ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR IN-SITU CONCRETE LINING

USED IN IRRIGATION CANALS IN SRI LANKA

(Draft Report)

By

Eng. EMSMK Ekanayake

PG/E/ST/2015/11

Dr. (Mrs.) C.K. Pathirana

Faculty Advisor
Faculty of Engineering
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

The Thesis for partial fulfilment of the requirement of

Masters in Science of Structural Engineering

CONTENT
Page
1. Introduction

2. Literature Review

3. Methodology

13

4. Analysis

15

5. Conclusion

19

6. References

21

1.0 INTRODUCTION
As Engineers we have to make our society more secure and more prosperous.
Today we are facing severe problems in our society such as Environmental
decay, Natural disasters & Poverty in the society. We must go for solutions to
overcome these problems, through policies, that sustain and expand the
environmental resources available in our country (Ekanayake, 2013).
Irrigation in Sri Lanka had been practiced for a period of more than 2500
years. The massive irrigation systems built by our ancient kings made our
people not to depend on external sources for the purpose of feeding her people.
There are about 12,000 small tanks and anicuts in Sri Lanka and these tanks
and anicuts irrigate an extent of more than 185,000ha. This is 35% of total
irrigable area in the country. Small irrigation schemes produce 191,000
metric tons annually accounting for 20% of the national irrigated rice
production (Agricultural implementation program 1994 - 95).
The rapid increase in population will be in developing countries like Sri Lanka
and the poor people will have no alternative, but to cultivate fragile lands
needed to their own survival. With the increase of population more fragile
lands will be needed for more food production. But the land is limited and
hence the lands should be used more efficiently with a higher production
output. When maximizing the food production, the water takes a main part in
cultivation. Therefore it is necessary to have an optimum usage of water in
irrigation.
In the above almost all irrigation systems of Sri Lankas water conveying is
done using earthen canals. Though irrigation canals may be constructed in
natural or compacted earth, these suffer from certain disadvantages, such as;
Maximum velocity limited to prevent erosion
Seepage of water into the ground
Possibility of vegetation growth in banks, leading to increased friction
Possibility of bank failure, either due to erosion or activities of
burrowing animals
2

Canal lining is a good solution to overcome these problems and it will play an
increasing role in conserving losses and thereby extend and improve the
irrigation facilities. Some of the broad benefits of canal lining are;
Saving of seepage water and its value
Land and produce saved as water logging in adjacent land may be
avoided
Saving in cost of, earth work, masonry structures, and cross-drainage
works
Cost of land acquisition saved due to reduction in top width in case of
lined channels
Reduced canal dimensions
Due to reduced exposed area, evaporation and transportation losses are
also reduced.
Higher velocity obviates silting problems inherent in unlined canals
Improves Canal hydraulics, equity and reliability of water distribution
Smaller channel section to pass full supplies due to lower rugosity
coefficient and higher velocities in lined sections
Lining does not permit weed growth and therefore transpiration losses
would be non-existent
Ease and saving in operation and maintenance of the canal
However in Sri Lanka in-situ concrete lining is somewhat practice. But this
may also arise some problems, such as;
Almost

all

canal

systems

located

in

remote

areas.

Therefore

transporting materials & machineries to construction sites is difficult.

Taken much time to complete the construction and finally it causes to
delay or give up a cultivation season.
Careful guidance should have to maintain side slopes, gradient of canal
and quality of construction
Therefore this research is to find a most suitable lining system to overcome
above issues in earthen canals in Sri Lankan irrigation system.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Canal Lining & Irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to
assist the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of
sewage and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage,
which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water
from a given area. Lining is a resistant layer made of concrete, protecting the
canal bed and its sides in order to have a sufficient strength to resist water
pressure. The layer advantage is to save water for extension of irrigation, to
minimize filtration losses, improve duty, and minimize maintenance cost and
to prevent growth of wild plants.11

2.2 Lining of Irrigation Canals

Most of the irrigation channels in Sri Lanka are earthen channels. The major
advantage of an earth channel is its low initial cost, these suffer from certain
disadvantages, such as
1. Maximum velocity limited to prevent erosion.
2. Seepage of water into the ground.
3. Possibility of vegetation growth in banks, leading to increased friction.
4. Possibility of bank failure, due to erosion.
5. More maintenance requirement.
All these reasons lead to adoption of lining of canals, though the cost may be
excessive. Hence, it is also necessary to evaluate the cost versus the savings
due to reduction in water loss through seepage, i.e. cost-benefit ratio is to be
estimated.

2.3 Types of Canal Lining

Types of lining are generally classified according to the materials used for their
construction. Concrete, rock masonry, brick masonry, bentonite-earth
mixtures, natural clays of low permeability, and different mixtures of rubble,
plastic, and asphaltic materials are the commonly used materials for canal
lining. However the suitability of the lining material is decided by:
1. Economy
2. Structural stability
3. Resistance to erosion
4. Durability
5. Hydraulic efficiency
2.3.1 Concrete Lining
Concrete lining is probably the best type of lining. Cement concrete lining
made from selected aggregate gives very satisfactory service. Despite the fact
that they are frequently high in their initial cost, their long life and minimum
maintenance make them economical. Cement concrete lining are best suited
for main canals which carry a huge flow at high velocities. However, a firm
foundation is necessary for avoiding any possibility of cracking due to
foundation settlement. The smooth surface of the concrete lining increases
the conveyance of the channel.
Reinforcement in concrete linings usually varies from (0.1 to 0.4%) of the area
in the longitudinal direction and (0.1 to 0.2%) of the area in the transverse
direction. The reinforcement in concrete linings prevents serious cracking of
concrete to reduce seepage, and ties adjacent.
Sections of the lining together to provide increased strength against
settlement damage due to unstable sub-grade soils or other factors. The
reinforcement in concrete linings does not prevent the development of small
shrinkage which tend to close when canals are operated. The damage due to
shrinkage and temperature changes is avoided or reduced by the use of
special construction joints. (Z. Sen 2005)

Expansive clay soils should be avoided and proper moisture and density
control of the sub grade soil should be maintained while lining. In areas where
the ground water table is likely to rise above the invert level of the lining and
cause excessive uplift pressure, drains are located below the lining to release
the water and relieve the pressure, generally, a thickness of about ( 5 to 12
cm ) is generally adopted for C15 concrete and (7.5 cm to 15 cm) for C10
concrete. Figure (1) shows cement-concrete lining type.

Figure (1): Concrete lining for different canal sections

2.3.2 Precast concrete lining

Precast concrete slabs, laid properly on carefully prepared sub grades and
with the joints effectively grouted, form a practical type of lining. The precast
slabs are about 5 to 8 cm thick with suitable width and length to suit channel
dimensions and to result in weights which can be easily handled. Such slabs
may or may not be reinforced (Tarig EI Gamri 2009). This type of lining is best
suited for repair work as it can be placed rapidly without long breaks in canal
operation. Figure (2) shows this type of canal lining.

Figure (2): Precast slabs lining

2.3.3 Shotcrete Lining

Shotcrete, that is, cement mortar in the ratio of 1 cement to 4 sand
proportions is through a pump-pipe-nozzle system on the surface of the
channel. Wire mesh reinforcement is generally, though not necessarily, is
clamped to the channel surface (as for a rocky excavation) before applying
shotcrete. They are suitable for lining small sections, for repair of old linings,
and for placing linings around curves or structures. Shotcrete linings are
generally laid in a thickness of about 2.5 - 6.5 cm as per requirement.

Figure (3): Shotcrete lining

2.3.4 Bricks, Tiles and Stone lining

Bricks are installed in layers of two with about 1.25 cm of 1: 3 cement mortar
sandwiched in between. Good quality bricks should be used. Brick tiles can
be plastered to increase the carrying capacity of canal with same section and
help in increasing the life span of the lining as shown in figure (4). Sometimes
a layer of tiles is laid over a layer of brick masonry. The top layer is generally
laid in 1 : 3cement mortar over 15 mm thick layer of plaster in 1 : 3 cement
plaster. The size of tiles is generally restricted to 30 mm150mm53 m. This
type of lining is stable even if there is settlement of foundation, since the
mortar joint between bricks or tiles provides for various cracks so fine that
seepage is insignificant. This type of lining is suitable when concrete is
expensive and skilled labour is not available.
Stone lining of canals, if economically feasible, is useful for preventing erosion
and where the ground water level is above the bed of the canal and there is a
possibility of occurrence of damaging back pressures. The stones used for
boulder linings should be hard, durable, and capable of sustaining weathering
and water action. Rounded or sub angular stones or blasted rock pieces with
sufficient base area are recommended types of stones or boulder lining.

Figure (4): Brick Lining

2.3.5 Asphaltic Lining

The material used for asphaltic lining is asphalt-based mixture of cement and
sand mixed in hot condition. The most commonly used asphaltic linings are:
Asphaltic concrete
Buried asphaltic membrane
Asphaltic linings are relatively flexible, and can be rapidly laid in any time of
year. Asphaltic concrete is a mixture of asphalt cement, sand, and gravel
mixed at a temperature of about 110C to 200 C and is placed either
manually or with laying equipment. The lining is compacted with heavy iron
plates while it is hot. A properly constructed asphaltic concrete lining is the
best of all asphaltic linings, it is smooth, flexible, and erosion-resistant. Since
asphaltic concrete lining becomes distorted at higher temperatures, it is
unsuitable for warmer climatic regions.
2.3.6 Earth Linings
The different types of earth linings that are used in canals include the
following:
Stabilized Earth Linings
Sub-grade is stabilized using either clay for granular subgrade or by adding
chemicals that compact the soil.
Loose Earth Blankets
Fine grained soil is laid on the sub grade and evenly spread. However, this
type of lining is subject to erosion, and requires a flatter side slopes of canal.
Compacted Earth Linings
The graded soil containing about 15 percent clay is spread over the subgrade
and compacted.
Buried Bentonite Membranes
Bentonite is a special type of clay soil, found naturally, which swell
considerably when wetted. Buried bentonite linings for canals are constructed
9

by spreading soil-bentonite mixtures over the sub grade and covering it with
gravel or compacted earth.
Soil-cement Linings
These linings are constructed using cement (15 to 20 per cent by volume) and
sandy soil (not containing more than about 35 per cent of silt and clay
particles). Cement and sandy soil can be mixed in place and compacted at the
optimum moisture content. This method of construction is termed the drymixed soil-cement method. Alternatively, soil cement lining can be constructed
by machine mixing the cement and soil with water and placing it on the
subgrade in a suitable manner. This method is called the plastic soil-cement
method and is preferable. In both these methods, the lining should be kept
moist for about seven days to permit adequate curing. The construction cost
of soil-cement linings is relatively high. But these resist weed growth and
erosion and also permit velocities slightly higher than those permitted by
unlined earth channels. The use of soil-cement linings for irrigation canals is
restricted to small irrigation canals with capacities of up to 10 m3/sec, and in
which the velocity of water does not exceed 1 m/s. Figure (5) shows earth
lining type for trapezoidal canal section.

Figure(5): Compacted clay or soil cement lining

10

2.4 Failure of Canal Lining

The main causes of failure of lining are the water pressure that developed
behind the lining material due to high water table, saturation of the
embankment by canal water, sudden lowering of water levels in the channel,
and saturation of the embankment sustained by continuous rainfall. When
the water level in canal was raised and lowered the banks suffering from
instability due to erosion and seepage through the banks may be occurs. In
order to minimize the seepage, a secondary berms were constructed along the
length of bank at various locations.
The embankment of a relatively pervious soil does not need drainage
measures behind the lining. In all situations requiring drainage measures to
reduce pore pressure behind the lining, a series of longitudinal and transverse
drains satisfying filter criteria are provided. A typical arrangement of
longitudinal filter drain is as shown in figure(6).

Figure(6): Longitudinal filter drainage in lining layer

11

Figures (7 & 8) shows failure of canal linings.

Figure(7)

Figure(8)

12

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1

Data Collection & Analysis

Almost all Sri Lankan major & medium irrigation systems are managed
by Irrigation Department & Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL)
and minor schemes are managed by the Local authorities such as
Provincial Irrigation Departments, Agrarian Department etc. However
for this research Data is collected from major & medium schemes only
as it has a higher canal network system where much water losses is
excess.
Then analyzed the data to identify the most critical part of Main
canals/branch canal, Distributary canal or Field canal to be optimized
from water losses.
Also analyzed by reviewing the current lining practices from other
countries what the best type of lining to be practiced for Sri Lankan
irrigation system is.

3.2

Select a Most Economical Section

Using a typical irrigation system in Sri Lanka it is suggest to check a
most economical canal section according to the analyzed outcome in
3.1 by applying irrigation theories.

3.3

Design
According to the selected lining type, it is to be designed a canal section
using theory of Structural Analysis & British Standards code of
practice.

13

3.4

Jointing System & Construction Technique

According to the designed lining a proper jointing system and the
construction technique is to be introduced.

3.5

Cost Benefit Analysis

The cost of the selected lining is to be weighed against the obtainable
benefits. The Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) must be greater than one, if
lining is to be feasible at all. Costs and benefits should be assessed as
present values over the life cycle of the individual canal, water savings,
benefits and eventual replacement costs of the liners and the other
specific factors inherent in a given project.

14

4.0 ANALYSIS
Here are some reservoirs canal data collected from Irrigation Department and
Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka.
Kaudulla Tank
Capacity
Command area

: 104,000 Acft
: 13,500 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

18,762 m
17,234 m
63,682 m
287,411 m

All are earthen canals.

Kantale Reservoir
Capacity
Command area

: 114,000 Acft
: 18,560 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

33,859 m
6,450 m
26,500 m
166,000 m

All are earthen canals.

Vendrasan Tank
Capacity
Command area

: 20,200 Acft
: 1,750 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

: 2,900 m
:
: 9,142 m
: 14,780 m

All are earthen canals.

Wanela Tank
Capacity
Command area

: 2,160 Acft
: 1,620 Acrs
15

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

: 5,527 m
:
: 9,146 m
: 34,722 m

Only 0.4% of Field canals is concrete lined

Peramaduwa Tank
Capacity
Command area

: 2,640 Acft
: 600 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

1,823
1,645
6,883
5,300

m
m
m
m

All are earthen canals.

Kalawewa
Capacity
Command area

: 100,200 Acft
: 62,713 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

106 km
91 km
511 km
1,521 km

2% of Main canals, 0.5% of Branch canals, 2% of Distributary canals and 1%

of Feeder canals are concrete lined.

Huruluwewa
Capacity
Command area

: 55,000 Acft
: 10,400 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

31,000 m
5,100 m
42,000 m
175,000 m

All are earthen canals.

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Kandalama Tank
Capacity
Command area

: 27,400 Acft
: 11,120 Acrs

Main canal length

Branch canal length
Distributary canal length
Field canal length

:
:
:
:

41,028 m
2,600 m
99,700 m
211,416 m

0.5% of of Distributary canals and 0.2% of Feeder canals are concrete lined.

4.1 Water loss calculation

Irrigation Duty for Yala season

= 5 Acr.ft/Acr.

Crop water requirement for paddy

= 1.5 Acr.ft/Acr

Water loss

= 3.5 Acr.ft /Acr

Specimen Calculation
For Kantale Irrigation Scheme
Total Water loss for a Season = 18,560Acr x 3.5 Acr.ft/Acr

= 64,960 Acr.ft

These conveying losses are due to seepage, evaporation, deep peculation and
due to bank failures etc. However the water losses are proportional to the
permeability of the soil where canal excavated and the wetted perimeter of the
canal. In most irrigation systems in Sri Lanka most lengthy canals are Feeder
canals having lesser wetted perimeter. According to the canal lengths, the
conveyance efficiencies are as follows.
Canal length
Long (> 2000m)
Medium (200-2000m)
Short (< 200m)

Earthen canals
Sand Loam Clay
60% 70% 80%
70% 75% 85%
80% 85% 90%

Lined canals
95%
95%
95%

All canals in Kantale scheme are lengthy than 2000m Hence by assuming
Conveyance efficiency for Lined canals is 95%,

17

Water loss during conveying is 3,248 Acr.ft and saving is 61,712 Acr.ft
Also all these water is conveying through Main canals, Branch canals,
Distributary canals & Field canals. Therefore total saving water is factored to
the canal length vise.

Type of canal
Main Canals
Branch Canals
Distributary
Canals
Feeder Canals
Total

Water loss in Acft/Acr

Earthen
Lined
9448
472
1800
90
7394

370

46318
64960

2316
3248

Water Losses from Kantale Irrigation Scheme

50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Main Canals

Branch Canals

Distributary Canals

Earthen

Feeder Canals

Lined

Saving of water;
From
From
From
From

Main canals
Branch canals
Distributary canals
Field canals

:
:
:
:

61,712
61,712
61,712
61,712

x
x
x
x

0.15
0.03
0.11
0.71

=
=
=
=

8,975 Acr.ft
1,710 Acr.ft
7,025 Acr.ft
44,003 Acr.ft

The saving water from FCC is enough for additional cultivation of almost
29,000 Acrs ie. The command area can be increased by 158%
18

5.0 DISCUSSION
Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Water resource
management planning has to take account of all the competing demands of
water by mankind (sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and
agriculture etc.) and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy
all uses and demands. Against this background this research was done to
optimize the water usage in Irrigation practices in Sri Lanka.
It is clear from the analysis most losses of water from Field canals. This is due
to those canals are more lengthy than others. Even though the seepages from
a canal is a loss, in a way it is more favorable as it is environmentally feasible
due to recharging the ground water table.
However, if concern the field canals area, it is not necessary to improve the
water table because whole area is used only for cultivation. But Main/branch
or distributary canals are mostly going through villages, hence improving
ground water table is much important in that area too. Also losses from above
canals is minimum than FCC according to the analysis therefore Lining is not
suggest for Main/branch or Distributary canals.
By considering the above reasons it is more adequate to propose a suitable
lining method for field canals.
Sri Lanka most currently practicing method is just earthen canals with fever
in-situ or pre-cast concrete linings. Concrete lining is also adopt only
concerning the difficulty of construction of earthen canals. But with the
concern of water management it is clear that much water is lost during
conveying. Hence to optimize the conveyance losses this research is followed
to introduce lining for irrigation canals in Sri Lanka.
The literature review clears that there are so many lining methods. But no
one particular type of lining can be considered the best or most economical
for use in all locations. Each type of lining has its own specific technical and
economic merits and limitations depending on such factors as specific site
and soil conditions, location, experience of installation crews and weather

19

conditions during installations. A particular type of lining may be unsuitable

for use at another location.
Therefore by considering the factors such as purpose of lining, soil
characteristics, ground water levels, land use, operation and maintenance,
Canal dimensions, acceptable seepage rate, service life, availability of
construction materials, availability of labor and equipment, in irrigation
canals in Sri Lanka it is more suitable method is concrete linings. But it could
be in type of in-situ or pre-cast. In-situ concerting is also somewhat difficult
as have to wait for off-season to execute the works and also any how complete
within that time too. Also materials to be transported to the sites and
technical attention is also needed to maintain the canal slope & quality of
construction works. This difficulties could be overcome by using Pre-cast.
Therefore it is suggest Pre-cast concrete lining alternative for in-situ
concreting as it is easy handling, installing & making in a yard to an optimum
quality.

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6.0 REFERENCES
1. Construction and Refurbishment of Earthen Channel Banks,(2002),
Australia
2. Ekanayake EMSMK, (2013). Designing to find the Head Works
Parameters for the Breached Divulkele Tank & Introducing a Water
Management Plan. IESL Part III(C) Thesis, Institution of Engineers, Sri
Lanka.
3. IS 10430:2000,(2000). Criteria for Design of Lined Canals and
Guidance for Selection of Type of Lining.Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India
4. M.Riaz, Z. Sen(2005). Aspects of Design and Benefits of Alternative
Lining Systems, European Water 11/12:17-27, 2005 2005 E.W.
Publications
5. Syed Hasan, GunvantVaghela, James Yip, Ben Chung. Shotcrete
Design for Irrigation Canal Lining, GHD Pty Ltd, Sydney.
6. SK Garg(1996).Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures,
Khanna Publishers ,New Delhi, India
7. Tahir MA, Tarig EI Gamri(2009). Use of Pre-cast Concrete Slabs and
Bricks for Lining Irrigation Canals, J.Sc. Vol. 10(2) 2009, Desertification
Research Institute, Sudan.
8. http://www.irrigation.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar
ticle&id=301&Itemid=161&lang=en, 2015 July
9. http://www.srilankaheritages.com/ecosystem.html, 2015 July
10. http://www.fao.org/docrep/t7202e/t7202e08.htm#TopOfPage,
2015 July
11. http://www.fiorigroup.com/products/applications/canal-lining,
2015 July

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