AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of ------------------------

2004-2005
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Register number:_________________________
This is to certify that the project report titled AUTOMATED
GUIDED VEHICLE submitted by the following students for the
award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is record of
bonafide work carried out by them.
Done by
Mr./Ms_______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

degree in
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
During the Year (2004-2005)
_________________
Head of Department

_______________

Guide

Coimbatore 641651.
Date:
Submitted for the university examination held on
___________
_________________
Internal Examiner
Examiner

________________
External

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully

completed our project, we wish to convey our
sincere thanks and gratitude to the management
of

our

college

and

our

beloved

chairman

, who provided all

the facilities

to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to

our

principal

for

forwarding us to do our project and offering

adequate duration in completing our project.
We

are

also

Department Prof.

grateful

to

the

Head

of

.., for

her constructive suggestions & encouragement

during our project.
With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our
earnest

&

sincere

thanks

to

..,
of

Mechanical

for

her

kind

our

guide

Department
guidance

&

encouragement during this project.

We also express our indebt thanks to our
TEACHING

and

NON

TEACHING

staffs

of

MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT,

.(COLLEGE NAME).

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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CONTENTS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PARTICULAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
SYNOPSIS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPEMENT
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS
4. FABRICATION
5. WORKING PRINCIPLE
6. LIST OF MATERIALS
7. COST ESTIMATION
8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGED
9. DISADVANTAGES
10. CONCLUSION
11. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENT

PAGE No.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY

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SYNOPSIS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SYNOPSIS

In our project we are eliminating the need of conveyers, pallet trolley, etc to handle
material transfer in heavy industries. For purpose we are designing automated guided
vehicle controlled by microprocessor controller. In the available methods of material
handling manpower, fuel power is used. By the end of 2020, fuel deposit in the world
completely depleted.

To avoid this type of problems and reduce manpower requirement we need other
type of automation is called automated guided Vehicle. The microcontroller is used to
control the vehicle path automatically. The rechargeable battery is supplying power to the
automated guided vehicle.

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Chapter-1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

We have pleasure in introducing our new project AUTOMATED GUIDED

VEHICLE, which is equipped by micro controller, motor driving mechanism and
battery.

The power stored in the battery is used to drive the DC motor that causes the
movement to AGV. The speed of rotation of DC motor i.e., velocity of AGV is
controlled by the microprocessor controller.

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual

effort by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an
essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the
degree of mechanization is increased.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
Semi automation.

In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is

required whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.

NEED FOR AUTOMATION:

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics,

etc., of these sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost automation.
The main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy and simplicity. Automation
plays an important role in mass production.

For mass production of the product, the machining operations decide the
sequence of machining. The machines designed for producing a particular product are
called transfer machines. The components must be moved automatically from the bins to
various machines sequentially and the final component can be placed separately for
packaging. Materials can also be repeatedly transferred from the moving conveyors to the
work place and vice versa.

Nowadays almost all the manufacturing process is being atomized in order to

deliver the products at a faster rate. The manufacturing operation is being atomized for
the following reasons.

To achieve mass production

To reduce man power

To increase the efficiency of the plant

To reduce the work load

To reduce the production cost

To reduce the production time

To reduce the material handling

To reduce the fatigue of workers

To achieve good product quality

Less Maintenance

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Chapter-2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESCRIPTION OF THE
EQUIPEMENT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-2
DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPEMENT

AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE:

The existing AGVs, pallet trucks, trolley use petrol or diesel as fuel for running
and for operating them we use the manpower. These types of vehicles consume liter
of fuel for a period of one hour.

For overcoming this we designed AGV which is drawn power from the storage
battery. The power stored in the battery is used to drive the DC motor that causes the
movement to AGV. The speed of rotation of DC motor i.e., velocity of AGV is
controlled by the microprocessor controller.

Battery assembled on the AGV is easily replaceable and detachable, used for
charging the battery, while the AGV is under roof. Path programmed for the AGV in a
micro controller chip can be altered when required.

COMPONENTS OF AGV:

(1) Battery
(2) D.C. motor
(3) Trough
(4) L-angle frame
(5) Gear drive
(6) Wheel
(7) Microcontroller

1. BATTERY UNIT:

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess
solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine
load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small
units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and
economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries
are high in capital costs.

It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect to available

energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar
electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1)

Low cost

(2)

Long life

(3)

High reliability

(4)

High overall efficiency

(5)

Low discharge

(6)

Minimum maintenance
(A)

Ampere hour efficiency

(B)

Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for
lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

Battery is the heart of the electrical systems in a AGV. The battery supplies the
essential current. It is an electrical device used for storing energy in chemical form,
which can be released as electricity as and when required. The battery supplies the
current for starting the motor and the driving motor.

Battery rating:

The fully charged battery is maintained at room temperature and the discharge is
adjusted at the rate of 5% of the specified ampere-hours capacity. The battery discharge
at a rate of 7.5 Amps it will withstand 20 hours.

Battery capacity:

The capacity of the battery is defined as the amount of current depends upon
number of plates, area of the plates, and quantity of the electrolyte, temperature. 6 Volts
battery requires 15, 17, 19, 21 plates per cell.

Battery life:

Battery life is defined as the time for which it can serve without any damage.
Overcharging caused by the overheating and the excessive gas bubbling reduces the
battery life. The battery life greatly depends on materials workmanship and maintenance.

Lead acid battery:

The positive and negative electrodes of a lead acid battery are immersed in dilute
sulfuric acid. When the battery is fully charged, there is lead peroxide on the positive
plate and the negative plate as the active materials.

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most
commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (HSO). In the
application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load
current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of
2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery
and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.
The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,
as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge
and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile
battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest
output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group
of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,
consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid
or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active
material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a
forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the
active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo). The negative
electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer.

The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the
plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal
service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding
water.

The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions.

When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to
form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative
plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the net result of discharge is
to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the
plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding
circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the
outside terminals of old batteries.

When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The
reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical
reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate
ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates
and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react
with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative
plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full
output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and
the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO + 2HSO

2pbSO + 2HO

Discharge
On discharge, the pb and pbo combine with the SO ions at the left side of the
equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO) and water (HO) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cells, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are
connected in series to get a voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in
series, to get a 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.

CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear gloves,
goggles and old clothes. Battery acid will burn skin and eyes and destroy cotton and
wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave
them stand dead for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a
chemical change in the positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when
charge out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a few
days, some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide when the battery is recharged.
If the battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the positive plate will remain
lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become sulfate no longer store energy.
Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis can fail
in less then one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a
hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are
cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower
than it should because the electrolyte at the top of the battery may not have mixed with
the charged electrolyte.

Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year
and top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged batteries.
Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are much discharged. If you add water at this time,
and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten
or remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a
hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is
reversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form
the lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO ions combine with H ions from the
water to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.

CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents
they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained
above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell.

A common rating is ampere-hours (A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which

is often 8h. Typical values for automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h. As an example, a
200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used on 8h discharge. The
battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for a shorter time.
Automobile batteries may be rated for cold cranking power, which is related to the job
of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200
A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). The equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs.
One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb.

Then the charge equals 720,000 or

7.2*10^5C. To put this much charge back into the battery would require 20 hours with a
charging current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80F.
Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110F shortens
the battery life. Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The
ampere-hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1 F below
normal temperature rating. At 0F the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour
battery rating.

In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto

full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the
discharged condition.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of
discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a
substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water.

For instance,

concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.
Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is
the reference.

In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a
specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80F. as the cell discharges, more
water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is
completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer, such as one in

figure (7). Note that the calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in
an electrolyte of higher specific gravity.

The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value of
1.220 in figure (7) is simply read twelve twenty. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to
1280 indicates full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200
indicates complete discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the opencircuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an
example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

Battery charging procedures:

1. The level of electrolyte is checked. If needed more electrolytes is added to

maintain the level 10 mm above the top of the plate.

2. The negative and positive terminals of the battery are connected to the
respective terminals of the battery charge.

3. The charging current is discharged to the current value. The current is adjusted
to one ampere per positive plate.

4. Charging is connected till the formation of the gas, then the charging current is
decreased and continued till there is no further increase in the specific gravity.

5. The temperature of the electrolyte should be checked to be < 45 C otherwise,

during charging intermittent cooling is essential.

6. Check the battery boiling temperature to avoid overheating.

CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more
than the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so
that the charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge
current.

Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and
charging source VG with + to + and to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is
reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher
than VB. In this example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 1512=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,

rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always
connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides
current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The
battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver
by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking
power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary
for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the output
at approximately 13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge
controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are
connected in series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of

0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the
battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very
well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery
life will be very short.

2. D.C MOTOR :

The electrical motor is an instrument, which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. According to faradays law of Electro magnetic induction, when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force
whose direction is given by Flemings left hand rule.

Constructional a dc generator and a dc motor are identical. The same dc machine

can be used as a generator or as a motor. When a generator is in operation, it is driven
mechanically and develops a voltage. The voltage is capable of sending current through
the load resistance. While motor action a torque is developed.

The torque can produce mechanical rotation. Motors are classified as series
wound, shunt wound motors.

Principles of operation:

The basic principle of Motor action lies in a sample sketch.

Movement of
Conductor

Magnetic flux

Current carrying
Conductor

Fig no. 5

The motor runs according to the principle of Flemings left hand rule. When a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field is produced to move the
conductor away from the magnetic field.

The conductor carrying current to North and South poles is being removed. In the
above stated two conditions there is no movement of the conductors. Whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The field due to the current in the
conductor but opposes the main field below the conductor. As a result the flux density
below the conductor. It is found that a force acts on the conductor to push the conductor
downwards.

If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of the flux lines
occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards.

As stated above the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, where as the
coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides A and B
will be the same coil magnitudes, but their directions will be opposite to one another. In
DC machines coils are wound on the armature core, which is supported by the bearings,
enhances rotation of the armature. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of
current flow through the armature. Thus the armature rotates continuously.

Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A
simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

An armature or rotor

A commutator

Brushes

An axle

A field magnet

A DC power supply of some sort

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to
create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental
law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.
So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the
North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the
North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will
repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational
motion.
In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the
armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet
(the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to
save power).
Electromagnets and Motors:
To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the
electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can
understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario.

Say that you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire
around a nail and connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a
North and South pole while the battery is connected.
Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of
it, and you suspended it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure
below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end of the
nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The
North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe
magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet. The South end of the
electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nail would move about half a turn
and then stop in the position shown.
You can see that this half-turn of motion is simple and obvious because of the way
magnets naturally attract and repel one
another. The key to an electric motor is
to then go one step further so that, at the
moment that this half-turn of motion
completes, the field of the electromagnet
flips. The flip causes the electromagnet
to complete another half-turn of motion.

You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons
flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the
electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the
electric motor would spin freely.

The Armature:

The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric motor.

The armature is an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire
around two or more poles of a metal core. The armature has an
axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In the diagram
above you can see three different views of the same armature:
front, side and end-on. In the end-on view the winding is eliminated to make the
commutator more obvious. You can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates
attached to the axle. These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the
electromagnet.

The Commutator and brushes:

The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is
accomplished by two parts: the commutator and the brushes. The
diagram at the right shows how the commutator and brushes work
together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip
the direction that the electrons are flowing at just the right
moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle
of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of
springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commutator.
Putting It All Together:
When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete electric motor:

In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the
commutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through the
horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the North
pole of the electromagnet is always above the axle so it can repel the field magnet's North
pole and attract the field magnet's South pole. If you ever take apart an electric motor you
will find that it contains the same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets,
a commutator, two brushes and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of
metal. Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles
as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:
It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the
electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles of
the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting
"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.
Each time the commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole
motor, the commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and
negative terminals) for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the
battery needlessly. A three-pole motor solves this problem as well.
It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and
the specific application it is being used in.

3. TROUGH :
This is the part where the materials to be handled are stored in. It is made of
plastic. A material does not get affected or the handling of materials is easy by this
specific equipment.

4. L ANGLE FRAME:
The frame is constructed in mild steel. The frame shape is as like a letter L, so
that is called L-angle frame.

5. GEAR WHEEL:
The gear wheel is used to drive the wheel movement of Automated Guided
Vehicle (AGV). It is made up of cast iron.

6. WHEELS :
Four wheels are used, two are made of nylon having 100 mm diameter. And other
two are made of rubber having 147 mm diameter. Nylon wheels are front wheels and
other two are used as rear wheels.

7. MICROCONTROLLER:

PIC 16F84 EEPROM 8-BIT MICROCONTROLLER

Special Microcontroller Features:

1000 erase/write cycles Enhanced Flash program memory

1,000,000 typical erase/write cycles EEPROM data memory

EEPROM Data Retention > 40 years

In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) - via two pins

Power-on Reset (POR), Power-up Timer (PWRT), Oscillator

Start-up Timer (OST)

Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator

for reliable operation

Code-protection

Power saving SLEEP mode

Selectable oscillator options

Low-power, high-speed technology

Fully static design

Wide operating voltage range:

- Commercial: 2.0V to 5.5V
- Industrial: 2.0V to 5.5V

Low power consumption:

- < 2 mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz
- 15mA typical @ 2V, 32 kHz
- < 0.5 mA typical standby current @ 2V

High Performance RISC CPU Features:

Only 35 single word instructions to learn

All instructions single cycle except for program branches which
are two-cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns
instruction cycle
1024 words of program memory
68 bytes of data RAM
64 bytes of data EEPROM
14-bit wide instruction words
8-bit wide data bytes
15 special function hardware registers
Eight-level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Four interrupt sources:

External RB0/INT pin

TMR0 timer overflow
PORTB<7:4> interrupt on change
Data EEPROM write complete

Peripheral Features:
13 I/O pins with individual direction control
High current sink/source for direct LED drive
25 mA sink max. per pin
25 mA source max. per pin
TMR0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit programmable prescaler

PIN DIAGRAM:INTRODUCTION:This

document

contains device-specific
information
operation
PIC16F84A

for
of

the
the

device.

Additional information
may be found in the
PICmicro Mid-Range Reference Manual, (DS33023).

The Reference Manual should be considered a complementary document to this

data sheet, and is highly recommended reading for a better understanding of the device
architecture and operation of the peripheral modules.

The

PIC16F84A

belongs to the mid-range

family of the PICmicro
microcontroller devices. A
block diagram of the device
is shown in Figure. The
program memory contains
1K words, which translates to 1024 instructions, since each 14-bit program memory word
is the same width as each device instruction.

The data memory (RAM) contains 68 bytes. Data EEPROM is 64 bytes. There are
also 13 I/O pins that are user-configured on a pin-to-pin basis. Some pins are multiplexed
with other device functions. These functions include:

External interrupt
Change on PORTB interrupt
Timer0 clock input

Table shows the details the pinout of the device with descriptions and details for each pin.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION
There are two memory blocks in the PIC16F84A.These are the program memory
and the data memory. Each block has its own bus, so that access to each block can occur
during the same oscillator cycle. The data memory can further be broken down into the
general purpose RAM and the Special Function Registers (SFRs).

The operations of the SFRs that control the core are described here. The SFRs
used to control the peripheral modules are described in the section discussing each
individual peripheral module.
The data memory area also contains the data EEPROM memory. This memory is
not directly mapped
into the data memory,
but

is

indirectly

mapped. That is, an

indirect

address

pointer specifies the

address of the data
EEPROM memory to
read/write.
bytes

The
of

EEPROM

64
data

memory

have the address range

0h-3Fh. More details
on

the

EEPROM

memory can be found

in Section 5.0.

Additional information on device memory may be found in the PICmicro MidRange Reference Manual, (DS33023).

Program Memory Organization

The PIC16FXX has a 13-bit

program counter capable of addressing
an 8K x 14 program memory space.
For the PIC16F84A, the first 1K x 14
(0000h-03FFh)

are

physically

implemented (Figure 2-1). Accessing a

location

above

the

physically

implemented address will cause a

wraparound. For example, for locations
20h, 420h, 820h, C20h, 1020h, 1420h,
1820h, and 1C20h will be the same
instruction. The reset vector is at
0000h and the interrupt vector is at
0004h.
Data Memory Organization

The data memory is partitioned into two areas. The first is the Special Function
Registers (SFR) area, while the second is the General Purpose Registers (GPR) area. The
SFRs control the operation of the device. Portions of data memory are banked. This is for
both the SFR area and the GPR area. The GPR area is banked to allow greater than 116
bytes of general purpose RAM.

The banked areas of the SFR are for the registers that control the peripheral
functions. Banking requires the use of control bits for bank selection. These control bits
are located in the STATUS Register. Figure 2-1 shows the data memory map
organization. Instructions MOVWF and MOVF can move values from
the W register to any location in the register file (F), and vice-versa.

The entire data memory can be accessed either directly using the absolute address
of each register file or indirectly through the File Select Register (FSR) (Section 2.4).
Indirect addressing uses the present value of the RP0 bit for access into the banked areas
of data memory. Data memory is partitioned into two banks which contain the general
purpose registers and the special function registers. Bank 0 is selected by clearing the
RP0 bit (STATUS<5>). Setting the RP0 bit selects Bank 1. Each Bank extends up to 7Fh
(128 bytes). The first twelve locations of each Bank are reserved for the Special Function
Registers. The remainders are General Purpose Registers implemented as static RAM.
GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER FILE

Each General Purpose Register (GPR) is 8 bits wide and is accessed either directly
or indirectly through the FSR (Section 2.4). The GPR addresses in bank 1 are mapped to
addresses in bank 0. As an example, addressing location 0Ch or 8Ch will access the same
GPR.

PCL and PCLATH

The program counter (PC) specifies the address of the instruction to fetch for
xecution. The PC is 13 bits wide. The low byte is called the PCL register. This register is
readable and writable. The high byte is called the PCH register. This register contains the
PC<12:8> bits and is not directly readable or writable. All updates to the PCH register go
through the PCLATH register.

STACK
The stack allows a combination of up to 8 program calls and interrupts to occur.
he stack contains the return address from this branch in program execution. Midrange
devices have an 8 level deep x 13-bit wide hardware stack. The stack space is not part of
either program or data space and the stack pointer is not readable or writable. The PC is
PUSHed onto the stack when a CALL instruction is executed or an interrupt causes a
branch.

The stack is POPed in the event of a RETURN, RETLW or a RETFIE instruction

execution. PCLATH is not modified when the stack is PUSHed or POPed. After the stack
has been PUSHed eight times, the ninth push overwrites the value that was stored from
the first push. The tenth push overwrites the second push (and so on).

Indirect Addressing; INDF and FSR Registers:-

The INDF register is not a physical register. Addressing INDF actually addresses
the register whose address is contained in the FSR register (FSR is a pointer). This is
indirect addressing.

EXAMPLE 2-1: INDIRECT ADDRESSING

Register file 05 contains the value 10h
Register file 06 contains the value 0Ah
Load the value 05 into the FSR register
A read of the INDF register will return the value of 10h
Increment the value of the FSR register by one (FSR = 06)
A read of the INDF register now will return the value of 0Ah.
Reading INDF itself indirectly (FSR = 0) will produce 00h. Writing to the INDF register
indirectly results in a no-operation (although STATUS bits may be affected).

EXAMPLE 2-2: HOW TO CLEAR RAM USING INDIRECT ADDRESSING

NEXT

movlw

0x20

;initialize pointer

movwf

FSR

; to RAM

clrf

INDF

;clear INDF register

incf

FSR

;inc pointer

btfss

FSR,4

;all done?

goto

NEXT

;NO, clear next

CONTINUE
:

;YES, continue

An effective 9-bit address is obtained by concatenating the 8-bit FSR register and
the IRP bit (STATUS<7>), as shown in Figure 2-1. However, IRP is not used in the
PIC16F84A.
I/O PORTS
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the
peripheral features on the device. In
general, when a peripheral is enabled,
that pin may not be used as a general
purpose I/O pin. Additional information
on I/O ports may be found in the
PICmicro

Mid-Range

Reference

Manual, (DS33023).

PORTA and TRISA Registers

PORTA is a 5-bit wide bidirectional port. The corresponding data

direction register is TRISA. Setting a
TRISA

bit

(=1)

will

make

the

corresponding PORTA pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a hiimpedance mode.

Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output, i.e.,
put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. Reading the PORTA register reads
the status of the pins whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations
are read-modify-write operations. Therefore a write to a port implies that the port pins are
read, this value is modified, and then written to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is
multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The
RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port
pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers.

EXAMPLE 3-1: INITIALIZING PORTA

BCF

STATUS,

CLRF

PORTA

RP0

;
; Initialize PORTA by
; clearing output
; data latches

BSF

STATUS,

MOVLW

0x0F

RP0

; Select Bank 1
; Value used to
; initialize data
; direction

MOVWF

TRISA

; Set RA<3:0> as inputs

; RA4 as output
; TRISA<7:5> are always
; read as '0'.

TIMER0 MODULE

The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features:

8-bit timer/counter

Readable and writable

Internal or external clock select

Edge select for external clock

8-bit software programmable prescaler

Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h

Figure 4-1 is a simplified block diagram of the Timer0 module.

Timer0 Operation

Timer0 can operate as a timer or as a counter. Timer mode is selected by clearing

bit T0CS (OPTION_REG<5>). In timer mode, the Timer0 module will increment every
instruction cycle (without prescaler). If the TMR0 register is written, the increment is
inhibited for the following two instruction cycles. The user can work around this by
writing an adjusted value to the TMR0 register. Counter mode is selected by setting bit
T0CS (OPTION_REG<5>). In counter mode, Timer0 will increment either on every
rising or falling edge of pin RA4/T0CKI. The incrementing edge is determined by the
Timer0 Source Edge Select bit T0SE (OPTION_REG<4>).

Clearing bit T0SE selects the rising edge. Restrictions on the external clock input
are discussed below. When an external clock input is used for Timer0, it must meet
certain requirements. The requirements ensure the external clock can be synchronized
with the internal phase clock (TOSC). Also, there is a delay in the actual incrementing of
Timer0 after synchronization.

Prescaler

An 8-bit counter is available as a prescaler for the Timer0 module, or as a

postscaler for the Watchdog Timer, respectively (Figure 4-2). For simplicity, this counter
is being referred to as prescaler throughout this data sheet. Note that there is only one
prescaler available which is mutually exclusively shared between the Timer0 module and
the Watchdog Timer. Thus, a prescaler assignment for the Timer0 module means that
there is no prescaler for the Watchdog Timer, and vice-versa.

The prescaler is not readable or writable. The PSA and PS2:PS0 bits
(OPTION_REG<3:0>) determine the prescaler assignment and prescale ratio. Clearing
bit PSA will assign the prescaler to the Timer0 module.

When the prescaler is assigned to the Timer0 module, prescale values of 1:2,
1:4, ..., 1:256 are selectable. Setting bit PSA will assign the prescaler to the Watchdog
Timer (WDT). When the prescaler is assigned to the WDT, prescale values of 1:1, 1:2, ...,
1:128 are selectable. When assigned to the Timer0 module, all instructions writing to the
TMR0 register (e.g. CLRF 1, MOVWF 1, BSF 1,x....etc.) will clear the prescaler. When
assigned to WDT, a CLRWDT instruction will clear the prescaler along with the WDT.

Note: Writing to TMR0 when the prescaler is assigned to Timer0 will clear the prescaler
Count, but will not change the prescaler assignment.

INT INTERRUPT
External interrupt on RB0/INT pin is edge triggered: either rising if INTEDG bit
(OPTION_REG<6>) is set, or falling, if INTEDG bit is clear. When a valid edge appears
on the RB0/INT pin, the INTF bit (INTCON<1>) is set. This interrupt can be disabled by
clearing control bit INTE (INTCON<4>). Flag bit INTF must be cleared in software via
the interrupt service routine before re-enabling this interrupt.

The INT interrupt can wake the processor from SLEEP (Section 6.11) only if the
INTE bit was set prior to going into SLEEP. The status of the GIE bit decides whether the
processor branches to the interrupt vector following wake-up.

TMR0 INTERRUPT

An overflow (FFh 00h) in TMR0 will set flag bit T0IF (INTCON<2>). The
interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing enable bit T0IE (INTCON<5>)
(Section 4.0). 6.8.3 PORB INTERRUPT An input change on PORTB<7:4> sets flag bit
RBIF (INTCON<0>). The interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing enable bit
RBIE (INTCON<3>) (Section 3.2). 6.8.4 DATA EEPROM INTERRUPT At the
completion of a data EEPROM write cycle, flag bit EEIF (EECON1<4>) will be set. The
interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing enable bit EEIE (INTCON<6>)
(Section 5.0).

Context Saving During Interrupts

During an interrupt, only the return PC value is saved on the stack. Typically, users
wish to save key register values during an interrupt (e.g., W register and STATUS
register). This is implemented in software. Example 6-1 stores and restores the STATUS
and W registers values.

The User defined registers, W_TEMP and STATUS_TEMP are the temporary
storage locations for the W and STATUS registers values. Example 6-1 does the
following:

a) Stores the W register.

b) Stores the STATUS register in STATUS_TEMP.
c) Executes the Interrupt Service Routine code.
d) Restores the STATUS (and bank select bit) register.
e) Restores the W register.

EXAMPLE 6-1: SAVING STATUS AND W REGISTERS IN RAM

PUSH

MOVWF

W_TEMP

; Copy W to TEMP register,

SWAPF

STATUS, W

; Swap status to be saved into W

MOVWF

STATUS_TEMP

; Save status to STATUS_TEMP

register

ISR :

:
:

; Interrupt Service Routine

; should configure Bank as required

POP

SWAPF

STATUS_TEMP, W ; Swap nibbles in STATUS_TEMP

register
; and place result into W

MOVWF

STATUS

; Move W into STATUS register

; (sets bank to original state)

SWAPF

W_TEMP, F

; Swap nibbles in W_TEMP and place

result in W_TEMP

SWAPF

W_TEMP, W

; Swap nibbles in W_TEMP and place

result into W

Note 1: For a change on the I/O pin to be recognized, the pulse width must be at least
TCY wide.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN PARAMETERS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-3
DESIGN PARAMETERS

Components

Material

Specification

L-Angle

Mild steel C 40

20 x 15 mm

Ball Bearing

HSS

SKF 6202

Trough

Plastic

.0152 m

Gear wheel

Cast iron

78 teeth
29 teeth(pinion)

D.C motor

..

12 V / 2 A

Front Wheels

Nylon

100 mm

Rear Wheels

Rubber

147 mm

DESIGN CALCULATION:

AGV at stationary condition:

Area of L-angle

66 mm

Total area

4 x 66 = 264 mm

Total Load

40 Kg (Approx.)

Stress due to load

Load/Area = (40 x 9.81) / (264)

= 1.486 N/mm (Calculated)

Yield stress for material (C40):

323.73 N/mm (Obtained)

(D.D. book pg. No. 6)

Calculated stress less than obtained stress, since design is safe.

AGV at moving condition:

The CG of AGV lies inside the quadrilateral is formed by joining the wheel
position point. Since the design is safe.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FABRICATION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-4
FABRICATION

Al the materials & components for our project are bought from the respective
markets. Mild steel l-angles, sheet metals, bearings, d.c motor, trough, battery, nylon &
rubber wheels, cast iron gear, mild steel shafts.
L-angle are cut into required number of pieces as per the dimension and welded
together 7 the sheet metal is welded over it to form the base of the AGV. Wheels are
joined to the AGV by using suitable methods.
Battery and d.c motor are fixed with the base of the AGV by using the bolts and
nuts. Gears are mounted on the output shafts of the d.c motor & they are coupled with the
gears that are mounted on the shafts of the front & rear wheels respectively. Trough is
also placed on the base of the AGV by using nut & bolt arrangement.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING PRINCIPLE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-5
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The straight line motion drive is provided by the DC motor fixed at the rear wheel
shaft of AGV. The supply of the current is given by the battery provided on the sheet
metal.
The stored energy from the battery is supplied to D.C motor. The

straight

line

movement of the AGV is done by the d.c motor (12 V/ 2A). The motor is fixed at the rear
wheel shaft of the AGV. The supply to the motor is given by battery (12 V/7 Ah). This
battery also gives the supply of current to the microcontroller.
The already energy stored in battery is sent to d.c motor control circuit. The d.c
motor works according to the program written on the microcontroller chip. (i.e.) AGV
moves to a distance of specified value and at that instant power supply to d.c motor is cut
off and again a power supply is given to the d.c motor so that the AGV moves in a curved
path. So the specified path which is needed for us is obtained by the above procedure.

In our project lead-acid battery is used. The lead-acid batteries output is given to
the control unit. Control unit having four relays, they are connected to the two D.C motor
in Forward and reverse rotation of operation.

Relay 1

Forward Direction

Relay 2

Reverse Direction

Relay 3

Left Turn

Relay 4

Right Turn

At first vehicle is moving in forward direction when the switch is on. The path is
already programmed in a control unit. Then the control unit activates the proper relay so
that the vehicle moves in forward direction for particular time period. Then the vehicle
turns in left direction for particular time period. Then the vehicle turns right for particular
time period.

The straight line motion is provided in the back wheel drive with the help of spur
gear mechanism. The straight line movement of the AGV is done by the d.c motor (12 V/
2A). The motor is fixed at the rear wheel shaft of the AGV with the help of proper
arrangement.
The Left/Right motion is provided in the front wheel drive with the help of rack
and pinion mechanism. The left/right movement of the AGV is done by another d.c motor
(12 V/ 2A). The motor is fixed at the front wheel shaft of the AGV with the help of
proper arrangement.

Vcc

10/63V

Vcc

5
10K

Vcc

PULSE FROM SWITCH 1

0.1

Vcc

14

10K

10

12V

1K

10K
1N4007

100K

1.5K

RELAY

1
Vcc

5.6V

0.1

150K

10K

PULSE FROM SWITCH 2

1.5K
100K
0.1

150K

11
MICROCONT
ROLLER
2
16F84

5.6V

BC547
1K

1N4007

12V

RELAY

P.M.D.C.
MOTOR-1

Vcc
BC547
10K

1K

12V

12
1N4007
33pF
CRYSTAL
12MHZ
33pF

P.M.D.C.
MOTOR-1

RELAY

P.M.D.C.
MOTOR-2

15

16
13
P.M.D.C.
MOTOR-2

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-6
LIST OF MATERIALS

Components

Material

Quantity

L-Angle

Mild steel C 40

Ball Bearing

HSS

Trough

Plastic

Gear wheel

Cast iron

2
29 teeth(pinion)

D.C motor

..

12 V / 2 A

Front Wheels

Nylon

Rear Wheels

Rubber

Microcontroller

16F84 IC

Battery

Lead-acid

12V D.C

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-7
COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST:

Components

Material

L-Angle

Mild steel C 40

Ball Bearing

HSS

Trough

Plastic

Gear wheel

Cast iron

D.C motor

..

Front Wheels

Nylon

Rear Wheels

Rubber

Microcontroller

Battery

Lead-acid

Amount (Rs)

2. LABOUR COST:
LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING,
PCB DESIGNING AND MACKING:
Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost =

Material Cost + Labour cost

=
=
Overhead Charges =

20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST
Total cost

Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
=
Total cost for this project

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATION AND ADVANTAGES

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-8

8.1 APPLICATIONS
Open field work.
Using replaceable, battery, it can be used in indoors also.
Used in assembly section.

8.2 ADVANTAGES
Low running cost.
Battery power source.
Pollution free.
By using EPROM it can be used in FMS.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DISADVANTAGES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-9
DISADVANTAGES

 High Initial cost.

Battery charger required

Battery charging time is high.

AGV does not sense the obstacle in the AGV paths.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION

This brings you to the end of this project a challenging venture for the four of us.
It has been a valuable experience for us thought out this project. We have had opportunity
to learn more about the automation.

Finally efficiency obtained could be further improvement by adding solar panel, so

that increasing efficiency of the AGV. By selecting suitable material we can increase the
efficiency. This is very useful in all industries material handling department. The man
power requirement in the industries is reduced by adding automated guided vehicle.

We also take this opportunity to which our heartful thanks to all those persons who
gave their support and encouragement during the course of project.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-11
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE

IMPROVEMENT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENT

The following further improvement has to be done in our project. They are,

Solar power with Solar panel tracking can be included in this AGV.
The obstacle sensor is used to sensing obstacle in our path, so that
the system made as a safety one.
Also Sensors at every corner will provide more accident safe.
Tripper arrangement in trough helps easy material handling.
Automatic gear mechanism will provide variety of speed.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.K.SAWHNEY.

TEXT

BOOK

OF

ELECTRICAL,

ELECTRONICS,

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS

B.L.THERJA,

A.K.

THERAJA.

TEXT

BOOK

OF

ELECTRICAL

TECHNOLOGY
G.R.NAGPAL. POWER PLANT ENGINEERING KHANNA PUBLISHERS,
DELHI.
T.THIYAGARAJAN.

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

ELECTRICAL

AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING SCITECH PUBLISHERS CHENNAI.

R.S.KHURMI, J.K. GUPTA A TEXT BOOK OF MACHINE DESINE S.CHAND &
COMPANY LTD, DELHI.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------