11MajorCausesofPowerSystemFailures

11MajorCausesofPowerSystemFailures(onphoto:SnakeblamedforpoweroutageinsomeoftheOklahomasubstation
viaect.coop)

UtilityReliabilityProblems
Togainabroaderunderstandingofpowersystemreliability,itisnecessarytounderstandtheroot
causesofsystemfaultsandsystemfailures.Adescriptionofmajorfailuremodesisprovidedbelow.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

UndergroundCable
TransformerFailures
Lightning
TreeContact
Birds
Squirrels
Snakes
Insects
Bears,Bison,andCattle
Mice,Rats,andGophers

11. Vandalism

1.UndergroundCable
Amajorreliabilityconcernpertainingtoundergroundcablesiselectrochemicaltreeing.Treeing
occurswhenmoisturepenetrationinthepresenceofanelectricfieldreducesthedielectricstrength
ofcableinsulation.Whenthedielectricstrengthisdegradedsufficiently,transientscausedby
lightningorswitchingcanresultindielectricbreakdown.
Electrochemicaltreeingusuallyaffectsextrudeddielectriccablesuchascrosslinked
polyethylene(XLPE)andethylenepropylenerubber(EPR),andislargelyattributedtoinsulation
impuritiesandbadmanufacturing.

Undergroundcablefault(PHOTOCREDIT:scantekgroup.com.au)

Toreducefailuresrelatedtoelectrochemicaltreeing,autilitycaninstallsurgeprotectiononriser
poles(transitionsfromoverheadtounderground),canpurchasetreeretardantcable,andcantest
cablereelsbeforeacceptingthemfromthemanufacturer.

Existingcablecanbetestedandreplacedifproblemsarefound.Onewaytodo
thisistoapplyaDCvoltagewithstandtest(approximately3timesnominal
RMSvoltage).Sincecableswilleitherpassornotpassthistest,information
aboutthestateofcabledeteriorationcannotbedetermined.
Anotherpopularmethodforcabletestingistoinjectasmallsignalintooneendandcheckfor
reflectionsthatwilloccuratpartialdischargepoints.Othermethodsaremeasuringthepowerfactor
overarangeoffrequencies(dielectricspectroscopy),analyzingphysicalinsulationsamplesinalab
forpolymericbreakdown(degreeofpolymerization),andusingcableindentorstotestthehardness
oftheinsulation.

TracinganUndergroundCableFault(VIDEO)

Cantseethisvideo?ClickheretowatchitonYoutube.

Notallundergroundcablesystemfailuresareduetocableinsulation.Asubstantial
percentageoccursatsplices,terminations,andjoints.Majorcausesareduetowateringressand
poorworkmanship.Heatshrinkcoverscanbeusedtowaterproofthesejunctionsandimprove
reliability.
Thelastmajorreliabilityconcernforundergroundcableisdigins.Thisiswhenexcavation
equipmentcutsthroughoneormorecables.Topreventdigins,utilitiesshouldencouragethe
publictohavecableroutesidentifiedbeforeinitiatingsiteexcavation.Inextremecaseswherehigh
reliabilityisrequired,utilitiescanplacecableinconcreteencasedductbanks.
GobacktoIndex

2.TransformerFailures
Transformersarecriticallinksinpowersystems,andcantakealongtimetoreplaceiftheyfail.
Throughfaultscauseextremephysicalstressontransformerwindings,andarethemajorcauseof
transformerfailures.

Overloadsrarelyresultintransformerfailures,butdocausethermalagingof
windinginsulation.
Whenatransformerbecomeshot,theinsulationonthewindingsslowlybreaksdownandbecomes
brittleovertime.Therateofthermalbreakdownapproximatelydoublesforevery10C.10Cis
referredtoastheMontsingerFactorandisaruleofthumbdescribingtheArrheniustheoryof
electrolyticdissociation.

Powertransformerfailure(photocredit:oriontechserv.com)

Becauseofthisexponentialrelationship,transformeroverloadscanresultinrapidtransformer
aging.Whenthermalaginghascausedinsulationtobecomesufficientlybrittle,thenextfault
currentthatpassesthroughthetransformerwillmechanicallyshakethewindings,acrackwillform
intheinsulation,andaninternaltransformerfaultwillresult.

Extremehotspottemperaturesinliquidfilledtransformerscanalsoresultin
failure.
Thisisbecausethehotspotcancausefreebubblesthatreducethedielectricstrengthoftheliquid.
Eveniffreebubblesarenotformed,hightemperatureswillincreaseinternaltankpressureandmay
resultinoverflowortankrupture.

Failureof230/69kVAutotransformer(VIDEO)

Cantseethisvideo?ClickheretowatchitonYoutube.

Manytransformersarefittedwithloadtapchangers(LTCs)forvoltageregulation.These
mechanicallymovingdeviceshavehistoricallybeenpronetofailureandcansubstantiallyreduce
thereliabilityofatransformer.
ManufacturershaveaddressedthisproblemandnewLTCmodelsusingvacuumtechnology
havesucceededinreducingfailurerates.
GobacktoIndex

3.Lightning
Alightningstrikeoccurswhenthevoltagegeneratedbetweenacloudandthegroundexceedsthe
dielectricstrengthoftheair.Thisresultsinamassivecurrentstrokethatusuallyexceeds30,000
amps.Tomakemattersworse,moststrokesconsistofmultipledischargeswithinafractionofa
second.Lightningisthemajorreliabilityconcernforutilitieslocatedinhighkeraunicareas.
AnisokeraunicmapfortheworldisshowninFigure1below.

Figure1Numberofthunderstormdaysperyear

Lightningcanaffectpowersystemsthroughdirectstrikes(thestrokecontactsthepower
system)orthroughindirectstrikes(thestrokecontactssomethingincloseproximityandinducesa
travelingvoltagewaveonthepowersystem).

Lightningstriketransmissiontower

Lightningcanbeprotectedagainstby:
1.
2.
3.
4.

HavingahighsystemBIL,
Usingshieldwires,
Usingsurgearrestorstoclampvoltagesacrossequipment,and
Havingalowimpedanceground.

Directstrikesarevirtuallyimpossibletoprotectagainstonadistributionsystem.

GobacktoIndex

4.TreeContact
Treescontinuouslygrow,canfalloverontoconductors,candropbranchesontoconductors,can
pushconductorstogether,andcanserveasgatewayforanimals.Thisiswhymanyutilitiesspend
moreontreetrimmingthanonanyotherpreventativemaintenanceactivity.

Whenatreebranchbridgestwoconductors,afaultdoesnotoccurimmediately.

Thisisbecauseamoisttreebranchhasasubstantialresistance.Asmallcurrentbeginstoflow
andstartstodryoutthewoodfibers.Afterseveralminutes,thecellulosewillcarbonize,resistance
willbegreatlyreduced,andashortcircuitwilloccur.Branchesbrushingagainstasinglephase
conductortypicallydonotresultinsystemfaults.

Treedistancesfromoverheadlines(photocredit:saskpower.com)

Faultsduetotreecontactcanbereducedbyusingtreewire.Thisisoverheadwirewithan

insulatedjacketsimilartocable.Treewirecanbeeffective,butfaultstendtoresultinconductor
burndownsincetheywillnotmotor(movethemselvesalongtheconductor)likefaultsonbare
conductor.
GobacktoIndex

5.Birds
Birdsarethemostcommoncauseofanimalfaultsonbothtransmissionsystemsandair
insulatedsubstations.Differenttypesofbirdscausedifferenttypesofproblems,buttheycan
generallybeclassifiedasnestingbirds,roostingbirds,raptors,andwoodpeckers.

Nestingbirdscommonlybuildtheirhomesontransmissiontowersandin
substations.Nestingmaterialscancausefaults,andbirdexcrementcancontaminate
insulators.

Nestingbirdsalsoattractpredatorssuchasraccoons,snakes,andcats.Thesepredators
canbeaworsereliabilityproblemthanthebirdsthemselves.

SeattleCityLightworkersremoveanospreybirdnestneartheDuwamishRiverthatcaused
ashortcircuit(photocredit:hpowerlines.seattle.gov)

Roostingbirdsuseelectricalequipmenttorestonortosearchforprey.Theycanbeelectrocuted
bybridgingconductorswiththeirwings,andtheirexcrementcancontaminateinsulators.Toprevent
birdsfromroosting,antiroostingdevicescanbeplacedonattractivesites.Forlocationsthatcater
tothousandsofroostingbirds,moreextremedeterrentmethodssuchaspyrotechnicscanbeused.

Raptorsarebirdsofpreysuchaseagles,hawks,ospreys,owls,andvultures.Reliabilityproblems
aresimilartootherroostingandnestingbirds,butspecialconsiderationmayberequiredsince
mostraptorsareprotectedbythefederalgovernment.
Woodpeckerspeckholesinwoodwiththeirbeaksastheysearchforinsects.Thisdoesnotharm
trees(thebarkregenerates),butcancausedevastatingdamagetoutilitypoles.Thiscanbe
preventedbyusingsteelpoles,byusingrepellent,orbytrickingawoodpeckerintobelievingthat
thereisalreadyaresidentwoodpecker(woodpeckersarequiteterritorial).
GobacktoIndex

6.Squirrels
Squirrelsareareliabilityconcernforalloverheaddistributionsystemsnearwoodedareas.
Squirrelswillnottypicallyclimbutilitypoles,butwillleapontothemfromnearbytrees.

AsquirrelchewedintoapowerlineinTrumbull,Connecticut,wherethe
Nasdaqscomputercenterislocated,shuttingdowntradingfor34minutes.It
wasthesecondtimeithadhappened(photocredit:cantechletter.com)

Theycausefaultsbybridginggroundedequipmentwithphaseconductors.Squirrelproblems
canbemitigatedbycuttingdownnearbyaccesstreesorbyinstallinganimalguardsoninsulators.
GobacktoIndex

7.Snakes

Snakesaremajorreliabilityconcernsinbothsubstationsandundergroundsystems.Theycan
squeezethroughverysmallopenings,canclimbalmostanything,andhavethelengthtoeasily
spanphaseconductors.

ThisthreemeterlongcobraistheculpritthatcausedamajorpowerfailureinModimolle.
Theincineratedbreakercanbeseeninthebackground(photocredit:diepos.co.za)

Snakesareusuallysearchingforfood(birdsinsubstationsandmiceinundergroundsystems),and
removingthefoodsupplycanoftenremovethesnakeproblem.Specialsnakefencesarealso
available.
GobacktoIndex

8.Insects
Itisbecomingmorecommonforfireantstobuildnestsinpadmountedequipment.

Fireantsnestinginsidetransformer(photocredit:iaeimagazine.org)

Theirnestingmaterialscancauseshortcircuits,theantscaneatawayatconductorinsulation,
andtheymakeequipmentmaintenanceachallenge.
GobacktoIndex

9.Bears,Bison,andCattle
Theselargeanimalsdonottypicallycauseshortcircuits,butdegradethestructuralintegrityof
polesbyrubbingonguywires.Bearscanalsodestroywoodenpolesbyusingthemasscratching
posts,andblackbearscanclimbwoodenutilitypoles.Theseproblemscanbeaddressedby
placingfencesaroundpolesandguywireanchors.
GobacktoIndex

10.Mice,Rats,andGophers
Theserodentscausefaultsbygnawingthroughtheinsulationofundergroundcable.Theyare
themostcommoncauseofanimalrelatedoutagesonundergroundequipment.Tomakematters
worse,theywillattractsnakes(alsoareliabilityproblem).

Equipmentcabinetsshouldbetightlysealedtopreventthesesmallanimalsfrom
entering.Ultrasonicdevicescanalsobeusedtokeeprodentsaway(ultrasonic
deviceswillnotkeepsnakesaway).

GobacktoIndex

11.Vandalism
Vandalismcantakemanydifferentforms,frompeopleshootinginsulatorswithriflestoprofessional
thievesstealingconductorwireforscrapmetal.Addressingthesereliabilityproblemswillvary
greatlyfromsituationtosituation.
GobacktoIndex
Reference:TheelectricpowerengineeringhandbookL.L.Grigsby(Purchasehardcoverbook
fromAmazon)