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Monday,April27,2009

AFRMS
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FreeEbookofInvertebratesbyCambridge

FreeEbookofInvertebratesByJanetMoore(AnIntroductiontoInvertebrates)
Thisisalinktoebookofinvertebratezoolgy.Itcantainsallthephylums.Hopeitshelpful.
ClickHere.
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Coelenterata

PhylumCoelenterataPresentationwithbriefclassification
Checkthis
CoralReefPresentationwithtypes.
Clickhere
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coralreef

Coralreefs
Coralreefsarewarm,clear,shallowoceanhabitatsthatarerichinlife.Thereef'smassivestructure
isformedfromcoralpolyps,tinyanimalsthatliveincolonieswhencoralpolypsdie,theyleave
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behindahard,stony,branchingstructuremadeoflimestone.

Thecoralprovidesshelterformanyanimalsinthiscomplexhabitat,includingsponges,nudibranchs,
fish(likeBlacktipReefSharks,groupers,clownfish,eels,parrotfish,snapper,andscorpionfish),
jellyfish,anemones,seastars(includingthedestructiveCrownofThorns),crustaceans(likecrabs,
shrimp,andlobsters),turtles,seasnakes,snails,andmollusks(likeoctopuses,nautilus,andclams).
Birdsalsofeastoncoralreefanimals.

TypesofCorals:Therearetwotypesofcoral,hardcoralandsoftcoral.Hardcorals(likebraincoral
andelkhorncoral)havehard,limestoneskeletonswhichformthebasisofcoralreefs.Softcorals
(likeseafingersandseawhips)donotbuildreefs.

WhereareCoralReefs?:Coralreefsdevelopinshallow,warmwater,usuallynearland,andmostly
inthetropicscoralprefertemperaturesbetween70and85F(2130C).Therearecoralreefsoff
theeasterncoastofAfrica,offthesoutherncoastofIndia,intheRedSea,andoffthecoastsof
northeastandnorthwestAustraliaandontoPolynesia.Therearealsocoralreefsoffthecoastof
Florida,USA,totheCaribbean,anddowntoBrazil.

TheGreatBarrierReef(offthecoastofNEAustralia)isthelargestcoralreefintheworld.Itisover
1,257miles(2000km)long.
TypesofReefs:Thedifferenttypesofreefsinclude:
Fringingreefsarereefsthatformalongacoastline.Theygrowonthecontinentalshelfin
shallowwater.
Barrierreefsgrowparalleltoshorelines,butfartherout,usuallyseparatedfromthelandbya
deeplagoon.Theyarecalledbarrierreefsbecausetheyformabarrierbetweenthelagoonand
theseas,impedingnavigation.
CoralAtollsareringsofcoralthatgrowontopofold,sunkenvolcanoesintheocean.They
beginasfringereefssurroundingavolcanicislandthen,asthevolcanosinks,thereef
continuestogrow,andeventuallyonlythereefremains.
CoralReefsinDanger:Manycoralreefsaredying.Majorthreatstocoralreefsarewaterpollution
(fromsewageandagriculturalrunoff),dredgingoffthecoast,carelesscollectingofcoralspecimens,
andsedimentation(whensiltorsandfromconstructionorminingprojectsmuddiesthewatersofa
reefandkillscoral,whichneedslighttolive).

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Nematocyst

WhatisaNematocyst?

NematocystsareuniquetothephylumCnidaria(=Coelenterata)
Nematocystsareindividualcellsusuallyontheoutersurfaceoftheorganismwhichhavea
varietyoffunctions,mostusuallyindefenceorcaptureofpreyspecies.Thesecellsareknownas
stingingcellssometimesusedtoinjecttoxinswhichinsomecasesaretoxictoman.
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Nematocystscanbespecialisedtocarryoutanumberoffunctionswithintheorganismthese
includeStickingtosurfacesandwrappingaroundobjects,Penetratingsurfacesorsecreting
proteinaceoustoxins.Thesefunctionsareusedinfoodcollection,defenseandtosomeextent,
locomotion.

Nematocystsareusuallymostabundantonthefeedingtentaclesofallspecies,andwithinthe
digestivecavityofsomespecies.Theindividualnematocystrarelyexceed50um(microns)in
size,butisthegreatnumberthatmakethemeffectiveinprovidingprotectionorasamethodto
captureandstunpreyspecies.

Thesecellsarealsoimportanttothebiologistinindividualspeciesrecognition.

Nematocystdischargeistriggeredbydirectcontactorotherexternalstimulus.Oncethecellis
dischargedanewnematocystisformedasthemechanismineachcellcanonlybetriggered
once.

LasteditedbyViceroyWednesday,April29,2009at01:11PM.Reason:formatting

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PhylumPlatyhelmenthis

ThePhylumPlatyhelminthes

Etymology:FromtheGreekplatyforflatandhelminthesforworms,
HenceFlatWorms.
CharacteristicsofPlatyhelminthes:
1)Bilaterallysymmetrical.
2)Bodyhaving3layersoftissueswithorgansandorganelles.
3)Bodycontainsnointernalcavity.
4)Possessesablindgut(i.e.ithasamouthbutnoanus)
5)HasProtonephridialexcretoryorgansinsteadofananus.
6)Hasnormallyanervoussystemoflongitudinalfibresratherthananet.
7)Generallydorsoventrallyflattened.
8)Reproductionmostlysexualashermaphrodites.
9)Mostlytheyfeedonanimalsandothersmallerlifeforms.
10)Somespeciesoccurinallmajorhabitats,includingmanyasparasitesofotheranimals.
Platyhelminthes=Flatworms

Platyhelminthesareanancientphylum,butpracticallynothingisknownoftheirevolutionaryhistory
becausetheyhaveverysoftbodieswhichdonotpreservewellasfossils.Scientistsbelievethatthefirst
turbellariansevolvedaround550MYA(millionyearsago).
Platyhelminthesaremostlywormlikecreaturesthataredorsoventrallyflattened,meaningtheylooklikea
ribbon,thisiswhytheyarecallednamessuchasTapeworm,Flatworm,FlukeandPlanarian.
ThePlatyhelminthesareasuccessfulphylumwitharound25,000knownspeciesdividedintofourclasses.
MostPlatyhelminthesareparasitesonotheranimals,onlytheTurbellariansaremostlynonparasitic.Afew
speciesarecommensalistslivinginharmony,ormutualbenefitwithanother,normallylargerorganism.
Mostspeciesfeedonanimalmaterialeitherasparasitesorasscavengers,averyfewspeciesfeedonalgae.
Althoughafewofthefreelivingmarineandterrestrialspeciesareverybeautiful,mostspeciesarenot
particularlyattractivetothehumanmind.
Platyhelmintheslivenearlyeverywhere,onland,inbothfreshandmarinewatersaswellasinsideother
animals.Mostofthefreelivingspeciesaremarinewithonlyasmallnumberinhabitingfreshwaterand
veryfewbeingterrestrial.Parasiticspeciesnormallymovebetweendifferenthabitatsastheychangelife
cyclestagesandhosts.Anumberofparasiticspeciesareofimportancetomankindbecausetheyinfect
eitherourbodiesorthebodiesofourlivestock.Afewspeciescanbefataltohumansifnottreated,but
nearlyallspeciescanbetreatedwithmodernmedicines.Schistosomiasis(Bilharzia)isthemostimportant
platyhelminthdiseaseofhumans,causingmuchsufferingandsomedeath,over200millionpeopleare
infectedwiththecausativeagentintropicalcountries.
WhiletheyremainfairlymorphologicallysimplethePlatyhelminthesshowseveraladvanceinbody
structureoverthesimpleradialphylathatcamebeforethem.Theyhaveadefinitecongregationofof
sensoryorgans(afewhavelightsensingorgans)andnervoustissuesatoneendoftheirbodygivingthema
distinctheadandtail.Theyalsohavedistinctupperandlower(dorsalandventral)bodysurfaces.They
haveanumberoforgansandeventhebeginningsoforgansystemsandamoredistinct3rdlayerofcellsin
theirbodyplan.Theevolutionofthisconnectivetissue,calledparenchyma,thecellsofwhichserveas
storagereservoirsaswellasprotectingtheinternalorgans,isamajorstepforwardtowardthemore
complexbodyplansofhigheranimals,suchashumans.
Howevertheystillnoanus,insteadtheyhaveonlyablindendinggut,ornogutatall.Thosespecieswitha
gutmustthereforeexcretetheredigestivewasteproductsthroughtheirmouths.
Classification

ThehigherclassificationofthePlatyhelminthes,isaswithsomanyothergroups,inastateofconfusion,
andthereislittleconsensusofopinionamongtheexperts.TheschemeIhaveusedherewillsufficeto
breakthephylumintosmaller,moremanageablegroupsandwillbesatisfactoryforteachingatsecondary
levelsprovidingsomementionismadeoftheinherentdisharmonyinexpertopinion.Howeverifyouare
consideringresearchwork,orwritingasanundergraduateyoushouldseekoutandreadthelatestscientific
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papers.ThereisageneralconsensusconcerningtheclassesTurbellariaandCestoda,howeverthe
Monogenea,DigeneaandtheAspidobothriansaresomewhatconfusing,youwillfindthemallincludedin
theClassTrematoda,andallgivenclassstatusintheirownright,andinschemes,likethatwhichIhave
usedhere,thatareamixtureofthesetwoextremes.

PhylumPlatyhelminthes
ClassTurbellaria
ClassMonogenea
ClassTrematoda

ClassCestoda

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PhylumPlatyhelminthes

PhylumPlatyhelminthes
ThisisalinktoPowerpointPresentation
Clickhere
Thisisalinktopdffile,allrelatedtoFlatworms.
Checkthis
regards
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Thelifecycleoftheliverfluke:

Thelifecycleoftheliverfluke:
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Theadultflukes(Fasciolahepatica:upto30mmby13mmF.gigantica:upto75mm)reside
inthelargebiliaryductsofthemammalianhost.Immatureeggsaredischargedinthebiliary
ductsandinthestool.
Afterdevelopmentinwater,eacheggreleasesamiracidiumwhichinvadesasuitablesnail
intermediatehost.
Inthesnailtheparasitesundergoseveraldevelopmentalstages(sporocysts,rediae,and
cercariae).
Thecercariaearereleasedfromthesnailandencystasmetacercariaeonaquaticvegetationor
othersurfaces.
Mammalsacquiretheinfectionbyeatingvegetationcontainingmetacercariae.
Afteringestion,themetacercariaeexcystintheduodenumandmigratethroughtheintestinal
wall,theperitonealcavityandtheliverparenchymaintothebiliaryducts,wheretheydevelop
intoadults.
Fasciolahepaticainfectvariousanimalspecies,mostlyherbivores.
Humanscanbecomeinfectedbyingestingmetacercariaecontainingfreshwaterplants,
especiallywatercress.
Inhumans,maturationfrommetacercariaeintoadultflukestakesapproximately3to4months.

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ParasiticAdaptationsinHelminths

PhylumPlatyhelminthes
ParasiticAdaptationsinHelminths
Checkthislinkforparasiticmodificationinflatworms,reproductionandlifecycles.
ClickHere
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ImportanceofTrematodes

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Significancetohumans
Trematodesposeasignificanthealththreattohumans,particularlythoselivingin
developingcountries.Acommonillnessindevelopingcountriesisschistosomiasis.
Thiscondition,causedbythreespeciesofSchistosoma,affectsmorethan40million
individualswholiveintropicalandsubtropicalcountries,causingweakness,diarrhea,
hemorrhage,fever,enlargementofthespleen,andotherseveresymptoms.
Othertrematodesalsoinfecthumans,includingthetrematodeOpisthorchis,whichis
transmittedtohumansthrougheatinginfectedfishes.PrevalentinpartsofRussia,
theflukecurrentlyinfects1.2millionpeople,whichismorethan4percentofthe
region'spopulation.
Thecostfortreatmentofhumanflukeinfectionsrangesintobillionsofdollars,inpart
becausetheseconditionsarefrequentlymisdiagnosed.Treatmentforinfectionby
suchorganismsasParagonimusspeciescostsabout$1,butthepatient'sillnessis
oftenmisinterpretedastuberculosis,whichcallsforyearsofexpensivetreatment.
Trematodesthatinfectsuchhouseholdpetsasrabbits,dogs,andcatsmaycause
gastrointestinalsymptomsrequiringveterinarytreatment.Inthecaseofdogs,the
trematodeNanophyetussalmincolaorsocalledsalmonpoisoningfluke,maycausea
fataldiseaseresemblingdistemperbecauseitcarriesarickettsia(atypeof
bacterium)towhichdogsaresusceptible.Therickettsia,however,doesnotproduce
clinicaldiseaseineitherhumansorcats.
Trematodescanalsoinfectlivestock,sportandcommercialfishes,andgame
mammals,whichcanhavenegativeeconomicimpactsonagriculture,sportfishing,
andcommercialfishing.
HumaninfectionsaremostcommonintheOrient,Africa,SouthAmerica,ortheMiddleEast.
However,trematodescanbefoundanywherethathumanwasteisusedasfertilizer.
Trematodesarecommonlyreferredtoasflukes.Thistermcanbetracedbacktothe
SaxonnameforFlounder,andreferstotheflattened,rhomboidalshapeoftheworms.
TherearenoknowncasesofhumaninfectionwithAspidogastreans,thereforethe
useoftheterm"fluke"inrelationtohumaninfectionreferssolelytodigenean
infections.
Theflukescanbeclassifiedintotwogroups,onthebasisofthesystemwhichthey
infect.Tissueflukes,arespecieswhichinfectthebileducts,lungs,orother
biologicaltissues.Thisgroupincludesthelungfluke,Paragonimuswestermani,and
theliverflukes,ClonorchissinensisandFasciolahepatica.Theothergroupareknown
asbloodflukes,andinhabitthebloodinsomestagesoftheirlifecycle.
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PhylumAschelminthes

PhylumAschelminthes

Averylargeandheterogeneousclusterofanimalshavetraditionallybeenclassifiedtogetherinagroup
variouslyknownastheAschelminthes,Nemathelminthes,and/orPseudocoelomata.Today,theseorganisms
areclassifiedinabouttenseparatephyla.Nonetheless,itissometimesusefultoretainthename
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"Aschelminthes"tocoveralltheseorganisms.Opinionisdividedastowhetherornottheaschelminth
phylaformonemonophyleticgroup.Tomakemattersworse,differentauthorshavenotagreedonwhat
phylashouldbeconsidered"aschelminths."

Themostcommonlyrecognizedaschelminthphylaare:
Acanthocephalaspinyheadedparasiticwormsabout1150speciesknown
Chaetognathaarrowwormsabout70speciesknown.
Cycliophoracycliophorans1speciesknown,microscopic
Gastrotrichagastrotrichsabout430speciesknown,allmicroscopic
Kinorhynchakinorhynchsabout150speciesknown,allmicroscopic
Loriciferaloriciferansabout10speciesdescribed,allmicroscopic
Nematodanematodesorroundwormsabout12,000speciesknown,butanestimated200,000+
speciesextant,mostlymicroscopic
Nematomorphahorsehairwormsabout320speciesknown
Priapulidapriapulidworms16speciesknown,abuthalfmicroscopic
Rotiferarotifersor"wheelanimalcules"about1500speciesknown,allmicroscopic
Ofthese,probablythemostfamiliaristheNematoda.Nematodesmakeupthesecondmostdiverseanimal
phylum,secondonlytothearthropods.Freelivingnematodesareexteremelyabundantinsoilsand
sediments,wheretheyfeedonbacteriaanddetritus.Othernematodesareplantparasitesandmaycause
diseaseineconomicallyimportantcrops.Stillothersparasitizeanimals(includinghumans)wellknown
parasiticnematodesincludehookworms,pinworms,Guineaworm(genusDracunculus),andintestinal
roundworms(genusAscaris).
Sowhat,ifanything,isanaschelminth?Mostaresoftbodiedworms,andmanyofthemaremicroscopic
infact,practicallyallmembersoftheCycliophora,Gastrotricha,Kinorhyncha,Loricifera,andRotiferaare
lessthan1millimeterlong,asaremanynematodesandpriapulids.Ontheotherhand,onespeciesof
parasiticnematodecanreach13metersinlengthitparasitizesthespermwhaleandadult
nematomorphs,chaetognaths,andsomepriapulidsarealsovisibletothenakedeye.
Aschelminthsusedtobereferredtoas"pseudocoelomates"analternativenameforthetaxonis
Pseudocoelomatabecauseoftheirsupposedsharedinternalstructure.Truecoelomateshaveafluidfilled
bodycavity,thecoelom,thatsurroundsthegutthiscavityexistswithinthemiddletissuelayer,the
mesoderm,andthegutissuspendedwithinitbysheetsoftissueknownasmesenteries.
"Pseudocoelomates"mayalsohaveabodycavityaroundthegutinsome(e.g.thegastrotrichs)itis
extremelysmall,whileinothers(e.g.nematodesandpriapulids)itmaybequiteextensive.Thiscavityhas
traditionallynotbeenconsideredatruecoelom,becauseitsupposedlydoesnotexistwithinthemesoderm,
truemesenteriesarenotpresent,anditsdevelopmentintheembryoisquitedifferent.However,this
dichotomybetween"coelomates"and"pseudocoelomates"appearstobefalse.Afulldiscussionofthis
issueisbeyondthescopeofthisexhibitsufficeittosaythatsometraditional"coelomates"andsome
traditional"pseudocoelomates"donotfittheirtraditionaldefinitions.Bodycavitiesdevelopinseveral
differentwaysandperformmanydifferentfunctionswithintheanimalkingdom.
Anumberofaschelminthsareparasitic,includingtheAcanthocephala,whichparasitizevertebratesthe
Nematomorpha,whichparasitizeinsectsandotherarthropodsandtheNematoda,whichincludeparasites
ofplantsandanimalsaswellasmanynonparasitic,freelivingspecies.Freeliving,microscopic
"aschelminths"maybeextremelycommoninmoistsoilsandfreshwatersediments(gastrotrichs,rotifers
andnematodes).Othersmayaboundinmarinesandsandmuds(gastrotrichs,kinorhynchs,loriciferans,
nematodes,priapulids,rotifers).Thearrowworms,foundinmarinewaters,aregenerallyplanktonicandcan
swimtheyarevoraciouspredatorsonotherplanktonicorganisms.Manysmallaschelminths,inparticular
manyrotifersandnematodes,areabletosuspendtheirlifeprocessescompletelywhenconditionsbecome
unfavorableintheseresistantstatestheycansurviveextremedrying,heat,orcold,andthenreturntolife
whenfavorableconditionsreturn.Thisisknownascryptobiosis.
Sinceaschelminthsalllacksubstantialhardparts,theirfossilrecordisextremelyspotty.Mostofthe
microscopicphylahavenoknownfossilrecordatall,andseemunlikelyevertobefoundasrecognizable
fossils.TheRotiferaareonlyknownasfarbackastheOligocene.Fossilnematodesareoccasionallyfound
inamber(fossilizedtreeresin)fromtheCenozoic,butpossiblefossilnematodeshavebeenfoundinolder
rocksofthemiddlePaleozoic.Theoldestknown"aschelminth"phylumisthePriapulida.These
unsegmentedwormshavebeenfoundinCambrianrocks,suchasthelegendaryBurgessShale.Priapulids,
atleast,datefromtheearliestknownevolutionaryradiationoftheanimals,andafewtracefossilssuggest
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thatnematodesmayhavebeenaroundatthetimeaswell.Evidencefromtheanatomyandgenetic
informationofliving"aschelminths"suggestthattheaschelminthphylaaremucholderthantheirsparse
fossilswouldindicate.However,noconsensushasyetbeenreachedastohowthesephylaevolvedandhow
theyarerelatedtoeachother.

RoundWormAnatomy

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