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Article history:
Received 14 February 2011
Accepted 29 July 2011
Available online 6 August 2011
Keywords:
electromagnetic heating
heavy-oil recovery
eld results
mathematical modeling
a b s t r a c t
A multi-layer, two-dimensional mathematical model of reservoir heating by Radio-Frequency (RF)
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation for heavy oil recovery is presented. The model takes into account the heat
loss in the wellbore and into the surrounding formations. The validity of the mathematical model is tested on
a real eld case application. A sensitivity analysis on the damping coefcient of EM waves is also performed.
It is shown that the occurrence of volumetric heat sources at the bottom hole caused by EM eld action yields
an intensive deep heating of the reservoir with a small temperature gradient. Numerical calculations show
that the bottom-hole pressure and the EM generator power are essential factors in determining the heat
transfer processes and heavy oil production. The method of RF-EM radiation is also compared to cold
production (without any inuence of heating).
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Heavy-oil and bitumen recovery from difcult geological media such
as deep, heterogeneous and high shale content sands and carbonates,
and water repellent oilshale reservoirs requires techniques other than
conventional thermal and miscible injection methods. Materials in oil
reservoirs (formation water, crude oil, oilwater emulsions, bitumen
and their components like resins, asphaltenes, and parafn) are nonmagnetic dielectric materials with low electrical conductivity. If an
electromagnetic eld can be created to change these properties, electrothermo controlled hydrodynamics could improve the displacement and
recovery of heavy-oil/bitumen.
This paper deals with the recovery improvement of heavy-oil by
Radio-Frequency (RF) Electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The RF-EM elds
in the form of waves can penetrate deeply enough from fractions of a
meter to several hundred meters into oil and gas containing reservoirs
to generate heat and eventually improve recovery mainly due to the
reduction of oil viscosity.
Results of RF-EM treatment experiments were well documented in
numerous studies (Chakma and Jha, 1992; Kasevich et al., 1994;
Nigmatulin et al., 2001; Ovalles et al., 2002). Theoretical aspects of
heavy-oil production were covered by Abernethy (1976), Islam et al.
(1991), Sahni et al. (2000), Sayakhov et al. (2002), and Carrizales et al.
Corresponding author at: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
School of Mining and Petroleum Eng., 3-112 Markin CNRL-NREF, Edmonton, AB, Canada
T6G 2W2.
E-mail address: tayfun@ualberta.ca (T. Babadagli).
0920-4105/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2011.07.006
(2008). Several other studies investigated the heat and mass transfer
processes in heavy oil reservoirs stimulated by EM radiation (Davletbaev
et al., 2008, 2009; Kovaleva and Khaydar, 2004; Kovaleva et al., 2004;
Sayakhov et al., 1998). A number of other investigations proposed
analytical models of lab experiments (Nigmatulin et al., 2001; Ovalles
et al., 2002).
Various methods of EM treatment of hydrocarbon deposits were
reported over more than ve decades (Bridges, 1979; Dyblenko et al.,
1981; Haagensen, 1965, 1986; Jeambey, 1989, 1990; Ritchey, 1956;
Sayakhov, 1992, 1996, 2003; Sresty et al., 1984). Field tests of bottomhole heating by RF-EM radiation were carried out in a number of oil
elds in Russia, the USA, and Canada (e.g., Kasevich et al., 1994;
Sayakhov et al., 1980; Spencer, 1987, 1989).
Abernethy (1976), in one of the pioneering works, solved the
problem of heat transmission within the production well under the
RF-EM eld inuence. The following expression for the oil ow rate,
taking into account the effect of temperature on the oil viscosity, and
the one-dimensional expression for the density of heat sources, was
adapted in that paper:
q = 2d Jb
rd
exp2d rrd ;
r
another well is intended for uid recovery. Sahni et al. (2000) analyzed
the use of low-frequency electric eld (ohmic) heating ( = 60 Hz) and
microwave electromagnetic heating ( = 0.915 GHz). Application of
the EM heating for oil recovery in two oil reservoirs was tested. The heat
equation with a heat source in a one-dimensional formulation was
solved by Ovalles et al. (2002). The aim of this work was to
mathematically model the physical experiments described in the
same paper. A satisfactory agreement between the calculated and the
laboratory data was obtained. Then, the mathematical model was used
for EM simulation in three hypothetical oil elds in Venezuela with
different viscosities of heavy oil.
EM oil recovery by horizontal oil wells was also considered by
Kovalyova (Kovaleva) and Khaydar (2004) and Kovaleva et al. (2004).
Later, EM radiation and electrical heating methods were compared by
Carrizales et al. (2008).
Mathematical models were developed for one-dimensional radial
and linear cases. The solvent injection combined with RF electromagnetic radiation in a producing well for extra-heavy oil recovery was
presented by Davletbaev et al. (2008, 2009). These models considered
the heat losses in the well and surrounding formations. Nigmatulin et
al. (2001) studied the effects of RF-EM radiation when applied
simultaneously with miscible oil displacement.
The high-viscosity oil production method introduced in Dyblenko
et al. (1981) and Spencer (1987,1989) denes production stimulation
by thermal excitation of the producing wells. In these methods, a
hydrocarbon reservoir saturated by heavy-oil or bitumen is exposed
to radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EM) produced by a
surface generator. Due to dielectric losses in the pay zone, the
transmitted EM energy is converted into thermal energy that
generates volume heat sources in the rock. Due to nite conductivity
of the coaxial conductor (the tubing and casing strings), part of the EM
energy traveling from the well head to its bottom hole transforms
again into thermal energy. The heat released prevents parafn
dropout along the wellbore and provides additional heating of the
oil in place, thereby increasing its mobility.
The results of eld tests in Russia (heavy oil reservoir by
Ishimbayneft, Yultimirovskaya and Mordovo_Karmalskaya tar
sands) and basic mathematical model of RF-EM application were
described by Davletbaev et al. (2010). This paper begins with
mathematical modeling of the RF-EM process to determine the
optimal application conditions. The model was described and a critical
sensitivity analysis using the model was provided as a sample
exercise. Field case results (Yultimirovskaya tar sands) were used to
test and validate the model. The algorithm of calculation included the
renement of the unknown parameters, in particular, an estimate of
the damping factor of EM waves in the reservoir (adaptation of the
measured and theoretical data temperature).
647
0 tg 2
E ;
2
Fig. 1. Structural model used in the development of mathematical model: (1) well, (2)
pay zone, (3) and (4) surrounding rock (matrix).
648
100
T, C
100
75
50
0
10
50
25
5
y, m
10
10
10
0
x, m
200
T, C
100
150
50
0
10
100
50
5
0
y, m
10
10
10
0
x, m
649
Fig. 6. Production rate dynamics during RF EM treatment for cold oil production
Ng = 0 kW and for generator performance settings Ng = 10, 20, 30 kW (a); and for
different reservoir/bottom-hole differential pressures P0 Pwf = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 MPa (b).
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution in Well 150 during RF-EM heating, with the generator
performance set to 20 kW, 30 kW, 60 kW, and 0 kW.
650
The energy balance calculations were performed for: (1) cold oil
production at a constant bottomhole pressure in the well (the period
of 30 days of oil production), and (2) 5 days oil production and RFEM radiation and 25 days oil production stopped RF-EM generator
(the total duration of 30 days). These two cases were compared and
the additional oil production by high-frequency electromagnetic
radiation into the reservoir was calculated. These data were used to
estimate the energy balance, i.e. energy equivalent of additional oil
production to compare the expenditure of energy of using RF-EM
radiation. Power consumption, RF electromagnetic generator, its
efciency, energy losses in transmission lines from the thermal
station (where oil production is burned conventionally) to the
location of RF-EM generator, and the efciency of power transmission
lines were included in this exercise.
RF-EM generator has efciency G = 0.67. Transmission line of EM
waves from the wellhead to the bottom is a coaxial system of tubing
and casing, the efciency is L = 0.476. It is assumed that the efciency
of the transmission line from the thermoelectric power station to the
location of the RF-EM generator is TF = 0.563. Efciency of thermoelectric power station is EPS = 0.35. Heat loss EM energy in the
borehole that are associated with oxidation and contamination of
surface pipe tubing, with the presence of water in the well production
is LH = 0.75. Total power consumption with all the loss is determined
from the following expression:
NPC =
N0
:
G L EPS TF LH
Kem =
WAP
:
WPC
Fig. 9. Wellbore temperature distribution in Well 150 (from the well head) after RF-EM
treatment (measured and calculated curves).
4. The RF-EM energy loss along the wellbore (between the generator
and the bottom hole) can be considered an advantage as it prevents
parafn deposition and boosts the mobility of the produced oil.
Nomenclature
NPC
t1
G
o
Qo
651
Acknowledgment
This paper is the revised and improved version of SPE 136611
presented at the 2010 SPE Canadian Unconventional Resources and
Int. Petr. Conf., Calgary, AB, Canada, 1921 Oct.
Appendix A. Formulation of the problem and basic equations
We assumed that the ltration of uid in the reservoir and the
distribution of the thermal eld in the radial direction is carried out
uniformly, i.e. T/ = 0 and P/ = 0. The general system of
equations includes the equation of heat transfer, the diffusion
equation and Darcy's law.
The heat conductivity equation in the system is dened as follows:
T
1
T
1
T
c T
=
r
+
r o o
r r
z
r
t
r
z
w
A 1
T
q
+ ; 0 r re ; 0 z Z3 ;
A 2
where kr and kz permeability of productive stratum along coordinates r and z, porosity of the medium, oil viscosity, ct
total compressibility of the system, rw and re well radius and pool
boundary along coordinate r, Z1 and Z2 coordinates of the roof and
subface of stratum, respectively.
The rate of uid ow in a porous medium is determined from
Darcy's law:
r =
kr P
; r r re ; Z1 z Z2 ;
r w
A 3
It is assumed that the uid motion along the wellbore from the
borehole to the wellhead is dened by
w =
Q
; 0 r R1 ; 0 z Z1 ;
R21
A 4
A 5
652
= 1m + o ;
A 6
= 1m + o ;
A 7
Q = 2 rw hr ;
j = cj j ; j = m; o;
A 8
rd
exp2d rrd ; rd r re ; Z1 z Z2
r
A 9
A 10
Rs
1
;
2Zc lnR3 = R2 R2
A 11
d4 =
Rs
1
;
2Zc lnR3 = R2 R3
A 12
Rs =
f at
;
t
A 13
Zc =
0
:
0
A 14
q=
d2 N0
exp2d2 + d4 z; R1 r R2 ; 0 z Z2 ;
r 2 lnR2 = R1
A 15
d4 N0
exp2d2 + d4 z; R3 r R4 ; 0 z Z1 ;
r 2 lnR4 = R3
A 16
A 17
A 18
T r; z; t = 0 = T0 ; 0 r re ; 0 z Z3 ;
A 19
P r = rw ; z; t = Pwf ; Z1 z Z2 ;
A 20
T r = 0; z; t
= 0; 0 z Z3 ;
r
A 21
T r = re ; z; t = T0 ; 0 z Z3 ;
A 22
T r; z = 0; t
= 0; 0 r re ;
z
A 23
T r; z = Z3 ; t
= 0; 0 r re ;
z
A 24
P r = re ; z; t = P0 ; Z1 z Z2 :
A 25
653
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