Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Tank-connected food waste disposer systems Current status

and potential improvements
A. Bernstad a,, . Davidsson a, J. Tsai a, E. Persson a, M. Bissmont b, J. la Cour Jansen a
a
b

Water and Environmental Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, Sweden
VA SYD, Malm Municipality, Sweden

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 February 2012
Accepted 30 September 2012
Available online 31 October 2012
Keywords:
Food waste disposers
Separate waste collection
Household food waste
Anaerobic digestion

a b s t r a c t
An unconventional system for separate collection of food waste was investigated through evaluation of
three full-scale systems in the city of Malm, Sweden. Ground food waste is led to a separate settling tank
where food waste sludge is collected regularly with a tank-vehicle. These tank-connected systems can be
seen as a promising method for separate collection of food waste from both households and restaurants.
Ground food waste collected from these systems is rich in fat and has a high methane potential when
compared to food waste collected in conventional bag systems. The content of heavy metals is low.
The concentrations of N-tot and P-tot in sludge collected from sedimentation tanks were on average
46.2 and 3.9 g/kg TS, equalling an estimated 0.48 and 0.05 kg N-tot and P-tot respectively per year and
household connected to the food waste disposer system. Detergents in low concentrations can result
in increased degradation rates and biogas production, while higher concentrations can result in temporary inhibition of methane production. Concentrations of COD and fat in efuent from full-scale tanks
reached an average of 1068 mg/l and 149 mg/l respectively over the ve month long evaluation period.
Hydrolysis of the ground material is initiated between sludge collection occasions (30 days). Older food
waste sludge increases the degradation rate and the risks of fugitive emissions of methane from tanks
between collection occasions. Increased particle size decreases hydrolysis rate and could thus decrease
losses of carbon and nutrients in the sewerage system, but further studies in full-scale systems are
needed to conrm this.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Background
Source sorting of organic household waste has been proposed
within the framework of a new European Waste Framework Directive (European Parliament, 2008) and different systems for food
waste collection are currently being established in various European countries. Use of food waste disposers (FWDs) has been suggested as a practical way to establish source-separation of food
waste without increasing transport, avoiding problems related
to odor and increased need for waste bins amongst others
(Marashlian and El-Fadel, 2005). However, there are several questions regarding the effects of FWD connected to the conventional
sewer system. Several potential adverse effects have previously
been described. Bolzonella et al. (2003) stated that FWD can cause
an increased organic load in the biological step at the wastewater
treatment plant (WWTP) and thereby the energy demand for
wastewater treatment. Others have raised problems with increased oil and grease load at WWTPs and risk of increased H2Sproduction in sewerage systems, which could result in corrosion
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 222 9557.
E-mail address: anna.bernstad@chemeng.lth.se (A. Bernstad).
0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.022

of cement pipes (Nilsson et al., 1990). The knowledge on the quantity and quality of output from FWD actually reaching WWTP is
still incomplete. Considerable removal of dissolved organic matter
and proteins in wastewater during sewage transport to WWTP has
been seen in previous studies (Raunkjaer et al., 1995). Effects on
WWTP processes and potential increased sludge generation due
to FWDs will also to a large extent depend on the WWTP design
and whether incoming particulate matter is separated with primary sludge or not. Bolzonella et al. (2003) state that an increased
carbon concentration in incoming wastewater can improve the C/N
and C/P-ratio in WWTPs and, depending on the process design, result in an improved nutrient removal and reduced requirement for
external carbon sources. Battistoni et al. (2007) showed that a 41%
market penetration of FWD in a small Italian municipality increased both COD and N-tot in incoming wastewater, but did not
resulted in increased energy use at the local WWTP, where activated sludge processes were used. Evans et al. (2010) and Galil
and Yaacov (2001) presented measurements of signicant increases in biogas production in WWTP-sludge digestion when
50% of connected households introduced FWD. The net-effects on
sewerage systems and WWTP-processes from FWD installation
are still an area of further investigation. These earlier stated

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A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

problems or questions connected to waste grinders have led to

bans on waste grinders for food waste in several areas, such as
New York in combined sewerage systems in the 1970s, Italy in
1999 and Raleigh, North Carolina in 2008. These bans have in all
cases been lifted after monitoring of the effects to the systems.
However, reluctance concerting a more extensive use of food waste
disposers is still seen in many countries.
1.1. Aim and scope
In order to exploit the advantages of FWD and at the same time
avoid possible negative effects in sewerage systems and WWTPs,
an unconventional disposer system was introduced in two residential areas in the city of Malm, southern Sweden. Another system
was connected to kitchen plumbing in a restaurant in the same
city. In the present paper, these three full-scale FWD installations
are investigated and potential improvements to the systems are
presented.
1.2. Description of the systems
FWDs were installed in kitchen sinks in approximately 60
apartments in a residential area in Malm (area A) in 2001. The
kitchen sinks were connected to a pipe system separated from
the other wastewater system in the building. This wastewater
stream was led through an LPS-unit (Low Pressure Sewer) to a settling tank (volume 2.7 m3) divided in sections from which supernatant is led to the WWTP and the settled waste is collected and
transported for further anaerobic biological treatment. A cutting
pump was used in the LPS-unit. The system in area B was installed
in 2007 and was to a large extent a replica of the system in area A,
but as the area consisted of 147 apartments in a high rise building
(Turning Torso in Malm), there was no need for the LPS and subsequently not for the cutting pump used in area A. System C was
installed in 2010 and was connected to the food waste disposers
installed in two restaurants in the same city. Also in this case, no
cutting pump was used. The principle of the systems is shown in
Fig. 1, where the truck for transportation of the settled material
is shown together with the sewer, and the wastewater treatment
plant for handling of the non-settled material.
The system can be said to be self-regulating in relation to misssorting as the disposers in general are sensitive to other materials
than bio-waste and normally stop if other materials are disposed.
However, materials such as soft plastics and paper could probably
be disposed together with food waste without causing severe problems in the disposer and thus enter the settling tanks. Sludge collection was performed once a month in system A and B and every
second week from system C with a tank-vehicle (capacity 12 m3)
with a total energy use of 34.0 kW h natural gas/ton collected food
waste sludge. Information regarding the energy use in LPS-system
could not be gained from the owner of the system and was therefore not included in the analysis.
Detergents have earlier been seen disrupting the performance
of anaerobic digesters (Tanaka and Ichikawa, 1993; Gavala et al.,

2001) and it is known that surfactants can harm methane-forming

bacteria through lysis due to the absence of protecting envelope
around many methane-forming bacteria. In normal municipal
wastewater, detergents used in households are mixed with a large
amount of water through different ows; showers, toilets and
kitchens etc. The tank-system could result in higher concentration
of detergents in ground food waste sludge, as the system separates
kitchen sink ows from other wastewater ows. Thus, the effect of
detergents on biological processes in collected food waste sludge
was of interest to investigate. The following aspects were investigated and used as a basis for the evaluation:
 Quantity and characteristics of collected food waste sludge
including potential methane production.
 Quantity and characteristics of efuent from collection tanks.
 Degradation of freshly ground food waste under different
conditions.
 Potential fugitive methane production from ground food waste
under different conditions.
 Potential inhibition of biological processes due to inhibitory
substances (detergents).
2. Methods
The study combines data from analyses of samples from the
full-scale installations as well as laboratory experiments with
freshly ground food waste. In order to mimic the full-scale systems,
a recipe for food waste ground for laboratory experiments were
developed based on the ratio of fat, proteins, carbohydrates and
VS in full-scale samples (Table 1). The amount of water used for
laboratory grinding was chosen based on a literature review of previously assessed water use for food waste grinding, recalculated to
the same unit (litre water/kg food waste) (Table 1).
Energy use for grinding of food waste with the equipment used
in the full-scale areas was determined based on ve measurements
where 1 kg of fresh food waste was ground per occasion. Each
grinding session was timed and the effect of the grinder was controlled. Energy-use in disposers was determined to 4.4 kW h/ton
food waste. Samples (20 l per occasion) were collected from the
three full-scale suspension-tanks on several occasions during the
period September 2009 December 2011. Sampling was performed once a month, and always from full tanks. Efuent was also
sampled during a period of ve months. Samplings were made on
six occasions from the outow from the suspension tank. Five litres
of efuent was collected per occasion. Samples were stored at 6 C
within three hours and analyses were made within 24 h. Samples
of sludge from suspension-tanks and efuent were used to determine the following parameters with the following methods:
 TS (% of wet weight) and VS (% of TS) in sludge and TS, VS and SS
(mg/l) in efuent was determined in triplicates using standard
methods (APHA, 2005, 2540 G).
 pH was determined with an instrument from the manufacturer
WTW, model 320.

Fig. 1. Principles of the food waste disposer and sedimentation tank system in areas AC together with the truck for transportation of the settled material, the sewer and the
wastewater treatment plant for handling of the non-settled material.

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A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Table 1
Water use in FWD-systems; literature values and used assumption.
Value

Unit

Equal to (l/kg food waste)

References

3
6
4.3
4.5
19.3
12.4

l/household, d
l/household, d
l/person, d
l/household, d
l/kg food waste
l/kg food waste

7.2
14.5
15.6
10.9
19.3
12.4
12.0

Kppalafrbundet and SRAB (2009)

Kppalafrbundet and SRAB (2009)
Marashlian and El-Fadel (2005)
Gteborgs Stad (2011)
Nilsson et al. (1990)
Wainberg et al. (2000)
Used in the present study

 Particle size compositions in food waste sludge and efuent

were found from sieving of the material (8, 4, 2, 1 and
0.15 mm perforations). In order to decrease the inuence of surplus water sieves were left running for 10 min, after which the
weight of each sieve was recorded. Measurements were performed in triplicate.
 Sedimentation was determined using standard methods (SS-EN
14702-1:2006). Recordings of settling were made after 1, 2.5, 5,
10, 20 and 30 min. Settling velocity was determined as the volume of settled material over 30 min. Determinations were
made in triplicates.
 Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) (propionate and acetate) were measured in food waste sludge and efuent from tank systems as
well as in hydrolyzed food waste samples and samples used
for determination of spontaneous methane production. Food
waste sludge samples were centrifuged for ve minutes
(1250 g, MSE Scientic Instruments, Model GR-8) and all samples (both efuent and sludge) were ltered (Munktell 1002,
110 mm). Before analysis, the sample (0.9 ml) was conserved
with phosphoric acid (0.1 ml) and a sample volume of 0.2 ml
was injected into the gas chromatograph (GC) (Agilent 6850
Series) equipped with a HP-FFAP column (30 m/0.53 mm/
1 lm) at 80130 C (temperature inlet ow = 180 C, oven temperature 260 C).
 Heavy metals (Al, Cd, Cr, Fe, Pb and Zn) S, K and P were determined in FWD-sludge and efuent by the laboratory at Plant
Ecology (Lund University) with use of inductively coupled
plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICPAES) (PerkinElmer
model OPTIMA 3000 DV).
 TOC and N-tot in FWD-sludge and efuent was determined with
TOC-analyser TOC-VCPH with additional nitrogen analyser
TNM-1 from Shimadzu. Determinations after digestion of samples using Swedish Standard SS 02 91 50 for sample preparation
of sludge and sediment (20 ml sample to 20 ml distillated water
and 20 ml HNO3 and temperature rise through the use of autoclave (200 kPa, 120 C during 30 min). Proteins, carbohydrates,
fat and energy content was determined in dried samples using
N6.25 (Kjeldahl) Mod. NMKL nr 6 Kjeltec, carbohydrates were
calculated according to SLV FS 1993:21, fat according to SLV VF
1980 Lidfett0A.07 and energy content according to SLV FS
1993:21.
 Potential unwanted (spontaneous) methane production was
determined from 500 ml samples (freshly ground food waste
alone and mixed with 10% (VS) up to 4 weeks old food waste
sludge from full-scale tanks), stored in 2000 ml glass bottles
with rubber septum lids. Triplicates of the bottles were stored
in varying temperatures (6, 20 and 35 C) to represent the
full-scale situation over the year. Gas samples were taken in
triplicates from each bottle using syringe with a sampling size
of 0.2 ml, until no further gas production was detected, using
the analysis procedure described in Hansen et al. (2003). The
accumulated methane yield was determined as N m3 CH4 gVS1,
using temperature and pressure specied at each analysis occasion. No inoculum was used.

 Degradation of ground food waste under different conditions

was assessed through hydrolysis tests. Tests were performed
with ground food waste together with other wastewater ows
and at different temperatures.
 Inuence of detergents on degradation of ground food waste
sludge was tested through addition of the anionic surfactant
Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS or NaDS) (C12H25SO4Na) (CAS
151-21-3, 100%) in concentrations of 0.8, 3.2 and 8.0 g/l freshly
ground food waste (1:12 with fresh water). This compound was
chosen as it is a relatively common in Swedish hand washing
detergents and was found in a total of 318 products on the
Swedish market in 2009. The reported use in these applications
in 2008 was 67 tons (Kemikalieinspektionen, 2011). Analyses
of pH, VFA, COD and NH
4 were made on ltered samples
(Munktell 1002, 110 mm). Analyses were made after 0, 2 h,
24 h, 48 h, 72 h, 96 h, 120 h, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks and
4 weeks in a 28 d long experiment. COD was also analysed in
samples with fresh water and detergents only in order to assess
the potential contribution of COD from the detergent itself.
 The potential methane production from ground food waste was
determined with the batch tests method described in Hansen
et al. (2003). Inoculum was collected from a full scale digestion
plant with co-digestion of food waste, manure, slaughter house
waste and industrial wastewater with high organic content.
Inoculum and collected material were added in a ratio of
60:40 in relation to the VS content.
 The efuent ow velocity from full-scale tanks was carried out
based on measurements of the water level after emptying of
tanks with precise indications of the time between emptying
and measurement. An average was based on six separate measurements, covering different hours of the day and days of the
week.

3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of food waste sludge
TS in sludge collected from areas A and B are in general low and
both TS and VS are higher from the restaurant (C) compared to the
residential areas (Table 2). Although the variations are large between samplings, the differences between areas A, B and C are signicant in all cases (t-test (two tailed) p < 0.01). Also in the case of
pH, signicant differences were seen between all areas (t-test (two
tailed) p < 0.01).
Heavy metals, C, N, K, P and S were analysed in FWD-sludge
from areas A and B at two occasions (August and October 2010)
and area C at one occasion (October 2010) (Table 3). Although
the percentage of heavy metals on a DS basis increases after digestion, a comparison can be made between results and the SEPA
guidance on heavy metals in sludge from WWTP, which is spread
on farmland as well as the certication of digestate from AD-plants
and sludge from WWTP (SP, 2010; REVAQ, 2011). The results are
also compared to an analysis of food waste ground in laboratory

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A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Table 2
TS, VS, pH and N-tot in full-scale food waste sludge samples as average and standard deviation (SD). Also the average C/N ratio is presented.
Parameter

TS%

VS (% of TS)

pH

N-tot

C/N ratio

Area

Samples (n)
Average
SD

7
0.4
0.2

9
2.7
1.5

3
9.8
0.2

7
85.9
4.3

2
89.6

3
97.3
1.1

5
5.65
0.22

6
4.91
0.01

4
4.46
0.20

2
30

2
46

2
21

2
19

2
12

2
37

Table 3
Content of metals, K, P and S in FWD-sludge samples analysed at two occasions (mg/kg TS) as well as relevant Swedish regulations and guidelines.

a
b
c
d

Area

Al

Cd

Cr

Cu

Fe

Pb

Zn

Cd/Pa

A (Aug)
B (Aug)
A (Oct)
B (Oct)
C (Oct)
FW fresh
SEPAb
SPCRc
REVAQd

255
691
417
141
120
49

0.1
0.1
0.7
0.2
1.1
0.1
2
1

3.1
8.5
6.2
1.3
1.2
0.5

105
60
184
29
5.3
4.9
60
60

1263
437
1505
227
424
41

6399
2242
4838
1426
2506
8126

3093
5275
2505
2549
1833
2077

0.9
2.5
8.8
2.6
4.8
0.9
10
10

3690
1975
769
2980

166
94
126
53
27
21
80
800

32
19
290
74
600
48

34

Cd/P quote as mg Cd/kg P.

Swedish Environmental Agency limits for WWTP-sludge use on farmland (SEPA, 1994).
SP (2010) Certication system for digestate from co-digesting biogas plants.
REVAQ (2011). WWTP quality certication system with limit for Cd/P quote in WWTP-sludge use on farmland as average on yearly basis.

with use of non-ionic water as carrier water (FW fresh, based on

recipe presented in Davidsson et al., 2011).
3.2. Particle size and sedimentation qualities
The investigation of the particle size distribution shows a consistently higher fraction of larger particles (>4 mm) in sludge collected from area B compared to area A, where a cutting pump
was used in the system (p < 0.5, t-test, 2-tailed) while no signicant differences were found between area C and other areas
(Fig. 2). The particle size generated was seen to be below the
12 mm demanded by the hygienization standards for this type of
biogas substrate according to the EU ABP-directive (European
Parliament, 2009).
Settling tests with samples from areas A and B showed that an
absolute majority of the particles in the samples sediments within
10 min (Fig. 3). No settling test could be done with samples from
area C, due to the high TS in samples from this area.
The initial settling velocity during the rst 10 min is calculated
as:

100%

Percent of total sample

80%
0-0.15 mm

60%

1 mm
2 mm

40%

4 mm

0:001  1000  V s =10=60

with Vs = sludge volume (mm) after 10 min (Table 4).

It is seen that the majority of settling particles in the ground
food waste will settle within 10 min, provided a surface load below
35 m/h. The efuent ow velocity was determined based on six
separate measurements, covering different hours of the day and
days of the week. As no measurements were done over-night, it
was assumed that the measured ow was representative for 12 h
of the day (07AM-7PM) and that the ow during the other 12 h
was 5% of this measured ow. This gives a water use of 40.3 l/capita and day. Based on this assumption, the initial settling velocity
could be calculated for the surface area of 2.9 m2 in full-scale tanks,
giving a surface load in the settling-tank of 0.11 m/h, thus well below the needed 35 m/h.
3.3. Degradation of ground food waste
Degradation tests with freshly ground food (alone as well as
mixed with different types of other waste ows) show that biological hydrolysis is taking place in all samples. Increased concentrations of dissolved COD and VFA (acetate and propionate) and
decreased TS and VS are seen in all cases, as degradation of VS to
a large extent is mirrored in an increase of dissolved COD. These
processes are all enhanced when food waste was mixed with
wastewater (WW), black water (BW) and sludge from full-scale
FWD-tanks (FWS) (Fig. 4). Mixing with these ows also increased
the concentration of NH
4 , which was not seen when food waste
was degraded separately (Table 5). A previous study of the same
system has also shown that the degradation rate is enhanced by
increasing temperatures (Davidsson et al., 2011).

8 mm

3.4. Methane production theoretical and experimental

20%

0%

Fig. 2. Particle sizes in full-scale samples from areas A, B and C based on sieving of
three samples from each area. Standard deviation for particles >4 mm = 6%, 10% and
6% in areas A, B and C respectively.

In order to determine the theoretical methane production potential in the ground food waste, the content of proteins, carbohydrates and fat was measured. The calculation of the potential was
based on data from Christensen et al. (2003) (Table 6).
Higher fat and lower protein content is seen in samples from area
C (restaurant). The theoretic methane production per VS is 1635%

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A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Area A

Area B

1000
1000

ml

600
400

Floating
layer

800

Clear
layer

600

ml

800

400

Sediment

200

200

10

20

30

10

20

Time (minutes)

30

Time (minutes)

Fig. 3. Results from settling tests with samples for area A and B. Average of triplicates.

Table 4
Initial settling velocity in food waste sludge from full-scale tanks in areas A and B.
A

Initial settling velocity (m/h)

SD (m/h)

5.2
0.4

3.5
0.9

0.50

2500

0.40

2000

COD (mg/l)

VS(%ofww)

Area

higher in ground food waste from households (area A and B) compared to previous assessments of household food waste collected
in paper bags, due to a larger fraction of carbohydrates in the latter.
The reason behind this difference in composition could only partly
be explained by the inuence of the collection bags used. Methane

0.30
0.20
0.10

1500
1000
500

0.00

10

20

30

10

Days

20

25

30

16

800

14

700

12

NH4+ (mg/l)

600

VFA(mg/l)

15

Days

500
400
300
200

10
8
6
4
2

100

10

20

30

Days

10

15

20

25

30

Days

Fig. 4. Development of VS, COD and VFA (acetate + propionate) in hydrolysis experiments with ground food waste (FW1 small particles and FW2 larger particles) and ground
food waste mixed with wastewater (FW + WW), black water (FW + BW) and sludge from the settling full scale FWD tank (FW + FWS).

Table 5
Total change in VS, COD (dissolved) and NH
4 over the experiment in samples with ground food waste mixed with wastewater (FW + WW), black water (FW + BW) and sludge
from the settling full scale FWD tank (FW + FWS). FW1 small particles and FW2 larger particles after 30 days.
Wastewater combination

VS reduction (%)

COD initial (mg/l)

COD nal (mg/l)

NH
4 initial (mg/l)

NH
4 nal (mg/l)

FW + WW
FW + BW
FW + FWS
FW1
FW2

54
48
38
27
22

155
173
162
140
193

2097
2330
2182
1653
1278

3.2
40.4
4.0
2.0
2.0

10.9
46.3
12.0
5.5
5.0

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A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Table 6
Content of proteins, carbohydrates and fat in full-scale samples in relation to literature values.
Fraction
a

Proteins
Carbohydrates
Fat
Ash
Energy
Theoretical CH4 potential
Theoretical CH4 potential
a
b

Unit

Area A

Area B

Area C

Householdb

CH4 potential (N dm3/kgVS)

% of DS
% of DS
% of DS
% of DS
kJ/100 g
N dm3/kgDS
N dm3/kgVS

22.4
27.9
42.3
7.4
2345
656
764

29.3
27.2
37.5
6.0
2285
638
713

9.8
7.7
81.2
1.3
3201
904
928

1018
1955
1018
819
19002200
267500
567615

496
415
1014
0

As Kjeldahl nitrogen.
Food waste from households with separate collection in paper bags (Davidsson et al., 2007).

450

0.25
350

Ndm3CH4

300

0.2

250
0.15
200
150

0.1

100

Degradation of VS

Ndm3 CH4/kg
VS
Ndm3 CH4/kg
food waste

0.05
50

FW+W
W(36h)

FW
(36h)

FW
(4weeks)

FW

production potential from similar material has previously been assessed to 75 N dm3/kg VS (Riber and Christensen, 2006). Previous
studies have suggested an average use of paper bags equal to
11.719.5 kg/ton wet food waste or 35% of total TS (Bernstad
et al., 2011) in a system similar to the ones described by Davidsson
et al. (2007). A recalculation of above presented data from Davidsson
et al. (2007) was made in order to exclude the impact of paper bags
from the theoretical methane potential. However, also recalculated
data for the theoretical methane potential show low values when
compared to samples from full-scale areas A and B (Fig. 5).
Methane production was also determined experimentally
through batch methane potential (BMP) analyses of freshly ground
food waste samples as well as samples from hydrolysis experiments. The methane production per VS was similar in all cases
(398405 N dm3 CH4/kg VS). However, when related to the initial
VS content (prior to hydrolysis), results suggest a potential decrease of potential methane production of more than 25% in samples hydrolyzed during 4 weeks and 79% in samples hydrolyzed
during 36 h. Results suggest a decreased methane production potential of 526% per ton ground food waste (Fig. 6). Thus, although
the methane potential per VS in FWD sludge, the recovered

0.3

400

Fig. 6. Methane potential per kg VS and kg food waste as well as degradation ratio
during hydrolysis according to degradation experiments.

methane is potentially decreased through the degradation taking

place before the sludge is collected.

3.5. Inuence of detergents

Addition of detergents to the ground food waste caused a rapid
increase of dissolved COD, which could only partly be explained by
the COD added through the detergents themselves (Table 7). Thus,
the detergents resulted in an increased solubilisation of particulate
organic matter. At the same time, addition of detergents in higher
concentrations resulted in lower concentrations of both VFA and
NH
4 and a lesser decrease in pH compared to samples were detergents not had been added, which was interpreted as inhibition of
biological hydrolysis (Table 7). Also the methane production per
VS increased when lower concentrations of detergents had been
added to the samples, while addition of detergents at higher concentrations resulted in signs of temporary inhibition of methane
production (Fig. 7). After 12 days, a clear difference was seen in
reactors without and with the lowest addition of detergent on
the one hand, compared to reactors where detergent had been
added in higher concentrations on the other (p < 0.01, t-test
Table 7
NH
4 , VFA and COD (dissolved) in ground food waste with varying concentrations of
detergents (mg/l).
Sample

FW
FW + 0.8 mg/l
FW + 3.2 mg/l
FW+8.0 mg/l
Fig. 5. Theoretical methane potential based on content of fat, carbohydrates and
proteins in areas AC and paper bag collected food waste (PB1-2).

NH
4

15
30
2
2

VFA

500
290
310
310

COD
Watera

Sample

670
2700
6700

1800
5000
11,000
22,500

Potential contribution of COD from detergents alone in fresh water.

199

A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Fig. 7. Methane production in ground food waste with different concentrations of

detergents. FW = Food waste (ground).

2-tailed). After 30 days, the highest production was seen in reactors to which the lowest concentration of detergents had been
added. However, differences between samples were no longer
statistically signicant (p > 0.1, t-test, 2-tailed).
3.6. Potential fugitive methane emissions from settling tanks
Results from the degradation tests show that hydrolysis occur
in the tanks between sludge collection occasions. Thus there could
also be a possibility of unwanted emissions of methane from the
tank systems between sludge collections. The risk for unwanted
(spontaneous) methane production was assessed through simulations of the tank process in laboratory scale experiments under different conditions. Freshly ground food waste and freshly ground
food waste together with sludge from area B in different ratios
(10% and 15% of total VS respectively) was assessed (Fig. 8). The
rst measurement was made nine days after setup. Temperature
measurements in settling tanks in full-scale systems A and B
showed an average temperature of 17.0 C and 19.1 C in the two
systems over the sampling period (SD = 4.4 and 2.3 C
respectively).
3.7. Composition of efuent

4. Discussion
4.1. Losses of food waste to wastewater system
The FWDs used in the investigated full-scale systems were originally designed to transport ground waste in the sewerage system
to a WWTP, as this would be the normal use of FWDs. Larger particles have been assumed to increases the risk for settling of particles in the sewerage system and subsequent clogging and there has
therefore been a striving towards ever smaller particle sizes
amongst FWD producers. This could be assumed to decrease the
amount of settled material in tanks. However, both freshly ground
food waste and sludge collected from full-scale systems were seen
to have good settling-qualities and the low TS and high levels of
dissolved COD in efuent indicate that losses of organic matter
from the system primary occur through dissolved substances and
non-settling fat. Hydrolysis tests show a slower biological hydrolysis rate in ground food waste when the particle size was increased.
Thus, an increased particle size in ground food waste could potentially decrease losses of organic matter and nutrients from the

pH

Ndm3 CH4/kg VS

The composition of efuent from the tank-system in area B is

displayed in Table 8 as averages based on seven measurements
over a period of ve months. Both TS and VS were low. A large part
of the solids are non-organic, which could be explained by solved

salts. The conductivity in efuent was high in comparison to previously presented data for average wastewater and above local
guidelines for industrial wastewater released to municipal treatment plants (Levlin and Hultman, 2008). pH was in all cases below
neutral; 6.16.6. Analyses of efuent from full-scale installations
were compared with average levels of N-tot, P-tot, CODCr, SS, fat
and conductivity in Swedish municipal wastewater and in the inow to the WWTP at which the efuent was received. Also national
and local regulations on these emissions in efuent from WWTP
are presented in the comparison (Table 8).
The concentrations of the metals Al, Cu and Zn were determined
to an average of 0.2, 0.01 and 0.02 mg/l respectively (SD = 0.033,
0.003 and 0.009 mg/l respectively). Concentrations of Cd and Pb
were in all cases under detection limits.
Analyses of nutrients, carbon and metals in food waste sludge
and efuent respectively, together with measurements of the ow
in efuent from Area B can be used to estimate the mass-ow of
these compounds over the system. However, as seen in Tables 2,
3 and 8, concentration in some cases varied largely between sampling occasions food waste sludge as well as of varied largely between sampling occasions. Using minimum and maximum values
from analyses of both sludge and efuent and the ow assumed
above, 4055% of N-tot and C-tot as well as 3862% of P-tot and
9599% of K and S in ground food and kitchen waste are transported from the sedimentation tank with efuent. In the case of
fat, between 30% and 57% is transported to the sewerage system
with efuent.

9 days
22 days
35 days
44 days
67 days
70 days
pH before
pH after

3
6C

20C

20C

35C

FW+FWS(10%) FW+FWS(10%) FW+FWS(15%) FW+FWS(10%)

20C
FW

Temperature and sample

Fig. 8. Methane production from laboratory assessment test with samples of freshly ground food waste with and without sludge from area B in different ratios at different
temperatures. Also pH before and after the test is displayed. FW = Food waste, FWS = Food waste sludge.

200

A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

Table 8
Composition in efuent from full-scale tank system in area B (as averages and SD = standard deviation) together with national average, national guidelines and local conditions.
Flow

P-tot (mg/l)

N-tot (mg/l)

Wastewater
WWTP efuente

16
0.3

50
10

530

Inow WWTPf
Average efuent
SD efuent

5.3
2.2
0.8

42
16.1
6.4

559
1101
354

a
b
c
d
e
f

K (mg/l)

19.6
1.3

S (mg/l)

23.3
30.4

TOC (mg/l)

177.1
86.7

COD (mg/l)

CODda (mg/l)

575
150

SSb (mg/l)

Fat (mg/l)

Cond.c (mS/m)

445

70

93

50150

500

149
65

772
317

540
120

Dissolved COD.
Suspended Solids.
Conductivity.
Moderate levels in Sweden (Henze et al., 1995).
National and regional regulations (SFS, 1998; Blecken et al., 2010).
Average in inow to local WWTP (Sjlunda, Malm) (VA SYD, 2010).

tanks system, mainly due to a slower hydrolysis rate rather than

through improved settling qualities. Hydrolysis tests showed that
degradation of VS and levels of dissolved COD also increased when
ground food waste was mixed with other waste ows, including
sludge from full-scale tank systems. Thus, it is not advisable to
use the tank system for combined systems for food waste and
wastewater/black water and there are reasons to try to diminish
the amount of old food waste sludge left in the sedimentation tank
when emptied through proper cleansing.
Accumulation of fat in municipal sewerage systems is an
increasing problem in many Swedish municipalities (Blecken
et al., 2010). Although experiences have suggested that in-sewer
biological processes can acclimate to the change in wastewater
composition caused by FWD installations and thereby reduce problems related to accumulation of organic matter in sewage pipes,
there can still be reluctance towards FWD in areas already experiencing problems with fat-accumulation. This could also be seen as
one of the main reasons behind the development of the tankconnected system. Limits for fat in wastewater from commercial
entities to the municipal sewerage system varies between Swedish
municipalities, but commonly range between 50 and 150 mg/l
(Blecken et al., 2010). Analyses of efuent from full-scale tanksystems investigated in the present study show that the average
concentration of fat in efuent is 50% above municipal limits in
the region of application (VA SYD, 2011) equal to 1.8 kg/person
and year. Thus, the study indicates that efuent from noncommercial entities can result in considerable contribution of fat
to the municipal sewerage system and that the tank-system in
its current design not fully solves potential problems related to
fat-accumulation.
The estimated mass-ow of carbon and nutrients over the system indicate that around 50% of C-tot, N-tot, P-tot and fat is transported from the settling tank with efuent. In the case of K and S,
the fraction seems to be even higher. As the major parts of nutrients can be assumed to be conserved through the anaerobic digestion process, it can be assumed to be available as fertilizers if
digestate is used on farmland. Whether carbon and nutrients are
recovered later in the system will to a large extent depend on
the WWTP design and potential use of WWTP sludge as fertilizer.
Independently of this, results show a potential decrease in problems related to for example fat accumulation in sewages when
compared to systems where FWD are connected to sewerage systems directly, as a large part of the fat is collected with the sludge.
The level of biogas potentially non-realized due to losses of organic matter with efuent can be assessed using values for theoretical methane production per kg COD (0.35 N m3/kg COD) (Spinosa
and Vesilind, 2001) in efuent. Assuming a realization of 75% of
the theoretical methane production and a degradation ratio of
80% of COD would result in non-recovered methane potential of
0.26 N m3 CH4/m3 efuent, or 2.25 N m3 CH4 per year and person

connected to the FWD tank-system. This can be compared to the

methane potential of 3.7 N m3 per person from sludge collected
from the systems over the same period, assuming an 80% degradation of VS. This should be seen as an estimate, as no measurements
were made of dissolved methane in efuent, and as the calculation
is based on a series of assumptions. However, it is relevant to
acknowledge that the current design of the system does not result
in an optimal collection of substrate for methane production from
the tanks.
4.2. Fugitive emissions of methane from settling tanks
Fugitive emissions of methane from tank systems are most unwanted. Laboratory simulations of fugitive emissions show that the
addition of older food waste sludge increased the fugitive methane
emissions. Using values from measurements in 20 C, i.e. slightly
above the average temperature in full-scale systems settling tanks
over the sampling period, state a potential production of 0.2
1.5 N ml CH4/g VS between sludge collection occasions (35 days).
Increasing the period between collections to 70 days could increase the production to 0.43.2 N ml CH4/g VS. Thus, accumulated
methane production generally increased with increasing time,
addition of old food waste sludge and temperature. However, at
higher temperatures, the methane production stopped after
35 days, probably related to an inhibition as the pH dropped radically. The potential relation between pH in the tank and methane
production makes it important to highlight that the method used
for estimating potential fugitive emissions of methane does not
take the constant inow of new organic matter and water with
higher pH to the tank into consideration, which could underestimate the risks for fugitive methane emissions. Decreasing the current collection frequency could increase the risk for methane
emissions from settling tanks and is therefore not advisable. Levels
of potential fugitive emissions detected in laboratory experiments
equals a production of 0.030.23% of the calculated total methane
yield from food waste sludge and can thus be regarded as insignificant. However, if the tank not is emptied completely and rinsed,
there could be remains of older food waste in the tank. This could
be seen as an inoculum, increasing the degradation in tank, as seen
also in hydrolysis experiments.
4.3. Characteristics of food waste sludge
Previous studies have shown a higher per VS methane production in batch test AD of food waste collected with food waste grinders compared to paper bags (Davidsson et al., 2007). This could be
explained by household behavioural factors and the difculties to
collect liquid/semi-liquid food waste with high ratio of easily biodegradable carbon such as dairy products, and juice and a decreased ratio of non-anaerobically biodegradable carbon such as

A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

plastics and lignin in food waste collected through FWG in comparison to bag-collection systems. According to previous studies in the
UK, dairy products and drinks (not including tea and bottled water)
contributes to 12% of the total household food waste generation
(WRAP, 2008). The fat content in Swedish and Danish household
food waste collected in paper bags was according to previous
studies equal to 12.218.1% or 15% of TS (Hansen et al., 2007;
Davidsson et al., 2007 respectively), i.e. low compared to the
37.542.3% of TS in sludge collected from FWD tank-systems
according to the present study. As a consequence, the theoretical
methane potential per ton VS is 36% higher in FWD-collected
household food waste compared to bag collected. The gastronomic
variations between households and areas will have a large impact
on the waste composition and thereby also potentially on the
methane production from the ground food waste. A high fat content could cause instability in the digestion process and decrease
the methane yield. However, if ground food waste is mixed with
other substrates the risk of such problems will decrease. Ground
food waste could also be used as media for decreasing the DS in
separately collected food waste from areas were paper or plastic
bag collection is used (Truedsson, 2010).
The concentration of Cd varies between 0.1 and 0.7 mg/kg TS
in full-scale samples of sludge from households FWD systems.
This can be compared to results from analyses of food waste collected in paper or plastic bags from three Swedish plants for
anaerobic digestion of food waste and other organic materials;
0.20.3 mg/kg TS (Truedsson, 2010; Malmqvist, 2011). Due to
varying levels of both Cd and P in analysed samples, the Cd/P
ratio varies largely between different areas, but also between
analysis occasions and values are in many cases higher than
current limitations for spreading of WWTP-sludge on farmland
(REVAQ, 2011). In the case of Zn and Cu, measurements show
concentrations above current regulations. This could be related
to the material composition in the plumbing systems, but further
studies are needed to conrm this.
Thus, based on the present results, no conclusions can be made
regarding the possibilities of reducing Cd concentrations in separately collected household food waste. According to previous studies, batteries, pigments in plastics and surface treatment products
are responsible for the largest outows of Cd in Sweden. Cd is also
found in artist paint, food, drinking water and as a contamination
in zinc products (Mnsson and Bergbck, 2007). The plausible reasons for the in some cases high levels of Cd in food waste sludge
from tank systems are therefore many. Further investigations and
more samples are needed for increased understanding of the
sources to Cd in separately collected food waste from households.
4.4. Household behaviour
Previous studies on disposal behaviour in Swedish households
state source-separation ratios of 2245% in multi-family dwellings
(Dahln, 2008; LRV, 2009; Bernstad, 2010) and 7279% in singlefamily households (Swedish Waste Management Association,
2011), in both cases using paper bags for separate collection of
food waste. Lack of proper space in kitchen has been singled out
as a factor which can decrease the willingness to participate in
food waste recycling from the side of the households in areas with
paper bag collection schemes (Bernstad, 2010). Such problems are
to a large extent avoided with the use of FWD and the sourceseparation ratio could therefore be assumed to be higher in households with FWD compared to households with bag collection
schemes. Due to uncertainties in relation to the actual amount of
households using FWD, number of persons in households and
losses of organic matter with efuent, the source-separation ratio
in residential areas with FWD (A and B) could not be calculated.
However, an estimation was made based on the following assump-

201

tions and the below equation (Eq. (2)). The number of households
connected to system B was 147, but as a large part of these not
were occupied during the major part of the sampling period, calculations were based on an estimation of 100 occupied households.
TSs was determined based on average TS in collected sludge over
the sampling period, while TSf was based on data from Carlsson
and Uldal (2009) on average TS in separately collected food waste
(30%). The amount of collected sludge (Vs = 38.4 m3  d = 989.2 g/l)
would thereby reply to 34.2 kg food waste/household and year. A
generation of 100 kg food waste per person and year (FWtot) was
assumed (Konsumentfreningen Stockholm, 2009). The number
of persons per household in area B was assumed to 1.5.

V s  d  TSs =100  TSf =n=FW tot  100

Vs is volume sludge (m3/year), d is density in collected sludge

(kg/m3), n is the Number of connected households, TSs is the dry
substance in sludge (% of wet waste), TSf is the dry substance in food
waste (% of wet waste), FWtot is the total amount of food waste
generated per person and year
The source-separation ratio was determined to 23%. The relatively low source-separation ratio is in line with waste composition analyses from Swedish areas where FWDs were installed in
1997, where more food waste was found in residual waste from
households with FWD compared with households using bag collection or home composting for selective disposal of food waste (Surahammar, 2011). More research is needed in relation to different
food waste collection schemes and source-separation behaviour.
4.5. Detergents
An increased degradation of particulate organic matter in
hydrolysis experiments where shown when detergents had been
added to freshly ground food waste. As one of the primary missions
of tensides in detergents is degradation of fat, it is probable that
the increased levels of dissolved COD mainly where caused by degradation of fat. However, no analyses of hydrolyzed samples were
made in order to conrm this.
In a study by Khalil et al. (1989), methane production was
halved and the pH dropped from 7.4 to 6.0 over a period of 20 days
when anionic detergent (sodium dodecyl-benzene sulphonate
SDBS) had been added at concentrations of 2050 mg/l, while
no inhibition was seen when non-ionic detergent (Tergitgol nonyl phenyl polyethylene glycol ether) or soap had been added at the
same concentrations. In the present study, addition of the anaerobic sulfactant Sodium dodecyl sulphate at a concentration of 8 mg/l
caused temporary inhibition of methane production. As the concentrations investigated in the present paper where low compared
to the ones assessed by Khalil et al. (1989), it cannot be excluded
that higher concentrations would result in irreversible inhibition
and the results obtained are thereby in line with previous research.
However, the increased methane production in samples with lower
concentrations of detergents was less expected. One explanation to
this is that low concentrations of detergents decrease the surface
tension in water and thus increases the availability of substrate
for methane producing organisms without causing lysis of microorganisms (Khalil et al., 1989).
Inhibition of methane production as a result of spiking with anionic detergents (Linear Alkylbenzene Sulphonate, LAS) has previously been related to the fraction of surfactant in the aqueous
phase, rather than the total concentration of detergents (Garcia
et al., 2006). The reason is according to Garcia et al. (2006) that a
sorption of anionic detergents to suspended solids reduces the
availability and thereby the toxicity on anaerobic microorganisms.
As sorption is promoted by presence of cations, the concentration
of calcium and magnesium extractable cations could be of importance to inhibitory effects from anionic detergents. Further studies

202

A. Bernstad et al. / Waste Management 33 (2013) 193203

are thereby needed to explore the relation between surfactants and

water hardness in relation to inhibitory effects on methanogenic
microorganisms. Further studies are also needed to investigate
typical concentrations of different types of tensides in household
kitchen sink efuent.
4.6. Resource use
Previous studies have shown that the water use in FWD systems
can vary largely (Table 1). Nilsson et al. (1990) saw a decrease of
water use of 13 l/day in households after FWD had been installed
while Lundie and Peters (2005) lift the extra use of water (assumed
to 2.9 l/PE, day or 12.4 l/kg food waste) as one of the most negative
factors related to introduction of FWD in a dry country like
Australia. The data used by Lundie and Peters (2005) would reply
to less than 2% of the average daily per capita consumption and
be close to irrelevant in a Swedish context (Swedish Energy
Authority, 2007). Thus, the feasibility of FWD use must be studies
within the local context.
Lundie and Peters (2005) measured the energy need for grinding of food waste to 0.02 kW h/kg waste, while Evans et al.
(2010) assume the yearly energy use to FWD to 23 kW h/household. The current collection scheme of ground food waste result
in an energy use equal to 38 kW h/ton ground food waste, adding
energy use in grinders and fuel use for collection and transportation. This can be compared to the energy use for collection of food
waste separately collected in paper bags. Use of paper bags, heating/ventilation of facilities where food waste is disposed of by
households and temporarily stored before collection (recycling
buildings) as well as energy use for collection, transportation and
physical pretreatment of food waste has previously been estimated
to 56 kW h/ton selectively collected food waste (Bernstad and la
Cour Jansen, 2012). Thus, although there are potentials to reduce
the energy consumption in the investigated system radically, principally through improved collection technique and reduced transportation of water, the energy consumption in the current system
is well below the energy use in more conventional systems for separately collected food waste. The energy input can also be compared to the potential energy recovery from produced food waste
sludge through biogas production. The production equals 80
109 N m3 CH4/ton ground food waste, depending on the degradation in the tank before collection (assuming a degradation ratio
of 80% of VS in biogas production facilities, based on Davidsson
et al., 2007). Thus, the energy consumption in the system equals
between 3% and 5% of potential energy recovery. This does not take
potential energy savings related to substitution of chemical fertilizers with digestate on farmland into consideration.
4.7. Methods for evaluation
Tank connected FWD-systems were in the present study investigated through a combination of full-scale sampling and measurements and lab scale studies. Although laboratory studies were
aimed to mimic full-scale systems, this might not have succeeded
in all cases. As an example, potential fugitive emissions of methane
between emptying of tanks assessed in laboratory did not include
the effect of the constant inow of new organic material and water
to the tank, which might have decreased the risk for a pH drop and
thus increased the risk for methane production in the tank.
5. Conclusions
The unconventional food waste disposal systems investigated in
the present paper can be seen as a promising method for separate
collection of food and kitchen waste from both households and

restaurants. The sludge collected from the systems is rich in fat

and has a high methane potential when compared to food waste
collected in more conventional food waste collection systems. The
content of heavy metals is low. However, the Cd/P quote varies
largely and can exceed Swedish national regulations for use of
bio-fertilizers from an anaerobic digestion on farmland. Detergents
in low concentrations in food waste disposer sludge can result in increased degradations rates and biogas production, while higher
concentrations can result in temporary inhibition of methane production from ground food waste. The concentrations of N-tot and
P-tot in sludge collected from sedimentation tanks were on average
46.2 and 3.9 g/kg TS, equalling an estimated 0.48 and 0.05 kg N-tot
and P-tot respectively per year and household connected to the
food waste disposer system. The concentration of fat in collected
food waste sludge was high, and the losses of fat to the sewerage
system are thus vastly decreased through the use of settling tanks.
The average concentration of COD in efuent from tanks exceeded
1000 mg/l, of which more than 50% was dissolved. Losses to efuent
represent more than 50% of C-tot, N-tot and P-tot in ground food
waste. Results indicate that a hydrolysis takes place in the tank,
and that this is induced in the presence of older food waste sludge.
Increased particle size decreases the hydrolysis rate and could thus
decrease losses of carbon and nutrients to the sewerage system, but
further studies in full-scale systems are needed to conrm this.
Increased collection frequency could increase the amount of carbon
and nutrients recovered through the system through sludge
collection, but would also increase costs and energy use.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to warmly thank the VA SYD Solid
Waste Management Department, in particular Henrik Aspegren
and Roland Nilsson, for all their support and help during the work
presented in this paper. The author would also like to thank Hamse
Kjerstadius for his help with collection of material used for parts of
the laboratory work presented in the paper.
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