examples are

N A kG ( pA1 pA2 ) k y ( yA1 yA2 ) kx ( xA1 xA2 )

(I3 34)

I3.8. EVALUATION OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

I3.8.1. Dimensionless Numbers
6

The dimensionless numbers obtained by the usual procedure of dimensional analysis that are
important in mass transfer operations are the following:

Schmidt Number, N Sc

Du

inertia forces
viscous forces

(I3 35)

momentum

Dv mass diffusivity

(I3 36)

Reynolds Number, N Re

Sherwood Number, N Sh

kc' L turbulent diffusion

DAB molecular diffusion

(I3 37)

The mass transfer coefficient is correlated as a dimensionless, JD factor given by

JD

kc'
k' P
N Sh
( N Sc ) 2 / 3 c T
1/ 3
v
v m N Re N Sc

(I3 38)

I3.8.2. Mass, Heat and Momentum Transfer Analogies

The transport mechanism of mass, heat and momentum have similarities that could be used to
relate the three mechanisms especially in determining approximate values of the transfer
coefficients in the absence of a more reliable experimental data. The more common analogies
are presented here.
Reynolds Analogy (NSc = NPr = 1.0)

k'
f
h

c
2 c p G uav

(I3 39)

Chilton-Colburn Analogy

k'
f
h
JH
( N Pr )2/ 3 J D c ( N Sc )2/ 3
2
c pG
uav

(I3 40)

I3.8.3. Mass Transfer Coefficients

A. For Flow Inside Pipes
For Laminar flow, refer to Fig. 7.3 2 (Geankoplis, 1995)
For Turbulent Flow, for NSc of 0.6 to 3000

N Sh kc'

D
0.83
0.023N Re
N Sc0.33
DAB

(I3 41)

B. For Flow Outside Solid Surfaces

1. Parallel Flat Plates
N Sh kc'

L
0.5
1/ 3
0.664 N Re,
L N Sc
DAB

(I3 42)

2. Flow Past Single Spheres

For gases, NSc = 0.6 to 2.7 and NRe = 1 to 48,000
0.53 1/3
NSh 2 0.552NRe
NSc

For liquids,

(I3 43)

NRe = 2 to 2000
0.5 1/3
NSh 2 0.95NRe
NSc

(I3 44)

NRe = 2000 to 17,000

0.62 1/3
NSh 0.347 NRe
NSc

(I3 45)

C. For Packed Beds

For Gases through spheres with NRe = 10 to 10,000
JD JH

0.4545

0.4069
N Re

(I3 46)

For Liquids with NRe = 0.0016 to 55 and NSc = 165 to 70,600

JD

1.09

2 / 3
N Re

(I3 47)

For Liquids with NRe = 55 to 1500 and NSc=165 to 10,690

JD

0.250

0.31
N Re

(I3 48)

The representative equations given above are obtained from Geankoplis(1995). Many more
correlations are available in Green, et al. (Perrys Handbook, 1997) and other references.
D. Penetration Theory of Mass Transfer
For cases where surface renewal rather than film theory applies, for equimolal diffusion, the
individual mass transfer coefficient is given by
k

2 M

Dv
tL

(I3 49)

where tL is the average time the fluid elements remain at the interface. This is dependent on the
fluid velocity, fluid properties and the geometry of the system.

THE WETTED WALL COLUMN

The wetted wall column is the most popular apparatus used in experimentally determining the
mass transfer coefficient of a system since the mass transfer area can be determined with
reasonable accuracy. Correlations on the behaviour of the dimensionless numbers such as the
Sherwood number, Reynolds number and Schmidt number under turbulent diffusion have been
derived using this apparatus.
Applying the material balance and the rate of mass transfer of component A around the
differential area dA yields
dNA = VdY = ky(Yi - Y) dA

(I3 50)

Since, V = V(1-y) and

1
dy
and dY
1 y
1 y 2
Substituting in Equation (I3 50)), we get
dy
V 1 y
k y y dA
1 y 2 y i
Y

k y dA

y2

dy

1 y yi y
y1

(I3 51)

Under adiabatic conditions, the temperature of the liquid remains constant, thus the interfacial
concentration, yi may be taken also as constant. Integrating Equation (I3 - 51), we get
ky A
V

1 y1 yi y2 ........
1
ln
yi 1 1 y2 yi y1

(I3 52)

With the temperature, flow rate and concentrations measured experimentally, together with the
surface area of contact between the gas and the liquid, the mass transfer coefficient of the
diffusing component maybe determined.
Several correlations have been derived for wetted-wall columns. An example is the GillilandSherwood Equation (McCabe and Smith, 1976) given by
0.81 0.44
NSh 0.023NRe
NSc

(I3 53)

which is very similar to Eq. (I3 41). The equation applies for NRe between 2,000 to 35,000;
NSc from 0.6 to 2.5; and over a pressure range of 0.1 to 3 atm.
A second correlation for wetted-wall columns, which shows the general analogy for
momentum, heat and mass transfer, although less precise than the above equation, can be
written as
jM j H

f
0.2
0.023N Re
2

(I3 54)

where f is the Fanning friction factor for flow in smooth pipes. The above equation is not
applicable if form drag exists.

10

NOMENCLATURE
Symbol
A
cA
cp
DAB
Dm
Dv
f
G
h
IoA
kc
kc
M
NA
NTA
NRe
NSc
NSh
P, PT
pA
R
T
Tc
u
VA
Vc
xA
y
z

AB
D
m
M

Description
Area perpendicular to the moving species
Concentration of species A
heat capacity
Diffusivity of A relative to B
molal diffusivity
volumetric diffusivity
Fanning friction factor
mass velocity
heat transfer coefficient
Molar flux of A relative to bulk motion
mass transfer coefficient for unicomponent
diffusion
mass transfer coefficient for equimolar
diffusion
molecular weight
Molar flux of A
Total moles of A diffusing
Reynolds Number
Schmidt Number
Sherwood Number
total pressure
partial pressure of A
universal gas constant=8314.34
temperature
critical temperature
linear velocity
solute molar volume at normal boiling point
critical volume
Mole fraction of species A in liquid phase
mole fraction in the gas phase
Distance in the direction of moving species
porosity of bed
viscosity
association parameter of the solvent
average collision diameter
collision integral
Molal density of mixture
eddy or turbulent mass diffusivity

Units
2

m
kg-mole/m3
J/kg-K
m2/s
kg-mole/s-m
m2/s
[-]
kg/m2-s
W/m2-K
kg-mole/s-m2
m/s
m/s
kg/kg-mols
kg-mol/m2-s
kg-mol/m2-s

atm or Pa
mm Hg or Pa
J/kg-mol-K
K
K
m/s
m3/kg-mol
m3
[-]
[-]
M
[-]
Pa-s
[-]
M
[-]
kg-mols/s-m
m2/s

11

References:
Brown, George G., D. Katz, A.L. Foust and R. Schneidewind. (1950). "Unit Operations", John
Wiley and Sons, New York
Foust, A.S., L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus and L.B. Andersen. (1960) "Principles of Unit
Operations", John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Geankoplis, Christie J. (1995) Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd edition.
Printice-Hall International ed.,
Green, Don W.(ed) and James O. Maloney (asoc. ed), (1997) Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook, 7th edition", McGraw-Hill Book, New York
McCabe, Warren L., Julian C. Smith and Peter Harriott,(2001) Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill International.
Perry, Robert H. and D. Green. (1984). "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th edition",
McGraw-Hill Book, New York.
Treybal, Robert E., (1968), Mass Transfer Operations, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha,
Ltd., Tokyo

TABLES NEEDED:
Diffusion Coefficients of Combination of Gases at 1 atm
Diffusion Coefficients of a Gas in Air at 1 atm and 273K
Atomic Diffusion Volumes
Diffusion coefficients for Dilute Liquid Solutions
Atomic and Molar Volumes at Normal Boiling Point
Diffusion Coefficients for Dilute Solutions of Gases in Water at 20 oC

12