COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

ISSN:2320-0790

WIRELESS SENSOR AND ACTUATOR NETWORKS AS A

PROTECTIVE MEANS FOR PIPELINE VANDALISM IN THE NIGER
DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA
1

Nwala Kenneth Tochukwu, 2Dr Adekunle A. Y, 3Franklyn Atisi Sunday, 4Owolabi Titilayo
1,2,3,4

Department of Computer Science, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria

Abstract: With the discovery of crude oil in Niger Delta, it was expected that it will usher in the much needed sustainable
development in the region, thus, this did was defeated due to high rate of pipeline vandalism in the region, Whereas this did not
happen. Activities of the multinational oil companies (MNOCs) operating in the region continued to pollute and degrade the
environment so much that it disarticulated the local economy of the people. The unmet expectations of the people, coupled with
the environmental degradation created frustration that consequently led the people to vandalize oil pipelines.Sensor networks offer
a powerful combination in communication, distributed sensing and computing. They are appropriate for countless applications
and, at the same time, offer large challenges due to their distinctiveness, primarily the rigid energy constraints to which sensing
nodes are typically subjected. The noticeable traits of sensor networks have a direct impact on the hardware design of the nodes at
least four levels: communication hardware, power source, sensors and processor. Wireless Sensor Networks are self-configured to
monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as sound, vibration, temperature, pressure, pollutants or motion and
tocooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location or sink where the data can be observed and analysed.
Keywords: Vandalism, Degradation, Sensor-nodes, Disarticulated
I.

practice native and traditional religions, such as the Igbo and

Yoruba religions.

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria, officially called the federal Republic of Nigeriais a

federal constitutional republic consisting of thirty-six states
and one Federal Capital Territory. The country shares land
borders with Niger in the north,Benin in the west and the
Republic of Chad and Cameroon in the east. The coast of
Nigeria lies on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic
Ocean, in the south. The capital city is Abuja. The country is
inhabited by over 500 ethnic groups, of which the three largest
and most influential are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. [1]
Nigeria is often referred to as the "the Giant of Africa", owing
to its large population andeconomy. [2] Nigeria is the most
populous country in Africa and the seventh most populous
country in the world with a population of over 174 million,
therefore making it the most populous 'black' country in the
world. [3]It is a regional powerthat is listed among the "Next
Eleven" economies, and is a member nation of the
Commonwealth. The Nigeria economy is one of the fastest
growing in the world with the International Monetary Fund
projecting a growth of 9% in 2008 and 8.3% in 2009.The
name Nigeria was created from a blend of the words Niger and
Area, taken from the River Niger that runs through Nigeria.
The name was coined by the future wife of the Baron Lugard,
a British colonial administrator, in the early 20th century. [1]
Nigeria is roughly divided in half between Christians, who
mostly live in the Southern and central parts of the country,
and Muslims, mostly concentrated in the North and SouthWestern parts of the country. A minority of the population

1317

Fig 1: The Map of Nigeria. [4]

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

Nigeria is one of those countries in Africa that has a wide

variety of different natural resources. Nigeria is richly
endowed with a myriad of Natural Resources ranging from
precious metals to industrial stones such as Barites, Kaolin,
Gypsum and Marble. Most of these are yet to be exploited.
Statistically, the level of exploitation of these minerals is very
low when juxtaposed with the extent of deposit found in the
country. One of the aims of the new National Policy on Solid
Minerals is to ensure the orderly development of the mineral
resources of the nation. [5]

S/N

STATES

NATURAL RESOURCES

Glass-sand, Gold,
Gypsium,Iron-ore, Lignite, Limestone,
Marble & Oil/Gas
14

Ekiti

Feldspar, Granite, Kaolin,

Syenite&Tatium

15

Enugu

Coal, Lead/Zinc & Limestone

16

Gombe

Gemstone &Gypsium

17

Imo

Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Lignite,

Limestone, Marcasite,

/ CITY
1

Abia

Gold, Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Oil/Gas &

Oil/Gas, Phosphate & Salt

Salt
2

Abuja

Adamaw
a

AkwaIbo
m

Anambra

Bauchi

Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gold,

18

Jigawa

Butyles

Lead/Zinc, Marble & Tantalite

19

Kaduna

Amethyst, Aqua Marine, Asbestos,

Clay, Flosper,

Bentonite, Gypsium, Kaolin

&Magnesite

Gemstone, Gold, Graphite, Kaolin,

Clay, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone,

Hyanite, Mica, Rock

Oil/Gas, Salt & Uranium

Clay, Glass-Sand, Gypsium, Iron-ore,

Crystal, Ruby, Sapphire, Sihnite,

Lead/Zinc, Lignite,Limestone,

Superntinite,

Phosphate & Salt

Tentalime,

Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite,

Gypsium, Wolfram, Coal, Limestone,

Topaz & Tourmaline

Lignite, Iron-ore & Clay

7

Bayelsa

20

Kano

Gassiterite, Copper, Gemstone, Glass-

Glay, Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Lignite,

sand, Lead/Zinc,

Limestone, Maganese, Oil/Gas &

Pyrochinre& Tantalite

Uranium
8

Benue

Barite, Clay, Coal, Gemstone, Gypsium,

Iron-Ore,

21

Katsina

Kaolin, Marble & Salt

22

Kebbi

Gold

23

Kogi

Coal, Dolomite, Feldspar, Gypsium,

Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Marble & Salt

9

Borno

Iron-ore, Kaolin,

Bentonite, Clay, Diatomite, Gypsium,

Marble, Talc & Tantalite

Hydro-carbon,Kaolin
24

& Limestone
10

Cross
River

Kwara

Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold,

Iron-ore, Marble,

Barite, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone,

Manganese,
Mica & Tantalite

11

Delta

Oil/Gas, Salt & Uranium

25

Lagos

Clay, Glass-sand, Gypsium, Iron-ore,

26

Nasaraw
a

Kaolin, Lignite, Marble & Oil/Gas

12

Ebonyi

13

Edo

Bitumen, Clay & Glass-sand

Amethyst (Topaz Garnet), Barytex,
Barite, Cassirite,

Gold, Lead/Zinc & Salt

Chalcopyrite, Clay, Columbite, Coking

Bitumen, Clay Dolomite, Phosphate,

1318

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

Coal,

Kaolin, Laterite,

Dolomite/Marble, Feldspar, Galena,

Limestone, Phosphate, Potash, Silica

Sand & Salt

Iron-ore, Limstone,
35

Taraba

Lead/Zinc

Mica, Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite,

36

Yobe

Soda Ash &Tintomite

Tourmaline Quartz

37

Zamfara

Coal, Cotton & Gold

&Zireon

Fig 2: Crude Oil Vandalism in Nigeria

27

Niger

Gold, Lead/Zinc & Talc

28

Ogun

Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone,

Kaolin, Limestone &
Phosphate

29

Ondo

Bitumen, Clay, Coal, Dimension Stones,

Feldspar,
Gemstone, Glass-Sand, Granite,
Gypsium, Kaolin,
Limestone & Oil/Gas

30

Osun

Columbite, Gold, Granite, Talc,

Tantalite &
Tourmaline

31

Oyo

Gold, Kaolin, Marble, Silimonite, Talc

& Tantalite
Plateau

Barite, Bauxite, Betonite, Bismuth,

Cassiterite, Clay,
Coal, Emeral, Fluoride, Gemstone,
Granite, Iron-ore,
Kaolin, Lead/Zinc, Marble,
Molybdenite,
Phrochlore, Salt,
Tantalite/Columbite, Tin & Wolfram

33

Rivers

Clay, Glass-Sand, Lignite, Marble &

Oil/Gas

34

Sokoto

II.

Aqua Marine, Cassiterite, Clay,

Dolomite, Gemstone,

32

There are tremendous opportunities for investments in the

solid mineral sector of the Nigerian economy. Prospecting
licenses for investors (both local and foreign) to participate in
the exploitation of the vast mineral resources in Nigeria is
granted by the Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals
Development. [1]Before the creation of the Nigerian state,
economic activities of the Niger Delta in pre-colonial days
entailed mainly export of salt and fish to its hinterlands. In the
18th century, when slave trade was at its peak, Nigeria was
West Africas largest slave exporting area, and this was
enhanced by its propinquity to the sea. However, slave dealers,
diverted the palm oil trade in the 19th century when slave
trade declined. The colonial era gave birth to Nigeria, with the
Niger Delta situated at the Southern-Eastern part of the
country. As at 1975, three states were under the region namely
Rivers, Bendel and Cross River states, with two Igbo states,
Imo and Anambra as the hinterland following the creation of
more states and a redenition of the areas to be integrated into
the Niger Delta states were Abia, Bayelsa, Delta, Cross River,
Edo, Imo, AkwaIbom, Ondo and Rivers state. [6]

Clay, Flakes, Gold, Granite, Gypsium,

BRIEF HISTORY OF CRUDE OIL IN NIGERIA

The word Oil as commonly used in the petroleum industry

refers to Crude Oil and its derivatives. Furthermore, the word
petroleum was coined from the Latin word Petra which
means Rock and the Greek word Oleum which means Oil.
Connotatively, petroleum would therefore be literarily defined
as oil found in the rock. Whilst it will be more technical to
define oil, gas and coal as hydrocarbons which contains
impunities ( usually resulting to pollution), it is expedient to
also note that Hydro means water and Carbon means wood.
However the level of impunity in crude oil is infrequently
higher than 1percent (1%) in relation to heating value. It is
also noteworthy that oil & gas are usually found in tiny holes
called pores in the rock a few or several meters beneath the
surface of the soil. [7]Crude oil is a natural liquid that consist
of a complex mixture of hydro carbon of various molecular
weights and other liquid organic compound that are found in
geologic formation beneath the earths surface. Petroleum is
used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials and it is
estimated that the world consume about 88 million barrels of
petroleum daily. The use of fossil fuel such as petroleum can
have a negative impact on the earth biosphere as a releasing
pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging
ecosystems through events such as oil spills. [6]The search for
crude oil in Nigeria could be traced to the early twentieth
(20th) century when a German Company called the Nigerian
Bitumen Company explored for bitumen in the West Coast of
Africa, precisely in Okitipupa, Ondo State Nigeria. However,

1319

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

the activity of the Company was interrupted by the First World

War in 1914. Records also have it that in 1937, Shell DArcy
(presently called Shell) started oil exploration in Nigeria but
also had its activity truncated by the consequences of the
Second World War of 1939. Though there was a long period
of explorations without the desired discovery. In 1958, the first
oil field in Nigeria became operational leading to Nigeria
experiencing the first shipment of crude oil outside its shores,
hence, it lead to rise in the world oil price at about the time the
Biafra war was ended. Consequently, Nigeria was able to reap
instant dividend of being classified as an oil producing Nation.
[7] Oil is a major source of energy in Nigeria and the world in
general. Oil being the mainstay of the Nigerian economy plays
a vital role in shaping the economic and political destiny of the
country. Although Nigerias oil industry was founded at the
start of the century, it was not until the end of the Nigeria civil
war (1967 - 1970) that the oil industry began to play a
prominent role in the economic life of the country. [8]
III.

DISCOVERY OF CRUDE OIL IN THE

NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA

The Niger Delta region is situated at the apex of the Gulf of

Guinea on the west coast of Africa [9] [10] and on the
Nigerias SouthSouth geopolitical zone (Figure 1). The Niger
Delta, which is home to some 31 million people [11], occupies
a total area of about 75,000 km2 and makes up 7.5% of
Nigeria's land mass. The Niger Delta region consists of 9 oil
producing states (Abia, Bayelsa, Edo, Cross River, Delta,
,Ondo, Imo, AkwaIbom and Rivers) and 185 local government
areas. This region cuts across over 800 oilproducing
communities with an extensive network of over 900 producing
oil wells and several petroleum productionrelated facilities
[12]. The ecological zones in the Niger Delta region can be
broadly grouped into tropical rainforest in the northern part of
the Delta and mangrove forest in the warm coastlines of
Nigeria. Mangrove forests and swamps, which are
characterized by regular saltwater inundation, lie at the
Centre of a complex and sensitive ecosystem which is vital to
the local economy and accommodates important flora and
fauna [13]. The Niger Delta, which is the largest mangrove
forests in Africa and the third largest in the world, is the
richest part of Nigeria in terms of petroleum resources and
diverse natural ecosystems supportive of numerous species of
terrestrial and aquatic fauna.The Niger Delta, the delta of
the Niger River in Nigeria, is a very densely populated region
sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major
producer of palm oil. The area was the British Oil Rivers
Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and
transformed into the Niger Coast Protectorate. [14]Before the
creation of the Nigerian state, economic activities of the Niger
Delta in pre-colonial days entailed mainly export of salt and
fish to its hinterlands.Crude oil was discovered in Oloibiri,
currently known as Bayelsa State in 1956, after half a century
of exploration. This discovery was made by Shell (then
known as Shell DArcy). This brought about a new phase of
life to the people of the Niger Delta. In the year 1958, it was a
glamorous moment when Nigeria joined the ranks of oil
producers, when its first oil field came on stream experiencing
the first shipment of crude oil from Nigeria and producing
about 5,100 bpd. After Nigerian gained her independence in
the year 1960, exploration rights in onshore and offshore areas

adjoining the Niger Delta were extended to other foreign

companies. Subsequently, crude oil was found in other part of
the region like Isoko and Warri in Delta and Eket in
AkwaIbom State. In the wake of the discovery, the region
attracted foreign investors and also enhances the economic
advancement of the country. Currently, about 2 million barrels
per day of Nigerias total crude oil output is produced from
Niger Delta. The dominant role played by Shell continued till
Nigeria joined the Organization of Petroleum exporting
Countries (OPEC) in 1971. Nigeria currently has a number of
international and indigenous oil and gas companies operating
within her territories [15]Akpabio. E.M. and Akpan. N.S.
Governance and Oil Politics in Nigerias Niger Delta: The
Question of Distributive Equity. Journal of Human Ecology
Vol 30(2) page 111-121 (2010)]. By the year 2000, oil and
gas exports accounted for more than 98% of the total export
earnings and about 83% of federal government revenue, as
well as generating more than 40% of its GDP. It also provides
95% of foreign and about 65% of government budgetary
revenues [8].
PIPELINE VANDALISM IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION
OF NIGERIA
As one of the leading oil-producing countries in Africa,
Nigeria loses billions of dollars to the activities of vandals of
petroleum products pipelines. Pipeline vandalism has escalated
both in incidence and impact. The oil bunkering business is as
old as the discovery of crude oil in the ancient community of
Oloibiri, but now known as Bayelsa State. Apart from the loss
of human lives and environmental pollution, continous
vandalism of petroleum pipelines has overwhelming negative
impacts on Nigerias Economy.Pipeline vandalism has grown
in leaps and bounds in recent years, in spite of efforts by the
government to protect the over 5,000 kilometres of petrol
pipelines across the country. Aside the loss of human lives,
hostage taking, oil bunkering business, even though illegal, is
another thriving business not only in the Niger Delta region
but also in the other states of the federation where there are oil
installations or wherever the petroleum products pipeline run
through, incessant attacks on oil and gas pipelines often results
in fluctuations in Nigeria's oil and gas production levels and
hampers the petroleum sectors capacity to meet its revenue
projection targets. Below are some pictures showing deliberate
acts of vandalism. [16]Though, youths from the other region
participate in the business, the focus has always been on the
Niger Delta region because of the volume of the activities of
bunkers displayed in the region and as a result of its nearness.
While some people blamed the fire incident resulting from the
petroleum pipeline vandalisation on the ruptured pipelines, the
affected oil companies, rising to defend themselves, always
attributed it to the activities of the pipeline vandals. The
activities of the vandals in the recent past have led to the
unplanned exit of some oil companies in the region, which in
turn has negatively impacted the economy of the region.
[16]A total of 16,083 pipeline breaks were recorded within
the last 10 years adding that while 398 pipeline breaks
representing 2.4 percent were due to ruptures, the activities of
unpatriotic vandals accounted for 15, 685 breaks which
translated to about 97.5 percent of the total number of cases.
Indeed, the incidence of oil pipeline vandalism has been on the
rise in Nigeria (Ogbeni, 2012, para 8).

1320

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

IV.

EFFECTS OF PIPELINE VANDALISM IN

NIGERIA

With the discovery of crude oil in Niger Delta, it was expected

that it will usher in the much needed sustainable development
in the region. Whereas this did not happen. Activities of the
multinational oil companies (MNOCs) operating in the region
continued to pollute and degrade the environment so much that
it disarticulated the local economy of the people. Due to the
unmet expectations of the people, coupled with the
environmental
degradation
created
frustration
that
consequently led the people to vandalize oil pipelines. Pipeline
Vandalism has resulted in untoward consequences which
threaten economic public safety and national sustainability in
Nigerian. Hereunder is a discussion on the major effects of this
phenomenon.This include freshwater pollution, , chemical
pollution, air pollution, soil pollution, degradation, industrial
pollution, oil and gas pollution, soil and land pollution,
urbanization and unsustainable domestic waste management,
unsustainable agricultural practice such as fish farming,
malnutrition and diseases, habitant and ecological systems
loss, , freshwater shortages and insecurity. (Exotic species
extinction, hunger, fisheries and biodiversity depletion,
wildlife, rural and urban poverty due to food shortages and
insecurity and resulting from pollution-contamination and
genetic loss, flooding and coastal erosion sedimentation and
situation, land subsidence. Lack of noise pollution, community
participation, community environmental and population health
problem conicts within communities and between host
communities and operating companies. Weak of nonexistence
environmental laws and regulations, wildlife, threatened and
endangered fisheries and food contamination. The rating of
these major environmental problems, social issues and
priorities. [6]The implications of Niger Delta environmental
problems as poverty, food security, fisheries and hydro
biological ecosystems of the Niger Delta beyond local
importance and national relevance to meet internal standards.
It directs incidence to the human and industrial dimension of
sustainable development is a fundamental focus of
development and agricultural economics as well as the
conservation of bio-diversity in marine/coastal ecosystems.
A. Economic Losses
The economic losses associated with oil pipeline vandalism
are arrived at by qualifying the monetary with (value) of lost
products and the cost of pipeline repairs. This has amounted to
billions of Nigeria over the years. For instance, the Managing
Director of Pipelines and Products Marketing Company
(PPMC), Prince HarunaMomoh recently revealed that
between 2009 and December 2012, the NNPC alone lost
about 165 Billion to products theft and repairs of vandalized
pipelines (Ugwuanyi, 2013, para 6). More recent figures
suggest that Nigeria has lost as much as 1.011 trillion to oil
theft
(See
for
instance
an
entry
at
www.legalcom/news.asp%3fmonth %...). A report issued by
NEITI in July 2013 (already cited elsewhere in the paper)
indicates that Nigeria lost a whooping sum of 10.9 billion US
Dollars to oil theft and vandalism in the period of 2009 to
2011 alone. These translate to huge economic loss with far
reaching implications for Nigerias economic growth and
development, and by extension national security.

B. Environmental Degradation
Pipeline vandalism has led high incidence of oil spillage in
Nigeria over the years. The 2011 Draft Annual Statistical
Bulletin of the NNPC shows that oil spills are significantly on
the rise in Nigeria. Associated with the incidence of oil spills
is the attendant environmental degradation which jeopardizes
the land, vegetation and habitation of the affected area. This
has been exemplified in desolation of farmlands, loss of
aquatic and wild lives, as well as water and air pollution.
These conditions have implications for public health and
safety of the people.
C. Fire Disasters/Pipeline Explosions
This has been the worst manifestation of the impact of oil
pipeline vandalism on human security in Nigeria According to
Ugwuanyi: Over 2,500 lives have been lost to explosion from
vandalized pipelines in last 15 years. Sometimes, the exact
figures of casualties were not got in the event of fire outbreaks
while some incidents were not reported (2013, para 8).
V.

OBJECTIVE OF THIS PAPER

The major objective of this paper is to develop a wireless

sensor-actuator network that will stand as a protective means
to oil pipelines vandalism. The goal of this research is to
develop a network that has efficient and flexible key
distribution scheme secured enough to prevent algorithmic
complexity and denial of service attacks as well as the network
able to conserve energy. A review of previous research to date
in the area of security for WSNs was carried out and proposals
are made based on security schemes that gather data in an
energy-efficient mechanism through secured pre-allocation of
keys, dynamic based rekeying implementation and faster
clustering routing algorithm.
VI.

WIRELESS SENSORS AND ACTUATOR

NETWORKS

A wireless sensor and actuator network (figure 3) is a

collection of small randomly dispersed devices that provide
three essential functions; the ability to monitor physical and
environmental conditions, often in real time, such as
temperature, , light, humidity and pressure; the ability to
operate devices such as switches, motors/actuators that control
those conditions; and the ability to provide efficient, reliable
communications via a wireless network.Recent advances in
wireless communication, as well as embedded computing,
have opened many new exciting opportunities for wireless
sensor networks. Miniature and low-cost wireless sensors are
expected to become available in the next decade, offering
countless possibilities for a wide range of applications. Among
them is smart structural technology, an active research domain
that holds significant promise for enhancing infrastructure
management and safety. A smart structure refers to a specially
equipped structure (e.g. bridges, buildings, dams, etc.) that
can monitor and react to surrounding environment and the
structures own conditions, in a pre-designed and beneficial
manner.

1321

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

Fig 3: Wireless sensor/actuator network.

Recent advances in pervasive computing, communication and
sensing technologies are leading to the emergence of wireless
sensors and actuator networks (WSANs). Currently, there is a
fast growing interest in developing applications for monitoring
environmental and industrial sectors, to improve social and
environmental conditions of society and increase quality and
productivity in industrial processes. A WSAN is a distributed
system of sensor nodes and actuator nodes that are
interconnected over wireless links. Sensors gather information
about the physical world, e.g., the environment or physical
systems,
and
transmit
the
collected
data
to
controllers/actuators through single-hop or multi-hop
communications. From the received information, the
controllers/actuators perform actions to change the behavior of
the environment or physical systems. [17][18]The scale of the
network depends highly on the target application. In general,
both sensor and actuator nodes are equipped with some data
processing and wireless communication capabilities, as well as
power supply.A wireless sensor and actuator network
(WSAN) is a mesh of autonomous devices distributed in the
space which incorporate wireless sensors and/ or actuators that
monitor and/or control physical conditions of the environment
of deployment.
Sensors gather information about the state of physical world
and transmit the collected data to actuators through single-hop
or multi-hop communications over the radio channel. Upon
receipt of the required information, the actuators make the
decision about how to react to this information and perform
corresponding actions to change the behavior of the physical
environment. As such, a closed loop is formed integrating the
cyber and physical worlds. In addition to sensor and actuator
nodes, there is commonly a base station in the WSAN, which
is principally responsible for monitoring and managing the
overall network through communicating with sensors and
actuators. [19]An actuator can perform diverse tasks, such as
processing the data reported from the sensors and accordingly
interacting with the environment; a mobile actuator (e.g., a
robot) could even change its location periodically to serve the

application better. Wireless sensor networks provide a

versatile and simple deployment platform for sensing and
interacting with the physical environment. These devices can
support multi-hop communication forming mesh networks
capable of self-conguration, self-healing and automatic
management. These properties make sensor networks suitable
for various cyber-physical system applications like industrial
control, critical infrastructure monitoring and building heating
andcooling systems. General wireless sensor networks
(WSNs) are used for information gathering in applications like
agriculture and environmental sensing, habitat monitoring,
military surveillance, and health monitoring. The basic
functionality of such WSNs is to sense and monitor the state of
the
physical
world.
WSANs
offersmanyadvantagesovertodayscontrolsystemswhicharebuilt
uponhardairlines. WSANs exploits the potential of wireless
communications, [20][21]. For instance, various difficulties
related to the installation and maintenance of the large number
of cables are completely eliminated. Consequently the
flexibility and expandability of the system can be further
enhanced. At the same time, system maintenance and update
become easier, and the cost will of course be reduced. In some
harsh environments it is forbidden or unfavorable to use cables
due to constraints concerning for instance physical
environments and production conditions. This is especially the
case when deleterious chemicals, severe vibrations and high
temperatures are present that could potentially damage any
sort of cabling. For such situations wireless technologies offer
a much better choice for achieving connectivity. In addition,
wireless control satisfies the requirements of mobile systems,
enabling closed-loop control of mobile objectives such as
automated guided vehicles, mobile robots, and unmanned
aerial vehicles. However, the use of wireless networks in
connecting spatially distributed sensors, controllers, and
actuators raises new challenges for control systems design
[20][22].

VII.

WIRELESS SENSOR AND ACTUATOR

DESIGN ARCHITECTURE

Recall that, Wireless Sensor Networks are self-configured and

infrastructure-less wireless networks to monitor physical or
environmental conditions, such as pressure, temperature,
vibration, motion, sound, or pollutants and to cooperatively
pass their data through the network to a main location or sink
where the data can be observed and analyzed. A sink or base
station acts like an interface between users and the network.
One can retrieve required information from the network by
injecting queries and gathering results from the sink.

1322

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

Using flash memory, the remote nodes acquire data on

command from a base station, or by an event sensed by one or
more inputs to the node. However, the embedded firmware can
be upgraded through the wireless network in the field. The
microprocessor has a number of functions such as:

Fig 4: Wireless Sensor Network Architecture (Source:32)

Wireless sensor network contains hundreds of thousands of
nodes (sensor nodes). The sensor nodes can communicate
among themselves using radio signals. A wireless sensor node
is equipped with transceivers and power components, sensing
and computing devices, and a radio. The individual nodes in a
wireless sensor network (WSN) are inherently resource
constrained: they have limited processing, storage capacity,
communication bandwidth and speed. After the sensor nodes
are deployed, they are responsible for self-organizing an
appropriate network infrastructure often with multi-hop
communication with them. Then the onboard sensors start
collecting information of interest. Wireless sensor devices also
respond to queries sent from a control site to perform certain
instructions or provide sensing samples. The working mode of
the sensor nodes may be either continuous or event driven.
Global Positioning System (GPS) and local positioning
algorithms can be used to obtain location and positioning
information. Wireless sensor devices can be equipped with
actuators to act upon certain conditions. [32].WSNs are
formed from a collection of miniature autonomous devices
with sensors embedded in them, called sensor node. A typical
node include the following basic components: power unit,
sensor unit, processing unit, memory unit and communication
unit. The power unit is usually a battery, which acts as the
power source for all the components of the sensor nodes.
[24][25]

Fig 5: Functional Block Diagram of a Sensor Node [32]

Managing the radio network protocol

Performing power management functions
Managing data collection from the sensors
Interfacing the sensor data to the physical radio layer

An important aspect of any wireless sensing node is to reduce

the power consumed by the system. Usually, the radio
subsystem requires the largest amount of power. Therefore,
data is sent over the radio network only when it is needed. An
algorithm is to be loaded into the node to determine when to
send data based on the sensed event. However, it is important
to reduce the power consumed by the sensor itself. Therefore,
the hardware should be designed in a manner to allow the
microprocessor to judiciously control power to the sensor,
radio, and sensor signal conditioner (Akyildiz et al., 2002).
Wireless sensor nodes are tiny, light weight sensing devices
consisting of little memory, constrained processing unit,
EEPROM or Flash memory for tiny operating systems and
other desired programs, one or more sensors, a limited range
transceiver, battery or solar based power unit and optionally a
mobility subsystem for mobile sensor nodes (Dwivedi& Vyas,
2010).

Fig 6: Design of WSNs[33]

It is important that the sensor network should be able to
perform the monitoring operations of the environment for a
sufficient time (which could be days or months). The battery
lifetime may not be compatible with the expected
performances of the node; it is therefore required to scavenge
energy from the external environment [26][27]. The sensor
unit consists of a group of micro-electromechanical system
(MEMS) - based sensors (and actuators) used for data
acquisition from the physical environment. The processing
unit which includes a microprocessor or a micro-controller is
responsible for management of data acquisition, handling
communication protocols, scheduling and preparation of data
packets for transmission once it has gathered, filtered, and
synchronized the data from the sensors [27][30]. The
communication unit consists of a short range RF transceiver
for wireless communication. The individual nodes are capable
of sensing their environments, processing the information

1323

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

locally, or sending it to one or more collection points through

a wireless link [28][29].Distributed implementations of control
systems require the placement of sensors and actuators in
different physical locations. The actuators, sensors, and
computing units (in charge of computing the control action)
need to exchange information and are typically interconnected
through a communication network. It is through the
communication network that the computing units obtain
measurements from the sensors and feed computed control
signals to the actuators.Traditionally, these networks have
been wired across the plant to be controlled. With the advent
of advanced wireless technologies, wired networks are been
replaced by their wireless counterparts due to easier and
cheaper deployment and maintenance. Despite its clear
advantages over wired networks, the wireless option poses
many new exciting challenges. Arguably the most notable of
these challenges, is how to best manage the scarce energy
reserves of each network node. Since the process of
communicating information is, in general, the most expensive,
the reduction of communication requirements is paramount to
obtain energy efficient control over sensor/actuator networks.
The less frequently the control signal needs to be updated, the
less often measurements need to be transmitted though the
network. Hence, energy expenditures are reduced and network
lifetime maximized. Reducing the actuation necessary to
stabilize the plant is also a desired feature on the real-time
scheduling of controllers on embedded platforms. Control
signals are typically updated periodically since this results in
simpler design and analysis of feedback controllers.
Periodicity also simplifies the scheduling of messages required
for control over wired networks. [31]

Fig 8: Wireless Sensor Network Protocol Stack [32]

A. Application layer
Data is collected and managed at application layer therefore it
is important to ensure the reliability of data. Wagner (Wanger,
2004) has presented a resilient aggregation scheme which is
applicable to a cluster based network where a cluster leader
acts as an aggregator in sensor networks. However this
technique is applicable if the aggregating node is in the range
with all the source nodes and there is no intervening
aggregator between the aggregator and source nodes. To prove
the validity of the aggregation, cluster leaders use the
cryptographic techniques to ensure the data reliability.
B. Network layer
Network layer is responsible for routing of messages on the
node, from node to cluster leader, cluster leaders to cluster
leaders, cluster leaders to the base station and vice versa.

Fig 7: Wireless Sensors and Actuators on Industrial

Pipelines

C. Data link layer

The sensor nodes are usually scattered in a sensor field as

shown in Fig. 4. Each of these scattered sensor nodes has the
capabilities to collect data and route data back to the sink and
the end users. Data are routed back to the end user by a multihop infrastructure-less architecture through the sink as shown
in Fig. 4. The sink may communicate with the task manager
node via Internet or Satellite.

Data link layer does the error detection and correction, and
encoding of data. Link layer is vulnerable to jamming and DoS
attacks. TinySec (Karlof et al., 2004) has introduced link layer
encryption which depends on a key management scheme.
However, an attacker having better energy efficiency can still
rage an attack. Protocols like LMAC (Hoesel et al., 2004) have
better anti-jamming properties which are viable
countermeasure at this layer.
D. Physical Layer
The physical layer places emphasis on the transmission media
between sending and receiving nodes, signal strength, the data

1324

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

rate, frequency types are also addressed in this layer. Ideally

FHSS frequency hopping spread spectrum is used in sensor
networks.
The protocol stack used by the sink and the sensor nodes is
given in Fig. 8. This protocol stack combines power and
routing awareness, integrates data with networking protocols,
communicates power efficiently through the wireless medium
and promotes cooperative efforts of sensor nodes. The
protocol stack consists of the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer, physical layer, power
management plane, mobility management plane, and task
management plane (Akyildiz et al., 2002). Different types of
application software can be built and used on the application
layer depending on the sensing tasks. This layer makes
hardware and software of the lowest layer transparent to the
end-user. The transport layer helps to maintain the flow of data
if the sensor networks application requires it. The network
layer takes care of routing the data supplied by the transport
layer, specific multi-hop wireless routing protocols between
sensor nodes and sink. The data link layer is responsible for
the multiplexing of data streams, frame detection, Media
Access Control (MAC) and error control. Since the
environment is noisy and sensor nodes can be mobile, the
MAC protocol must be power aware and able to minimize
collision with neighbors broadcast. The physical layer
addresses the needs of a simple but robust modulation,
frequency selection, data encryption, transmission and
receiving techniques. [32]
VIII.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, wireless sensor networks introduces significant

benefits in ease of deployment, cost, flexibility and
convenience viz-a-vizthe wired alternative that is well
established in the industry. This paper deals with WSN as a
protective means of pipeline vandalism in the Niger Delta
region. However, realization of sensor networks needs to
satisfy several constraints which include scalability, cost,
hardware, topology change, environment and power
consumption. Since these constraints are highly streamlined
and specific for sensor networks, new wireless ad hoc
networking protocols are required. To meet the requirements,
many researchers are engaged in developing the technologies
needed for different layers of the sensor networks protocol
stack.
IX.

REFERENCES

[1]
About
Nigeria.
Retrieved
from
http://www.nigeria.gov.ng/2012-10-29-11-05-46
[2] Peter Holmes (1987). Nigeria: Giant of Africa. Retrieved
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria
[3] Library of Congress Federal Research Division (July
2008). Country profile: Nigeria. p. 9. Retrieved 28 December
2011.
[4]
The
map
of
Nigeria.
Retrieved
from
http://www.waado.org/nigerdelta/maps/Nigeria_States.html
[5]
Nigeria
Natural
Resources.
Retrieved
from
http://www.youthdevelopment.gov.ng/index.php/nigeria/201312-19-03-40-31/natural-resources.

[6] OtehChukwuemekaOkpo, Eze R. C. Vandalization of Oil

Pipelines in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria and Poverty:
An Overview. Available from URL: http://www.cscanada.net/
index.php/sss/article/view/j.sss.1923018420120302.2950 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/j.sss.1923018420120302.2950.
[7] Adeoyebabatola, 3 Feb 2014. Fallacy of Oil wealth,
Resource Curse and Economic Development: retrieved from
http://adeoyebabatola.wordpress.com/2014/02/03/fallacy-ofoil-wealth-resource-curse-and-economic-development/
[8] GbadeboOlusegun ODULARU. CRUDE OIL AND THE
NIGERIAN ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE. Retrieved from:
http://www.ogbus.ru/eng/authors/Odularo/Odularo_1.pdf.
[9] Haack, R. C., P. Sundararaman, J. O. Diedjomahor, H.
Xiao, N. J. Gant, E. D. May, and K. Kelsch, "Chapter 16:
Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria," Petroleum Systems
of South Atlantic Margins: AAPG Memoir 73, M. R. Mello
and B. J. Katz, eds., pp. 213-231: American Association of
Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), 2000.
[10] Doust, H., Petroleum geology of the Niger Delta,
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 50 (1). 365365, 1990.
[11] Young, E. M. M., Food and Development, Abingdon,
Oxon: Routledge, 2012
[12] Osuji, L. C., and C. M. Onojake, Trace heavy metals
associated with crude oil: A case study of Ebocha-8 oil-spillpolluted site in Niger Delta, Nigeria, Chemistry &
Biodiversity, 1 (11). 1708-1715, 2004.
[13]
Ugochukwu, C. N. C., and J. Ertel, Negative impacts
of oil exploration on biodiversity management in the Niger De
area of Nigeria, Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 26
(2). 139-147, 2008.
[14] C. Michael Hogan, "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Earth, Washington, DC: National Council for
Science and Environment, 2013.
[15] Akpabio. E.M. and Akpan. N.S (2010). Governance and
Oil Politics in Nigerias Niger Delta: The Question of
Distributive Equity. Journal of Human Ecology Vol 30(2)
page 111-121.
[16] Pipeline Vandalism and Nigerias Economy. Retrieved
from:http://www.oyibosonline.com/cgibin/newsscript.pl?recor
d=3583
[17] Akyildiz, I. F.; Kasimoglu, I. H. Wireless sensor and
actor networks: research challenges. Ad Hoc
Netw. 2004, 2 (4), 351-367.
[18] Rezgui, A.; Eltoweissy, M. Service-oriented sensoractuator networks: Promises, challenges, and the road ahead.
Computer Communications 2007, 30, 2627-2648.
[19] Feng Xia, Xiangjie Kong, and ZhenzhenXu. CyberPhysical Control over Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks
with
Packet
Loss:
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1011/1011.3115.pdf
[20] A. Willig, K. Matheus, A. Wolisz, Wireless technology
in industrial networks, Proceedings of the IEEE
2005, vol. 93, no. 6, pp: 1130-1151.
[21] Feng Xia and Wenhong Zhao, Flexible Time-Triggered
Sampling in Smart Sensor-Based Wireless
Control Systems, Sensors, vol.7, no.11, pp: 2548-2564, 2007.
[22] Feng Xia, Yu-Chu Tian, Yanjun Li, and Youxian Sun,
Wireless Sensor/Actuator Network Design for
Mobile Control Applications, Sensors, vol.7, no.10, pp: 21572173, 2007.

1325

COMPUSOFT, An international journal of advanced computer technology, 3 (11), November-2014 (Volume-III, Issue-XI)

[23] (Dwivedi& Vyas, 2010).

[24]. D. Culler, D. Estrin, and M. Srivastava, Overview of
sensor networks, IEEE Computer, pp. 4149, Aug. 2004.
[25]. I. F. Akyildiz, T. Melodia, and K. Chowdhury, A survey
on wireless multimedia sensor networks, Comput. Netw. vol.
51, no. 4, pp. 921960, Mar. 2007.
[26]. J. M. Gilbert and F. Balouchi, Comparison of Energy
Harvesting Systems for Wireless Sensor Networks, Int. J. of
Autom. And Comp., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 334-347, 2008.
[27] Y-J Yoon, W-T Park, K. Li, Y. Ng, Y. Song; Int. J. of
Precision Eng. and Manuf., vol. 14, no.7, pp. 1257-1262,
2013.
[28]. I. F. Akyildiz and M. C. Vuran, Wireless Sensor
Networks, Wiley, 2010
[29]. W. Dargie and C. Poellabauer, Fundamentals of
Wireless Sensor Networks: Theory and Practice, Wiley, 2010
[30]. D.J Gaushell, Supervisory control and data acquisition,
Proc. of the IEEE, vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 1645 1658, 1987.
[31] Event-triggered Control over sensor/actuator wireless
networks.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cyphylab.ee.ucla.edu/Home/projects/eventtriggered-control-over-wireless-sensor-actuator-networks
[32] M.A. Matin and M.M. Islam. Overview of Wireless
Sensor
Network.
Retrieved
from
http://www.intechopen.com/books/wireless-sensor-networkstechnology-and-protocols/overview-of-wireless-sensornetwork
[33] Qutaiba I. Ali Simulation Framework of Wireless Sensor
Network (WSN) Using MATLAB/SIMULINK Software.
Retrieved from : http://www.intechopen.com/books/matlab-afundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineeringapplications-volume-2/simulation-framework-of-wirelesssensor-network-wsn-using-matlab-simulink-software

1326