Chapter 4

Static Load:
Force which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time is
known as statics load.
Classification of Engineering Materials:
1. Ductile Material
2. Brittle Material
Ductile Material:
Material that that faces a large tensile strain before fracture takes
place is known as ductile material.
Brittle Material:
Material that goes through small strain before fracture occurs is
known as brittle material.
5% tensile strain is the dividing line between brittle and
ductile material
Proportional Limit:
The maximum stress which is developed during a simple tension
test, such that the stress is linearly proportional to the strain, is
known as proportional limit.
Elastic Limit:
The maximum stress developed during a tension test, such that
there is no permanent deformation when the load is removed, is
known as elastic limit.
Yield Point:

The stress, at which there will be increase in strain without any

further increase of stress, is known as yield point.
High C Steel & Non-ferrous materials do not show yield point.
They are determined by offset method
Brittle materials also do not show yield point
Ultimate Tensile Strength:
The maximum stress that can be endured before failure is known
as ultimate tensile strength.

Modes of Failure:
1. By elastic deflection
2. By general yielding
3. By fracture
Application:
1. Transmission Shaft Supporting Gear:
Maximum force acting on the shaft is limited by
permissible elastic deflection
Lateral/torsional rigidity considered as the criterion of
design
Elastic deflection may cause unstable conditions likeo Buckling of column
o Vibration
Components are designed on the basis of lateral/torsional
deflection
Modulus of elasticity & rigidity are important
They are determined from load-deflection equation
Stresses induced in the components are not that
important
Failure in Ductile Material:

 Due to large plastic deformation after reaching yield point

Yield Strength important property
Localized & general yielding
General Yielding:
The subjection of considerable portion of a material to plastic
deformation is known as general yielding.
Localized Yielding:
The yielding in which the region of stress concentration is
restricted to a very small portion of the component and is not
considered significant, is known as localized yielding.
Failure in Brittle Material:
Sudden fracture without any plastic deformation
Ultimate tensile strength important property

Factor of Safety:
Ensures sufficient reserve strength in case of an accident
Expressed as fs
fs=

Failure Stress
Allowable Stress

Or

fs=

Failure Load
Allowable Load

Allowable Stress:
The stress value which is used in design to determine the
dimensions of the component is known as allowable stress.

 Designers dont expect the stress to rise above it in normal

operating conditions
Expressed as

For ductile materials,

=

S yt
(fs)

Where,
Syt= Yield Strength
For brittle materials,
=

Sut
(fs)

Where,
Sut= Ultimate Strength
Factors Difficult to Determine:
Uncertainty in magnitude of external force acting on
component
Variations in properties of material
Variations in dimensions of component due to imperfect
workmanship

Magnitude of Factor of Safety depends upon Type of product

Effect of failure

 Large factor of saetyo Reduced risk

o Increased cost
Selection of fs:
Material of component
Strength criterion used to specify failure

Component
Cast Iron
Ductile
Materials(stee
l)
Ductile
Materials
Cam &
follower, gear
Piston
rod/stud

Factor
Safety
3-5

of Failure Type

1.5-2

External Static
Force

1.3-1.5

1.8-2.5

External
Fluctuating
Force
Surface Fatigue

3-6

Buckling

Criterion
Ultimate Tensile
Strength
Yield Strength

Endurance
Strength
Surface endurance
strength
Yield Strength
Modulus of
Elasticity
End condition
Radius of gyration

Hookes Law:
The stress is directly proportional to the strain, within elastic limit.
So,
=E

Where,
= Stress
= Strain

E= Elastic Modulus

&

PL
AE

Where,
P= Force
L= Length
A= Area
Assumptions:
Material is homogeneous
Load is generally applied
Line of action passes through the geometric axis of crosssection
Cross-section is uniform and free from effect of stress
concentration
Shear Stress:
When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the
adjacent planes with respect to each other, the resulting stresses
on those planes are known as direct shear stress. It is expressed
by
=

P
A

 =G

Where,
G= Modulus of Rigidity
=Shear Strain

E=2G(1+)

WHERE,
= Poissons Ratio

Permisssible Shear Stress,

=

S sy
fs

Bending Moment:
Bending Stress,
b=

MBy
I

Where,
b =Bending stress

MB= Bending Moment

I= Moment of inertia of cross-section about neutral axis
Torsional Shear Stress:
The stresses which are induced to resist the action of twist, are
nown as torsional shear stresses.

MT r
J

Where,
MT= Applied torque
r= Radial Distance from axis of rotation
J= Polar moment of inertia of cross-section about axis of rotation
& Angle of twist,
=

MT l
GJ

Relation between power transmitted & speed of rotation:

kW =

2 n M T
60 10 6

Where,
n= Speed of rotation
MT = Torque

Eccentric Loading:
The load that does not go through the centroid of the crosssection is known as eccentric load.
P Pey
Stress due to it, = A I

Maximum Normal Stress Theory:

The failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or

tri-axial stresses occur when the maximum normal stress reaches
the yield or ultimate strength of the material.
If 1 , 2 , 3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the
component and
1 > 2

> 3

Then according to this theory, failure occurs when 1=S yt

Or,

Done by W.J.M Rankine

Considers only the maximum principal stress
Disregards the other two principal stresses
The dimensions of the component are determined by using
factor of safety

For tensile stress,

=

S yt
(fs)
S

ut
Or = (fs)

For compressive stress,

=

1=S ut

S yc
(fs)

Or

Suc
(fs)

Maximum-Shear Stress Theory:

Failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or triaxial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any
point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear
stress in the standard specimen of the simple tension test, when
yielding starts
Or, The yield strength in shear is half the yield strength in tension.
So,
max =

1
2

When specimen is yielding,

1=S yt

So,
max =

S yt
2

If 1 , 2 , 3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the

component , the shear stresses on different planes are-

12=

1 2
2

 23=

2 3
2

31 =

1 3
2

The largest of them is equal to max

So,
1 2
= max
2

Or,

1 2 S yt
=
2
2 fs

Or,

1 2=

Similarly,
2 3=

S yt
fs

1 3=

S yt
fs

S yt
fs