Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 70 (1989): 377 391

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

377

Printed in The Netherlands

THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS DWYKA FORMATION OF

SOUTHERN AFRICA: DEPOSITION BY A PREDOMINANTLY
SUBPOLAR MARINE ICE SHEET
J. N. J. VISSER
Department of Geology, University of the Orange Free State, 9301 Bloemfontein (South Africa)
(Received October 21, 1987; revised and accepted October 5, 1988)

Abstract
Visser, J. N. J., 1989. The Permo-Carboniferous Dwyka Formation of Southern Africa: Deposition by a predominantly
subpolar marine ice sheet. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 70:377 391.
The 800-m thick glacigene Dwyka Formation was deposited along the northern margin of the Permo-Carboniferous
Dwyka Basin which covered an area of approximately 2 x 10~ km 2 in southwestern Gondwana. The palaeogeographic
setting, geochemical data of the mudrocks and diamictites, and the palaeontology indicate marine conditions during
sedimentation. Ice lobes from spreading centres in the north, east and south coalesced in the basin to form an
extensive ice cover from the Westphalian to the late Sakmarian.
Lodgement, rain-out and subaqueous debris-flow diamictons, subaqueous and subglacial melt-water sands,
suspended mud, and turbidity current sands and silts accumulated in the Dwyka Basin. Sedimentation started on the
continental shelf during a grounded ice sheet stage (predominantly lodgement processes), then a floating ice stage
(predominantly debris rain-out), and finally an ice sheet disintegration stage (debris rain-out, sand fall-out and
suspension settling of mud). The palaeogeographic setting, presence of marine conditions in the basin and the scale of
glaciation indicate deposition from a predominantly mid-latitudinal marine ice sheet. The overall characteristics of
the glacial sequence are neither typical of a polar nor a temperate setting and for such ancient glaciations a subpolar
setting with the presence of unstable ice shelves is suggested.

Historical b a c k g r o u n d
In the structural Karoo Basin the glacigene
D w y k a F o r m a t i o n f o r m s t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e
C a r b o n i f e r o u s to J u r a s s i c K a r o o S u p e r g r o u p
(cumulative thickness about 10km) which
contains predominantly lacustrine and fluvial
deposits. The glacial sediments were deposited
in a much larger basin in southwestern
G o n d w a n a , h e n c e f o r t h d e f i n e d as t h e D w y k a
Basin, and in several smaller, fault-controlled
b a s i n s of w h i c h t h e K a l a h a r i B a s i n is t h e m o s t
important, towards the north (Fig.l). The
g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s a r e o v e r l a i n b y u p to 200 m o f
dark-coloured mudrocks (Prince Albert Forma0031-0182/89/$03.50

tion) with, in the west, a thin, b u t very

persistent, carbonaceous shale marker (Whiteh i l l F o r m a t i o n ) a t t h e top.
Despite unanimous views on the glacial
o r i g i n of t h e D w y k a F o r m a t i o n , n o c o n s e n s u s
o n a m o d e l for t h e P e r m o - C a r b o n i f e r o u s g l a c i a t i o n e x i s t s . D u T o i t (1921) w h o g a v e t h e first
d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e g l a c i a t i o n , cons i d e r e d t h e d i a m i c t i t e s as l a n d - f o r m e d mora i n e s left b y a c o n t i n e n t a l ice s h e e t . T h e ice
front ended in e i t h e r fresh or b r a c k i s h w a t e r in
t h e s o u t h , a n d it w a s o n l y d u r i n g d i s i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t t h e ice s h e e t p r o b a b l y l o s t c o n t a c t
w i t h its bed. S t r a t t e n (1968) h e l d a v e r y s i m i l a r
view. I n t h e i r r e v i e w o f t h e P e r m o - C a r b o n i f e r -

1989 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

378
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Samples for C and S

of mudrocks
Samples for Fe and
Mn of diamictites
Distribution

of

Dwyka Fm

Cape Towr

500 km
i

Fig.1. Locality map showing the distribution of the Dwyka Formation in the Karoo and other related basins in southern
Africa. F m = Formation.
ous glaciation in the Karoo Basin, Crowell and
Frakes (1972) considered the formation as
predominantly subaqueous in origin having
been deposited in an inland (epeiric) sea.
Theron and Blignault (1975) suggested deposition of the diamictites at the grounding line of
an ice shelf during periodic climatic changes
from polar to temperate. These changes resulted
in their observed cyclic diamictite sequences.
Von Brunn and Stratten (1981) recognised
the presence of a terrestrial facies along the
northern sector of the Karoo Basin and deposition from floating ice shelves in the southern
part. They inferred a marine incursion into the
basin from the west at the end of the glaciation. According to Visser (1983) about 90% of
the diamictite sequence was deposited by large
grounded ice sheets which ended in an open
sea in the southwest. The uppermost part of the
formation formed during sedimentation by a
marine ice sheet with ice streams, ice shelves,
small grounded lobes and calving bays. Von

Brunn and Gravenor (1983) and Von Brunn

(1987) shared a similar view regarding the
deposition of the upper diamictites of the
Dwyka Formation. They suggested deposition
by an extensive wet-based marine ice sheet
bounded by ice shelves. Recession of the
marine ice sheet was a direct consequence of a
rise in sea-level.
Although post-1980 publications suggested
deposition of the upper diamictites of the
Dwyka Formation by a marine ice sheet, a
great deal of controversy regarding the glaciation model for the rest of the sequence exists.
Several reasons for these diverse opinions are
evident: facies analysis of glacial beds becomes
only an accepted approach since the eighties;
fossil evidence from the Dwyka beds are
scarce; ancient deposits do not always correspond with Cenozoic glaciation models; the
palaeogeography of the region was largely
unknown; and the architectural stratigraphy
of the formation was not studied.

379

Integrated model approach

applicable to other parts of southwestern

Gondwana.

There are important dynamical differences

between terrestrial and marine ice sheets
(Muszynski and Birchfield, 1987) so to fully
explain past glaciations, distinction between
the two types of ice sheets has to be made. It is
thus the objective of this study to define the
type of ice sheet responsible for the deposition
of the Dwyka Formation. Such a reconstruction requires the input of the palaeogeographic
setting of the basin, stratigraphic analysis and
palaeontology of the basin fill, and the geochemistry of the mudrocks and diamictites.
Integration of these input data will enable the
definition of a time-constrained, conceptual
glaciation model, which not only will concern
the Dwyka Basin, but which may be also

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The areal distribution of the Dwyka Formation in the structural Karoo Basin represents
only a fraction of the original depository being
operative from the late Carboniferous to the
early Permian in southwestern Gondwana
(Visser, 1987). The Dwyka Basin, together with
other major Gondwana basins, occurred along
the palaeo-Pacific margin of southwestern
Gondwana where a mountainous island arc
system (proto-Precordillera) separated the basins from the palaeo-Pacific ocean (Visser,
1987; Fig.2). The Dwyka Basin which had a
typical foreland setting, was bounded to the

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Palaeogeographic setting

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Major ice-flow
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Fig.2. The late C a r b o n i f e r o u s ( S t e p h a n i a n ) D w y k a Basin in s o u t h w e s t e r n G o n d w a n a . D u r i n g glaciation the basin was

covered by ice lobes r a d i a t i n g from s p r e a d i n g c e n t r e s over t h e n o r t h e r n highlands, A n t a r c t i c h i g h l a n d s and the s o u t h e r n
m o u n t a i n o u s island arc. G o n d w a n a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n after L a w v e r and Scotese (1987). A = S o u t h America; B = s o u t h e r n Africa:
C - E a s t Antarctica; D = E l l s w o r t h Block; E = K a l a h a r i Basin.

380
north by a highly dissected highland region
( ' C a r g o n i a n Highlands" of Visser, 1987), was
open towards the west and extended eastwards
into Antarctica (Fig.2). Numerous valley systems, of which the Kalahari ~'Basin" was the
most prominent one, channelled ice from the
high interior region towards the south and
west.
Although the eastern and western limits of
the basin are undefined, the basin had a
minimum length of 2000 km and a width of 1000
to 1500 km (Fig.2), and probably covered an
area of 2 x 106 km 2. The basin floor consisted
predominantly of lower Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks and the region, as a whole, represented a tectonic stable area, except for
isostatic adjustment during loading of the
crust by the ice sheet. Water depths in the
basin are largely unknown. The presence of
invertebrate fossils in the glacial sequence
of the Kalahari Basin led Martin (1973) to
suggest a water depth of about 600 m. So far
the arthropod trackways and trails recorded
along the northern margin of the Dwyka Basin
prove to be inconclusive regarding the water
depth. Upward-coarsening valley fills consisting of subaqueous outwash sediments along
the northern margin of the basin suggest
minimum water depths of 40m. However,
water depths increased considerably southwards and may have exceeded 250 m (Visser,
1987).
Palaeomagnetic data indicate palaeolatitudes for the Dwyka Basin of between 70 and
85S during the late Carboniferous and between 50 to 65S during the early Permian
(Smith et al., 1981). Veevers and Powell (1987),
using a slightly revised reconstruction for
Gondwana, located the Dwyka Basin between
40 and 50S during the late Carboniferous.
Despite the discrepancies between the two data
sets, it is evident t h a t the Dwyka Basin
occupied a predominantly mid-latitudinal position during the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation.
Palaeoice-flow directions in the Dwyka Basin
were derived from clast compositional and
fabric studies, directional measurements of

glacial striae on bedrock and fluted surfaces,

and the strike of glacial valleys (Visser, 1983,
1987). Ice-flow along the northern basin margin
was directed mainly towards the south, along
the present eastern margin flow was from the
east and northeast, whereas in the southern
Karoo Basin evidence for debris transport from
the south and southeast was found (Fig.2).
These directions indicate major ice-spreading
centres located over the highlands in the
north, the mountainous island arc in the south,
and the East Antarctic plateau. Debris with a
predominantly igneous and high-grade metamorphic composition occurring almost at the
base of the glacial sequence, was interpreted as
representing a southern source. This implies
considerably longer travel distances for the
southerly derived material which requires
the presence of ice centres in the south prior
to ice build-up over the northern highlands.
On the other hand, the ice lobe from the
east remained active in the basin after those
from the south and north already started to
disintegrate.

Stratigraphic analysis
It is not the intention of this paper to
describe and interpret the lithofacies in the
Dwyka Formation as this has been done in
several papers by Von Brunn (1981, 1987), Von
Brunn and Gravenor (1983), and Visser (1983,
1986). However, certain aspects of the stratigraphic relationships within the formation will
be emphasised.
The Dwyka Formation in the northern and
southern parts of the Karoo Basin shows very
distinct differences which led to the recognition of a platform facies association in the
south and a valley facies association in the
north (Visser, 1986; Fig.l). The platform facies
association consists of about 70% massive
diamictite, 22% stratified (bedded) diamictite
and 8% mudrocks. In contrast, the valley
facies association consists of about 21% massive diamictite, 37% stratified (bedded) diamictite and 42% mudrocks of which half contains
ice-rafted debris. Making use of stratigraphic

381

sections and mapping along the s out he r n basin

margin, nine genetic increments based on
lithological differences, i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l erosive contacts, changes in clast composition
and different palaeoice-flow directions, were
recognised in the platform facies association
(Fig.3). The two mudrock units (numbers 8
and 9 in Fig.3), which can be traced over
distances of up to 400 km, represent interglacial periods.

Consists of clast-poor, massive to faintly

bedded diamictite with numerous deformed
sandstone bodies. Clast composition is the
same as t hat of Unit 1. The unit formed
primarily by debris rain-out either in the
proximal iceberg zone or below an ice shelf.
The sandstones represent mainly small subaqueous outwash fans (Visser et al., 1987).

Unit 1

Unit 3

Is only present in the west where it consists

of Clast-rich massive and faintly bedded diamictite, boulder beds and subordinate mudrocks.
Contains large clasts of underlying bedrock,
and igneous and high-grade metamorphic
rocks. Glacial debris was predominantly derived from the n o r t h e r n highlands, although
Visser and Loock (1982) recognised some
sediment input also from the south along the
s o u t h er n margin of the basin. This basal unit
formed predominantly by lodgement and meltout processes in a subglacial position (Visser
and Loock, 1982).

Consists of massive, homogeneous diamictite

with thin carbonate beds and stringers. Clasts
of fossiliferous limestone and igneous rocks
predominate suggesting a major southerly
source. The unit formed by debris rain-out and
subordinate resedimentation processes beneat h a possible ice shelf.

E
Ecca G r o u p
Deformed sandslone-body
u n i t (No 7)

diamictite

Unit 2

Unit 4

Occurs only in the western sector of the

basin where it consists of clast-rich to clastpoor diamictite, boulder beds and very subordinate mudrocks. The large clasts of lava,
dolomite and quartzite can be traced to their
present-day sources in the north. Unit consists
of grounding line melt-out and lodgement
deposits (Visser, 1983).

fictite

Unit 5
~lt

E~
t

,_

700 km

I c e - r a f t e d d e b r i s in m u d r o c k

Fig.3. Schematic east west section a c r o s s the D w y k a

F o r m a t i o n i l l u s t r a t i n g the disposition of the nine genetic
i n c r e m e n t s in the s o u t h e r n p a r t of the basin fill. The
c o n t a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s are discussed in the text. Approximate scales are used.

Occurs only in the central and eastern parts

of the basin where it consists of clast-poor,
homogeneous diamictite. Clasts which are
small and angular, consist mostly of metamorphic rocks derived from an eastern source.
Deposition occurred by debris rain-out in a
possible iceberg zone (Visser, 1983).
Unit 6

Occurs only in the western part of the basin

where it consists of clast-poor to clast-rich
diamictite with abundant carbonate concretions and subordinate mudrocks. Clasts consist

382
mostly of metamorphic rocks which suggests
both a northern and an eastern source. Deposition occurred by debris rain-out beneath an ice
shelf (Visser and Loock, 1987).
Unit 7
Consists of massive, homogeneous, speckled
diamictite with deformed sandstone and granular bodies. Clast composition is very similar to
that of Unit 5. Deposition occurred by debris
rain-out, fall-out from subaqueous outwash
streams and minor resedimentation (Visser et
al., 1987).
The sedimentary contact between units 1
and 2 is mostly transitional. Unit 3 has sharp
upper and lower contacts and contains clasts
of diamictite and mudrock which suggest
erosion of lower units. The contacts between
units 4, 5 and 7 are transitional towards the
east, but in the west unit 7 overlies unit 6 with
a possible sharp contact. Unit 6 may contain
debris derived from lower units. Thus, the
presence of scarce intraformational erosion
surfaces confirms the deposition of diamicton
mostly by debris rain-out processes (cf. Anderson et al., 1984).
The contact of the glacial sequence with the
underlying bedrock is highly variable over the
Karoo Basin. Along the northern and northeastern basin margins, glaciated bedrock surfaces are commonly found. Along the western
and southeastern basin margins a thin, pebbly
sandstone layer, 0.1 to 1.5 m thick, with flutes
on top is commonly developed. Along the
southern basin margin where the glacial sequence overlies shale or mudstone, brecciation
and deformation of these rocks, over a thickness of up to 1.5 m, took place.
The transition between the platform facies
and the overlying mudrocks consists of mudrock with ice-rafted debris or stratified diamictite seldomly exceeding a metre in thickness.
However, where the valley facies association
was deposited a transition consisting of sandstone-siltstone-mudrock rhythmites, mudrock
with ice-rafted debris, and medium- and coarsegrained sandstone, up to 80 m in thickness, is

commonly present between the glacials and the

overlying mudrocks.
The stratigraphic analysis illustrates the
complex arrangement of sedimentary units
within the Dwyka Formation. These units
(genetic increments) are the direct consequence of individual ice lobes which entered
the basin from the north, east and south and
where the glaciological characteristics of the
lobes (ice thickness, grounded or afloat, level
of sediment transport, basal thermal condition)
eventually controlled sedimentation.
Geochemical evidence
Carbon and sulphur contents of the mudrocks
The organic carbon and the total sulphur
content of dark-coloured mudrocks were used
by Berner and Raiswell (1984) to distinguish
between freshwater and marine depositional
environments. Mudrocks deposited under normal marine conditions have low C/S ratios
(0.5-5), a C/S regression line with a slope of
about 0.33 and a zero intersect on the S (y) axis
(Berner and Raiswell, 1984; Leventhal, 1987).
Non-marine mudrocks have high C/S ratios
(> 10), and a positive intersect on the S axis
(Berner and Raiswell, 1984; Leventhal, 1987).
Thirty samples of interbedded mudstones
and shales in the Dwyka Formation and
twenty black shale samples from the overlying
Prince Albert Formation were analysed for
their C and S contents. Both surface and
borehole samples were studied. The surface
samples, however, yielded such inconsistent
results (probably due to oxidation of the pyrite)
that in the final analysis only the 16 borehole
samples were used (Fig.l). Of these, four
samples from the overlying Prince Albert
Formation have S contents of >1% ; seven
Dwyka samples, mostly from palaeovalleys
along the northern basin margin, have low S
contents, but > 1~/o C; and five samples from
the platform facies association have both low S
and C contents.
A plot of the four samples from the postglacial mudrocks, although statistically insig-

383
nificant, indicates a C/S ratio of < 2, a slope for
the regression line of 0.32 and a line intersect
on the S axis of 1.37 (Fig.4A). Thus, except for
the positive intersect, the data correspond with
marine mud deposition. The positive S intercept suggests euxinic bottom conditions with
H2S-laden water being present (Leventhal,
1987). These anomalous results may indicate a
higher input of organic carbon than in modern
marine sedimentation and that pyrite formation in the sediments was iron-limited
(Raiswell and Berner, 1985). A plot of the
twelve samples from mudrocks within the
glacial sequence shows an extremely flat
regression line with a slope of 0.058 (statistically significant at the 90% level) and an
intersect on the S axis of 0.05 (Fig.4B). The
samples have a C/S ratio of between 5 and 30
which suggests possible brackish conditions
during deposition of the muds. Berner (1987)
found that Permo-Carboniferous mudrocks
show overall very high mean C/S ratios which
he attributed to a higher vascular land plant
debris input or increased marine production of
organic material.
The results of the C/S ratio study of interbedded mudrocks in the diamictite sequence
are largely inconclusive. However, conditions
after retreat of the ice were probably marine
with deposition in a deep basin characterised
by H2S-saturated bottom water layers.

Iron and manganese contents of the diamictites

According to Frakes and Crowell (1975)
diamictons deposited under marine conditions
would be depleted in Fe in comparison to their
equivalents deposited on land. This is largely
as a result of deposition in a comparatively
reduced environment (Frakes, 1985). In twelve
new analyses from the Dwyka Formation,
together with those of Frakes and Crowell
(1975) from the Karoo Basin (Figs.1 and 5),
distinction was made between samples from
the platform and from the valley facies associations, and samples from sequences containing
marine fossils.
All samples from the platform facies associa-

tion plot in the glacial marine field, as well as

all the samples, except for one, from the valley
facies association (Fig.5). This one sample
plots in the non-marine field. The mineralogy
of the diamictites also has an important
influence on where they plot. Two valley
samples with high Mn contents contain about
15% dolomite fragments, whereas samples of
known lodgement diamictite overlying the
glacial pavements at Nooitgedacht were not
included in the analysis as they are too highly
ferruginised.
The Fe/Mn ratios suggest deposition primarily in a marine environment, whereas the
C/S ratios of the interbedded mudrocks are
indicative of possible brackish conditions
which may be attributed to a high influx of
meltwater during the interglacial periods.
Thus the geochemistry of the glacial and
related rocks does not give positive evidence
for marine conditions in the Dwyka Basin.
However, the geochemistry of the mudrocks
immediately overlying the glacial beds indicates marine conditions which are confirmed
by the palaeontology.

Palaeontological evidence
Macrofossils have not yet been found in the
diamictites of the Dwyka Formation in the
Karoo Basin, and so far only microfossils of
marine origin (spores and acritarchs) have
been described (Anderson, 1977; Stapleton,
1977) from mudrocks interbedded with the
diamictites (Fig.6). However, abundant marine
fossils [pelecypods (Eurydesma), gastropods
(Peruvispira), cephalopods, crinoids, asteroideans, echinoids, molluscs, foraminifera and
radiolaria] occur in a prominent mudrock unit
within the Dwyka Formation in the Kalahari
and Warmbad Basins in Namibia (Martin and
Wilczewski, 1970) as well as in debris-flow
diamictites overlying the mudrock unit.
Fossils not diagnostic of any particular
environment, are also described from the
Dwyka Formation. Arthropod trackways and
fish trails are abundant on interbedded mudrocks, siltstones and fine-grained sandstones

384

~,~!fwith

4.4

Slope = 0,32
r=

4.0

t~

~~

~I?

~ . / ~ ~

Whitehill Fm

3.O

o
nf/-~r
~ince Albert

A ~

2.0
ii_i~Im above glacial sequenc:e I

1.4

5
~i~Organic C

[]

0.45-

0,4

Z11Ii

0,3

\
~-

~/

0,2

[]

~//

--

"

[]
S'~Pe-- O'OS8
r

0,1

'0

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121
I

Organic C
Fig.4. Contents of organic carbon (C) and total sulphur (S) of mudrocks associated with the glacigene Dwyka Formation. A.
Plot of four mudrock beds overlying the glacial sequence. B. Plot of twelve mudrock beds within the glacial sequence.
Fm= Formation; r = correlation coefficient with degrees of freedom. Plot A is statistically insignificant; plot B is statistically
significant at 90% level.
( A n d e r s o n , 1975, 1981). T h e c o m m o n a s s o c i a tion of these tracks with marine fossils in the
Warmbad Basin may suggest a relationship
between some arthropods and marine condi-

t i o n s . S c a r c e p l a n t r e m a i n s ( l y c o p o d s , Noeggera thiopsis, Glossopteris a n d Protogangamopteris) w e r e t r a p p e d a m o n g s t b o u l d e r s i n t h e

diamictite and in arenaceous and argillaceous

385

....--"~" ""

Subdivision after
Frakes and Crowel

f~(~;~

(1975)

)~ )~

-II4.

Ix

-m-.m

k-

Diamictite with a
dolomite source

Ix

Ix

G
-I-

[]

~Marine

0.1

0.2

macrofossils

0.3

0.4

0.5

Mn ( w t % )
Fig.5. Plot of i r o n (Fe) a n d m a n g a n e s e (Mn) c o n t e n t s of d i a m i c t i t e s from t h e D w y k a F o r m a t i o n . m / ~ = p l a t f o r m facies
sample, ~1~/~( = v a l l e y facies s a m p l e , - l - = s a m p l e from s e q u e n c e s w i t h m a r i n e micro- or m a c r o f o s s i l s , = r e s u l t s of F r a k e s
a n d Crowell (1975).

beds (Theron and Blignault, 1975; Anderson

and McLachlan, 1976).
Immediately above the Dwyka Formation
marine macrofossils (cephalopods, lamellibranchs and brachiopods) were found along
the northern basin margin (McLachlan and
Anderson, 1973), whereas the remains of a
fossil shark (Oelofsen, 1986) and marine microfossils (sponge spicules, foraminifera, radiolaria and acritarchs) were recorded along the
southern basin margin (Fig.6). A wide variety
of plant remains, arthropods, vertebrate remains and trackways which are not diagnostic
regarding palaeo-environment, were found in
the mudrock sequence conformably overlying
the diamictites.
According to the fossil study marine conditions, at least on a limited scale, existed in the
Dwyka Basin during glaciation as well as
thereafter (Fig.6). The absence of macrofossils
in mudrocks interbedded within the diamictites in the Dwyka Basin may be attributed to

unfavourable living conditions (absence of a

shallow shoreline facies and toxic bottom
conditions with the presence of H2S) and poor
preservation of organic material in the bottom
sediments.
Conclusions

There is sui~icient geochemical and palaeontological evidence for marine conditions during the last phase of glacial deposition in the
Dwyka Basin. Rain-out diamicton and subaqueous outwash sediment were deposited
almost at the base of the glacial sequence in
the southwestern sector of the Karoo Basin
(Visser and Loock, 1987). The correspondence
between sea-level fluctuations in the Karoo
Basin and the second order global eustatic
curve of Vail et al. (1977) also indicates a
connection between the Dwyka Basin and the
palaeo-Pacific Ocean since the mid-Carboniferous, and it was only during the termination of

386

NAMIBIA

""

~' M O C A M B I Q U E
L

I \e.,~ x
/
/

SWANA

LC!
-

. " / . ""

,,
',

..}

"

RSA

P(i~

.:

-II..o~'~/l:,
, I~...L.
" &~'::
:
'I

WITHIN DWYKA FM

p,

..

Marine macroand microfossils

AM Marine micro-

Kuruman
u

N
f)

: ..... ',:1

fossils only

BloemfonteL,~ '2~

oF Fish

~ ~!.."sp r~ng;-S ;;~'rmbad

oo-

~."

ditions
glacial
tion

during \
~
.
deposi- X " " ? ' ~ " ~
I'.~'~'L
...
........... 'I ' "

:J

Plant

oT

Arthropod
trackways

ABOVE THE
DWYKA FM

,"

I~

remains

,.

[ '"l/Marineafter
cnditions- )[~__-~
~'~-~I'~'~
II~M~~I~--~glacial deposition ~ - F ~ [ ' . ;

remains

oP

Beaufort West

Marine macroand micro-

-~q. ,

fossils
Cape

Towr
0

500 km

Other fossils

Fig.6. Fossil distribution within and immediately above the Dwyka Formation. The possible extent of marine conditions in
the basin, based on the palaeontological evidence, is shown.
the g l a c i a t i o n that differences in sea-level
b e h a v i o u r became evident (Fig.7). There is
thus good r e a s o n to believe that marine
c o n d i t i o n s existed in part of the D w y k a Basin
since its inception.
The e x i s t e n c e of a s h a l l o w sea arm b e t w e e n
s o u t h e r n Africa and S o u t h A m e r i c a for the late
P a l a e o z o i c had been already a d v o c a t e d by
Martin in 1975. This sea m a y h a v e been a
r e m n a n t of the earlier l o w e r Carboniferous sea
in w h i c h the last of the Cape Group sediments
were deposited (Visser, 1983, 1987), and w h i c h
was severely affected in size by the midCarboniferous ( N a m u r i a n ) global regression
(cf. V e e v e r s and Powell, 1987). D u r i n g the
W e s t p h a l i a n a minor transgression, corresponding with transgressions in N o r t h A m e r i c a
and Russia (Veevers and Powell, 1987), occurred and the western part of the D w y k a Basin
was probably inundated (Fig.6).
Small isolated ice-spreading centres had

SEA-LEVEL

CHANGES

T~ME

SCALE
(MA)
=

KARO0
RISE ~

BASIN
~ FALL

GLOBAL
RI SE
FALL

250-

EURYDESMA

,,

TRANSCRESSION

'

Q:

,,

oo

3oo.

I
I

,~

DEPOSITION OF i~

DWYKAFORMATION~

t'
77

N A ' N U R ' . ~ N -

.....

~RES:

z
oz
mo

o~
c~d

,: :7:T:
R:E : ~ : i :0. i g
I2

.
350-

I
I
I
1
I

I
I
I
I
I

Fig.7. Sea-level fluctuations in the Karoo Basin as

compared with global eustatic changes (second order curve
of Vail et al., 1977). Ages of eustatic events and PermoCarboniferous glaciation after Veevers and Powell (1987)
and of the Dwyka deposition after Loock and Visser (1985).

387
been present over southwestern Gondwana
since the late Devonian (Veevers and Powell,
1987). However, during the Westphalian icespreading centres towards the south and nor t h
of the Dwyka Basin experienced uncontrolled
growth and ice lobes from these centres
entered the basin to form a coalesced ice
cover. An ice lobe from an eastern spreading
centre only became of importance in the basin
later on.

(1) Grounded ice sheet model

The initial ice advance, probably extending
up to the western margin of the basin, was
grounded, even below sea-level, as is indicated
by the erosion and deformation of the bedrock.
The glacial setting was predominantly polar to
account for the growth in the ice sheet.
Climatic amelioration increased glacial erosion over the highlands, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of the
eroded debris took place basinwards and a
complex sequence of advances and retreats of
the ice front resulted in the deposition of
predominantly lodgement diamicton over the
western half of the basin (Fig.8A, B).

instability of the combined ice front. In areas

of increased iceberg calving surging conditions
(cf. Stuiver et al., 1981) probably occurred
which resulted in increased sedimentation
rates and the build-up of piles of ice-rafted
debris subsequently resedimented by gravity
flows on the basin floor.

(3) Disintegration ice sheet model

A sudden rise in sea-level associated with the
Eurydesma transgression (Fig.7) caused the
drastic decoupling of the ice sheet and its
rapid disintegration over the platform during
a temperate setting. Only a very thin zone
of bergstone mud was deposited over the
platform during rapid ice retreat, but along
the n o r t h e r n basin margin tidewater glaciers,
debris-loaded icebergs and subaqueous meltwater streams deposited a thick unit of massive
and stratified diamicton, subaqueous outwash
sediments, bergstone mud and dark-coloured
muds. Simultaneously marine muds accumulated in relatively deep water over the largest
part of the Dwyka Basin. Final r e t r e a t of the
ice onto the highlands resulted in the formation of small ice caps (Fig.8D).

(2) Floating ice model

The basin floor was isostatically depressed
well below sea-level by the weight of the ice
and rising sea-levels led to the decoupling of
t h i n n e r sections of the ice sheet with the
formation of ice shelves in those regions. This
was the major depositional phase in the basin
with sedimentation primarily by rain-out from
narrow ice shelves and icebergs (Fig.8C). The
ice shelves were maintained by ice streams
causing selective erosion in the highlands and
supplying debris to the ice shelves (cf. Alley
et al., 1986). Subordinate deposition of ice
grounding line diamictons and subaqueous
outwash sands also occurred (Visser et al.,
1987). The position of the ice front experienced
large fluctuations which can be attributed to
major eustatic changes, as well as changes in
the ice budgets of the three spreading centres
with time causing interference and subsequent

Implications for a Permo-Carboniferous

conceptual ice sheet model
A marine ice sheet is defined as one which is
grounded on a bedrock surface originally
below sea-level, occurs on a continent-wide
scale, may have large ice shelves, and where
glaciers deliver sediment to the depository
(Thomas and Bentley, 1978; Anderson et al.,
1983). The presence of widespread marine
conditions, grounded ice and ice shelves in the
Dwyka Basin and the scale of the glaciation
within the basin thus suggest the existence of a
Permo-Carboniferous marine ice sheet. In the
same m a n n e r as the present West Antarctic Ice
Sheet does not represent a finite model for a
marine ice sheet as it only applies to the
existing climatic situation, the Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet only became marine after
isostatic adjustment under ice load in the basin.

388
NE

SW
Ice cap
Proglacial sedimentation
Preglacial erosion

C~'a~ ~

Highlands

~ ,

" g lac l
Fluvlo
F
~//
ia
~
~'--'~' -
+ ~

sedimentation
Sea-level
i

Platform (mostly s e d i m e n t a r y ~ "

rocks of the Cape Supergroup)

acific
~- - s e Palaeoa
arm

Expanding marine
ice sheet
Sea-level

Marine s e d i m e n t a t i o n
~

Isostatic

a d j u s t m e n t on p l a t f o r m ~

Marine ice sheet

~

stream

Ice shelf
I

Dwindling
ice cap

Icebergs

500 km

Drowned
a-level

D
LUIIIId L iurl!

I
[ ~

Black mudrocks
Stratified diamictite and dropstone argi} ite
Diamictite and outwash sediments - continental facies
Massive diamictite - marine facies

Fig.8. Stages in the growth and disintegration of the Permo-Carboniferous marine ice sheet in the Dwyka Basin. A. Ice cap
stage and early Westphalian marine transgression. B. Grounded marine ice sheet stage. Major erosion and subsidence in
basin. C. Major depositiona] stage (lodgement of debris and melt-out of ice-rafted debris seaward of ice grounding line).
Fluctuating ice front. D. Dwindling ice cap stage and Artinskian marine deposition.

No finite model c a n be defined for the

g l a c i a t i o n in the D w y k a Basin. As a n y model
depends on a n u m b e r of v a r i a b l e s o p e r a t i n g
w i t h i n the basin, the spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
p o s t u l a t e d P e r m o - C a r b o n i f e r o u s m a r i n e ice

sheet applies only to t h a t s e c t o r of the ice

c o v e r a l o n g the n o r t h e r n m a r g i n of the D w y k a
Basin (the p a r t included in the s t r u c t u r a l
K a r o o Basin). However, the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in
glacial deposits from o t h e r s o u t h w e s t e r n

389
G o n d w a n a basins, m a y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e comp l i m e n t a r y g l a c i a t i o n models defined for t h e
D w y k a B a s i n (i.e. g r o u n d e d a n d floating
m a r i n e ice s h e e t a n d t i d e w a t e r glaciers) c a n
p r o b a b l y also be applied on a m u c h w i d e r scale.
P a l a e o m a g n e t i c d a t a a n d the wide l a t e r a l
e x t e n t of s y n c h r o n o u s g l a c i a l d e p o s i t i o n in
b a s i n s a l o n g the p a l a e o - P a c i f i c m a r g i n of
s o u t h w e s t e r n G o n d w a n a (cf. V e e v e r s and
Powell, 1987) suggest, for at l e a s t the D w y k a
Basin, a m i d - l a t i t u d i n a l s e t t i n g (40-75S).
S u c h a setting, u n d e r p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
w o u l d h a v e f a v o u r e d t e m p e r a t e g l a c i a l condit i o n s w i t h o u t the p r e s e n c e of ice shelves.
H o w e v e r , the t h i c k g e n e t i c i n c r e m e n t s consisting of m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e s w i t h a limited
m e l t w a t e r s e d i m e n t i n p u t so c o m m o n in
a n c i e n t glacial sequences, s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t
d e p o s i t i o n by r a i n - o u t f r o m " w a r m - b a s e d ice
s h e l v e s " (cf. Visser et al., 1987; Eyles, 1988).
M i d - l a t i t u d i n a l m a r i n e ice sheets w e r e m u c h
m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to: (1) c h a n g e s in t e c t o n i c
setting; (2) c l i m a t i c fluctuations; a n d (3) fluctua t i o n s in sea-level.
I n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e ice lobes w h i c h e n t e r e d
the b a s i n c r e a t e d an i n h e r e n t l y u n s t a b l e ice
cover with different basal velocities and
b o u n d i n g conditions. I n s t a b i l i t y of the grounding line m i g h t h a v e r e s u l t e d in r u n - a - w a y
p r o c e s s e s in w h i c h the m a r i n e ice s h e e t
c o m p l e t e l y c o l l a p s e d or e x p a n d e d to the edge
of the c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f (cf. M u s z y n s k i a n d
Birchfield, 1987) l e a d i n g to m o r e v i g o r o u s
s e d i m e n t a t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h e r e n a r r o w ice
shelves w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a r i n e ice
s h e e t in the b a s i n c o n d i t i o n s p e r s i s t i n g u n d e r
ice shelves, m i g h t h a v e b e e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
different f r o m p o l a r s e t t i n g s (Eyles et al., 1985;
B o u l t o n et al., 1985).
A n c i e n t m i d - l a t i t u d i n a l ice s h e e t s t h e r e f o r e
c a n n o t be s i m p l y defined as e i t h e r " p o l a r " or
" t e m p e r a t e " . In the case of t h e D w y k a B a s i n it
was o n l y d u r i n g the initial s t a g e s t h a t possible
p o l a r c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l e d , b u t for t h e l a r g e s t
p a r t of t h e glacial h i s t o r y of t h e b a s i n conditions c a n best be defined as " s u b p o l a r " . T h u s
in the m o d e l l i n g of a n c i e n t g l a c i a t i o n s w h e r e
the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the different p h a s e s of

g l a c i a t i o n b e c o m e s obscure, the a p p l i c a t i o n of
the t e r m s " p o l a r " a n d " t e m p e r a t e " is presumptuous. F u r t h e r m o r e , the e x i s t e n c e of a m a r i n e
ice s h e e t d e p o s i t i o n a l model c a n n o t be i n f e r r e d
on the sole p r e s e n c e of extensive, m a s s i v e
d i a m i c t i t e s a n d glacial s e d i m e n t a t i o n at h i g h
latitudes. T h e a b s e n c e of m a r i n e fossils in
older s e q u e n c e s f u r t h e r a g g r a v a t e s the problem. U n d e r s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s the r e c o n s t r u c tion of the p a l a e o g e o g r a p h y , the r e c o g n i t i o n of
m a r i n e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g g l a c i a t i o n and the
scale of g l a c i a t i o n m a y s u p p l y the n e c e s s a r y
answers.

Acknowledgments
T h e a u t h o r wishes to t h a n k Vic v o n B r u n n
for helpful d i s c u s s i o n s on the D w y k a Format i o n in the past, a n d Dr. Willem v a n der
W e s t h u i z e n a n d the G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y of
S o u t h A f r i c a for t h e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s of the
d i a m i c t i t e s a n d t h e m u d r o c k s . F i n a n c i a l assista n c e for the p r o j e c t by the CSIR a n d the
U n i v e r s i t y of the O r a n g e F r e e S t a t e is gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h i s p a p e r is a c o n t r i b u t i o n to I G C P P r o j e c t 260 ( E a r t h ' s G l a c i a l
Record).

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