Modes of acquiring territory

1. Cession
2. Occupation
3. Prescription
4. Conquest/subjugation
5. Operation of nature/accretion
6. Adjudication
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Cession transfer of territory usually by a treaty, from one state to another
Note: if there were defects in the ceding states title, the title of the state to which
the territory is ceded will be viated by the same defects applying nemo dat quod
non habet [no one gives what he does not have] (See: Islands of Palmas Case)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Occupation the acquisition of a terra nullius, that is, territory which immediately
before the acquisition, belonged to no state
Note: a territory is terra nullius either because it really did not belong to any
state or may have been abandoned by previous sovereign. There is abandonment
if there is failure to exercise authority with intent to abandon.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discovery of territory is not sufficient to acquire a terra nullius territory as it merely
gives inchoate title that is, an option to occupy the territory within a reasonable
time, during which time other states were not allowed to occupy the territory. Thus,
occupation requires effective control and intention and will to act as
sovereign.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Prescription as distinguished from occupation, this presupposes acquisition of
territory belonging to another state. It also requires effective control and
intention and will to act as sovereign. However, since acquiescence (eg lack of
protest) by the losing state is required for there to have effective control, a longer
period of time is required in prescription than in occupation (cf immemorial
prescription doctrine)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Conquest accepted in 19th century since the prohibition against the use of force
had not yet ripened into CIL. It is now illegal to acquire territory by force. See
Stimson Doctrine. It was only in 1970 when the UN GA issued a resolution
declaring the acquisition of territory by force as illegal. However, this rule applies
only to international, not civil, wars.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Law of the Sea

-Before UNCLOS, most laws of the sea were merely CIL
-Now, governed by the 1982 UNCLOS III (UNCLOS I-1958); II-1960;) which came into
force in 1994 after the 60th party signed it.
-Basic Zones/Areas:
1. Internal Waters;
2. Territorial Sea;
3. Archipelagic Waters;
4. Contiguous Zone;
5. Exclusive Economic Zone;
6. Continental Shelf and;
7. High Seas
-Baseline (Low water mark method vs. Straight Baseline Method)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Internal Waters
-Include ports, harbors, rivers, bays, straits, lakes and canals (c.f. Archipelagic
doctrine)
-the coastal state can prohibit entry into its internal waters by foreign ships, except
for ships in distress
-When already within internals waters, different legal questions arise depending on
the kind of vessel that is within the internal water: merchant ships, warships, other
foreign non-commercial ships
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Territorial Sea
-Not Exceeding 12 n.m. from the baseline
-Baselines: 1. Normal Baseline (Low water mark method), and 2. Straight Baseline
Method
-Limitation: Right of Innocent Passage be foreign ships. Must be
1. expeditious and continuous and
2. Innocent.
It is innocent if not prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of the coastal
state. Fishing vessels must comply with local laws and submarines must navigate on
the surface and show their flag. May be suspended for protection of security of the
coastal state

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Median Line

-Where the coasts of the two states are opposite or adjacent to each other, neither
of them is entitled, failing agreement between them to the contrary, to extend its
territorial sea beyond the median line every point of which is equidistant from
the nearest points on the baselines. (Also applicable in the case of continental shelf)
Exceptions: historic title or other special circumstances
Read: North Sea Continental Shelf Case
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Jurisdiction of Coastal State over foreign vessels in territorial waters
-Foreign public vessel no jurisdiction
-Foreign Merchant vessel full civil jurisdiction, but criminal jurisdiction may or may
not be exercised by the coastal state.
(c.f. English Rule and French [Flag State] Rule)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Archipelagic Waters
-Waters around, between and connecting the islands of the archipelago and are
inside the imaginary straight baseline connecting the outermost points of the
outermost islands of the archipelago
-Treated as internal waters
-But, subject to the right of innocent passage of foreign ships just like territorial
sea
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Contiguous Zone
-24n.m. from the baseline
-Coastal State is limited to Protective Jurisdiction only, that is, to prevent
infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary regulations
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Exclusive Economic Zone

-200 n.m. from the baseline

-Coastal state has the sovereign rights over all the economic resources of the sea,
seabed, and subsoil, which includes not only fish but also minerals beneath the
seabed
-However, if the coastal state is unable to fully exploit the resources, it must make
arrangement to share surplus with other states.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Continental Shelf
-Consists of the seabed and the subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond
its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the
outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 n.m., whichever is
greater. But it shall not exceed 350n.m. from the baseline in case the natural
prolongation exceeds more than 200n.m.
-Coastal states rights are limited to harvesting of mineral and other non-living
materials in the subsoil and living things attached to the shelf
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------High Seas
-beyond 200 n.m. from the base line
-may be used freely by ships of all nations (including land-locked states)
-Freedom on the high seas includes: freedom of navigation, freedom of
fishing, freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines and freedom to fly
over the high seas. These freedoms are however subject to certain conventions
and agreements. (c.f. Five Air Freedoms)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------As a rule, ships in the high seas are governed by 1. International law and; 2.
Law of the flag state
-The flag of the state refers to the nationality of the flag which is determined by
the place of registration
-A ship can only use one flag
-Flags of Convenience countries that allow registration of a ship for a fee
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Interference (by warships) with merchant ships of another states in the high seas:
1. Stateless ships

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Hot Pursuit
Right of approach
Treaties
Piracy
Belligerent Rights
Self-defense and
Authorized by the UN

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Airspace and outer Space

Common Heritage of Mankind Principle:
-Applicable to the airspace, outer space and even the high seas, the term means
that the exploration and use or utilization of resources in areas beyond national
jurisdiction shall be the province of all mankind and shall be carred out for the
benefit and in the interests of all countries irrespective of their degree of economic
or scientific development.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Human Rights Law

-The three (3) Generations or Categories
A: UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1. Civil and Political Rights
2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
B: Opinion of Publicists
3. Right to peace, Self-Determination, common heritage of mankind
principle, environment, development, minority rights
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------But, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN is not legally binding
instrument as it merely recommends states to keep it in mind in the enactment of
legal measures.
However, if the particular right mentioned there has already ripened into a
customary international law (eg torture, slavery, racial discrimination), violation of
human rights involves a matter of international concern
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Illustrations of the application of the Human Rights Law
1. State X passed a law imposing Death Penalty to the crimes of Homicide,
Infanticide, Murder, Parricide, Kidnapping, Robbery, Rape, rebellion, Sedition,

and all crimes involving dangerous drugs. How may the law be assailed as
invalid?
2. When A, a ctizen of State X, wrote in Public that their president is corrupt and
a drug lord, the president created a fact finding commission which
recommended that A be punished for what he wrote against the President. A
was then sent to jail.
3. Due to Budget constraints, the president of state Y decided to abolish free
primary education and encouraged instead private institutions to offer
affordable primary education to all. May this act of the government of State Y
be assailed as invalid?
4. What is torture? What is racial discrimination?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Environmental Law
-A modern field of public international law (1970s)
-The Trail Smelter case (1965): no State has the right to use or permit the use of
its territory is such a manner as to cause injury by fumes in or to the territory of
another..
-First major international environmental conference was convened by the UN
General Assembly in Stockholm (Sweden) in 1972 which later resulted to the
adoption of certain environmental Principles.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Basic Principles in International environmental Law
-responsibility and prevention (Principle 21, Stockholm Declaration)
-Sustainable development
-Intra and inter-generational responsibility (Principle 3, Rio Declaration)
-Conservation of resources (principle 8, Rio Declaration)
-Integration (Principle 4, Rio Declaration)
-Precautionary Principle (Principle 15, Rio declaration)
-Polluter-Pays Principle (Principle 16, Rio Declaration)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Climate Change regime
United nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Kyoto Protocol
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Wars, Civil wars and Right to self-determination: Jus ad Bellum
-Jus Ad Bellum
Rules Governing the resort to Armed Conflict (Lawful War).

Jus In Bello:
Rules Governing the Actual Conduct of Armed Conflict (Lawful Acts in Times
of War). [International Humanitarian Law]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Jus ad Bellum
-Article 2(4) of the UN Charter prohibits use of force and threat to use force; CIL
-Any use of force or threat to use force may only be lawful if done with the collective
decision of the UN in cases of threats to peace, breached of peace, or acts of
aggression (including against international terrorism, threats posed by weapons of
mass destruction, and on humanitarian grounds)
-States can only justify use of force in case of self-defense as recognized in Art. 51
of the UN charter (Individual or collective self-defense) until the Security Council has
taken measures; the State exercising right of self-defense must report the measures
taken to the security council; Self-defense must comply with the requirements of 1)
presence of armed-attack 2)observance of principles of proportionality and military
necessity
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Jus Ad Bellum
-Rules on Self Defense:
-Inherent
Case: Caroline Case
-recognized by Art 51 of the UN Charter
-Preventive/Anticipatory Self-Defense Allowed?
Case: Nicaragua vs US
Self-defense and Claims to Territory?
1970 Gen Assembly Friendly Relations Declaration
Case: Falkland Island Case
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Means of waging War and Criminal Responsibility: Jus In Bello
1. Meaning of armed conflict to which International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
applies
2. What if there is no armed conflict?
3. Fundamental principles that govern conduct of war:
a. Military Necessity and Collateral Damage
b. Principle of Proportionality, and
c. Principle of Distinction
4. International Criminal Law (ICL)
5. Individual Responsibility
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Means of Waging War and Criminal Responsibility : Jus In Bello

International Humanitarian Law governs the laws of armed conflict or law of

war. It primarily seeks to protect civilian population and objects. It covers
international or non-international armed conflict, but not mere internal disturbances
E.g. The 1949 Geneva Conventions and international protocols prohibit the
attack on civilian population or object as such during armed conflict
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International criminal law (ICL) is a body of international law that prohibits
certain categories of conduct viewed as serious atrocities and to make the
perpetrators of such conduct criminally accountable. It defines crimes, its elements,
and individual criminal responsibility.
E.g. Rome Statute creating the International Criminal Court (ICC) in the Hague
which defines and punishes genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and
aggression.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Humanitarian Law
-Primarily governed by the 4 Geneva Conventions of 1949 and additional protocols
I Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces
II Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded and Sick and Shipwreck Members of
the AF at Sea
III- Treatment of Prisoners of War
IV- Abduction of Persons in times of War
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Additional Protocols
AP I of 1977 Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts
AP II of 1977 Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Kinds of War IHL becomes applicable:
1. International Armed Conflict
2. Non-International Armed Conflict
An armed conflict exists whenever there is a resort to armed force
between States or protracted armed violence between governmental
authorities and organized armed groups or between such groups
within a state.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Armed Conflict

-An Armed conflict is international if it takes place between two or more states
-This includes the concept of internationalized armed conflict
-Wars of National Liberation are considered International Armed Conflict.
-Governed by the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non-International Armed Conflict
-Armed Conlfict is non-international if it is restricted to the territory of a single State
involving either regular armed forces fighting against armed group or armed
groups fighting against each other. The armed violence must be protracted
and engaged in by organized groups, thus, mere riots are not covered.
-Governed by Common Article 3 of the 4 Geneva Conventions and Additional
Protocol II.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non-International Internal Armed conflict vs. Internal Disturbance
Tests:
1. Intensity of the Conflict (Protracted) consider seriousness of the attacks,
increase in armed clashes, spread of clashes over territory and over a period
of time, etc
2. Organization of Parties (Organized Armed Groups) Headquarters
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Protected Persons and Objects in IHL:
1. Civilians any person who does not belong to armed force and who is not a
combatant
2. Civilian Objects objects which are not military objects. Military Objects are
those which by their nature, location, purpose or use make effective
contribution to military action and advantage.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Military Necessity
-Attacks must be limited strictly to military objectives. Insofar as objects are
concerned, military objectives are limited to those objects which by their nature,
location, purpose, or use make an effective contribution to military action whose
total or partial destruction, capture or neutralization offers a definite military
advantage.
-(c.f. Principle of Precaution)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------International Criminal Law

-International Criminal Court governed by the rome Statute (July 1 2002) has
jurisdiction over the following crimes:
1. Genocide
2. Crimes Against Humanity
3. War Crimes
4. Crime of Aggression
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Criminal Responsibility of Superiors
-Superior responsibility makes a superior criminally responsible for crimes
committed by subordinates under his or her effective authority and control by
reason of his or her failure to exercise control properly over such subordinates
-The concept is generic as to encompass Command responsibility which is
applicable only to military commanders.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------