Histology (Module 3 and Lecture 1)

Endocrine System

DATE

Dr. Nicetas B. Lucero

OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the organization of the endocrine system
2. Name the components of the endocrine system
3. Describe the feedback mechanism in the control of feedback
mechanism
4. Describe the physiology of the hypophysis
5. Describe the cells found in the pituitary gland
6. Describe the histologic organization of the thyroid,
parathyroid, and adrenal gland
7. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the histology
of the pineal gland
8. Know the other organs with endocrine functions
9. Know common clinical conditions associated with the
endocrine system
10. Identify the different organs and specific structures in each
endocrine organ under the light microscope

INTRODUCTION
The endocrine system is responsible for the synthesis and
secretion of chemical messengers known as hormones.
Hormones may be disseminated throughout the body by the
bloodstream, where they may act on specific target organs or
affect a wide range of organs and tissues. Other hormones act
locally, often arriving at their site of action by way of a
specialised microcirculation. In conjunction with the nervous
system, hormones coordinate and integrate the functions of all
the physiological systems.
LOCATION OF MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
Major Endocrine Organs - Sole or major function of the organ
is the synthesis, storage and secretion of hormones

Pituitary

Pineal

Thyroid

Adrenal
Organs Containing Endocrine Cells: hypothalamus, skin,
Thymus, Heart, liver, stomach, Small intestines, pancreas,
kidney, ovary, testes, adipocytes.
Endocrine System
Endocrine glands are scattered throughout the body
Their secretions are call hormones which influences the
metabolic processes of the body
Hormones are hydrophilic such as: Proteins,
glycoproteins, peptides, or modified amino acids with
receptors on the surface of target cells
Second messenger system of the body
Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are released
into the blood
Hormones control several major processes
o Reproduction
o Growth and development
o Mobilization of body defenses
o Maintenance of much of homeostasis
o Regulation of metabolism

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HORMONE OVERVIEW
Hormones are produced by specialized cells
Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
Blood transfers hormones to target sites
These hormones regulate the activity of other cells

CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative
feedback
A Stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the
release of more hormone
Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the
blood is reached
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands endocrine glands
are activated by other hormones
Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands changing blood
levels of certain ions stimulate hormone release
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release

Most are under control of the sympathetic nervous

system

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
1. The glands are ductless; thus hormonal secretions are
poured directly to the blood through the capillaries.
2. The internal support framework is reticular tissue.
3. Highly vascular, thus provided with rich capillary
networks among and between groups of secretory cells.
4. The capillaries are fenestrated type in which endothelial
wall contains numerous pores or openings which are
covered by very thin diaphragms.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
On the basis of their germ layer of origin, the endocrine glands
may either be ectodermal, mesodermal or endodermal.
Ectodermal in origin
o Pituitary gland
o Pineal gland
o Adrenal Medulla
Mesodermal in origin
o Adrenal Cortex
o Leydig Cells of the testes
o Theca interna cells of the ovary
Endodermal in origin
o Thyroid gland
o Parathyroid gland
o Islets of Langerhans
o Parafollicular cells or C-cells
T HE PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland (hypophysis) is a small bean-shaped gland,
about 1 cm diameter, at the base of the brain beneath the third
ventricle, sitting in a bony cavity in the base of the skull (the
sella turcica). The gland is divided into anterior and posterior
parts which have different embryological origins, functions and
control mechanisms.
Development of the Pituitary Gland
Develops from two sources
Rathkes pouch
o Ectodermal outpocketing of the stomodeum (future
mouth)
o Gives rise to the Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
Anterior wall = Pars Distalis, Pars Tuberalis
Posterior wall = Pars Intermedia
Infundibulum
o Downward extension of the diencephalon
o Gives rise to the neruohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
Pars nervosa (infundibular process)
Infundibular stem (stalk)
Median Eminence of tuber cinerum

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Pars Distalis
largest subdivision of the adenohypophysis
2 categories of cells
o Acidophils secrete prolactin and growth hormone
o Basophils - secrete FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH
Chromophobes
o Smallest and least numerous among the cells in the pars
distalis
o Since they are small, their nuclei lie close to each other;
and their cytoplasm is scanty, thus hardly seen.
o These cells are referred to as reserve cells since some of
them may differentiate into acidophils or basophils as the
need arises.

Hypothalamic Hormones Regulating Cells of the Anterior

Pituitary

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The blood supply of the hypophysis is derived from the
superior hypohyseal arteries, branches of the internal
carotid and branches of the posterior communicating
arteries

Pars Intermedia
It is found between the pars distalis and the infundibular
process
It is characterized by the presence of follicles or cysts filled
with colloid and lined by columnar epithelium, which are
called Rathkes cyst.
Also found are polygonal basophilic cells.
The hormone of the pars intermedia is the melanocyte
stimulating hormone (MSH), which causes the dispersion
of melanin pigments in the melanoblast and increase the
pigmentation of the skin.

Pars Tuberalis
It is the most highly vascular portion of the hypophysis.
It is formed of longitudinal columns or cords of cells that
descend towards the pars distalis.
The cell types are:
1. Undifferentiated cells
2. Small basophils and acidophils
There is no hormone isolated in the pars tuberalis.

NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
The neurohypophysis is formed of unmyelinated nerve fibers
of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract, which are formed of
axons of the neurons in the hypothalamic nuclei.
The axons descend through the median eminence to the
infundibular stalk and infundibular process.
Also found in the neurohypophysis, part of the pars
nervosa, are the pituicytes cells with numerous
processes and are considered as modified neuroglial cells.
Herring bodies are small, spherical structures containing
neurohormones ( ADH and Oxytocin) stored in the pars
nervosa or in the infundibular process. These are neurosecretory materials secreted by the neurons in the
hypothalamic nuclei and travel along the axons of these
neurons to be stored and released from the axolemma of
the nerve fibers.

HORMONES IN THE PARS NERVOSA

Found in the infundibular process or pars nervosa
(Posterior pituitary DOES NOT contain the cells that
synthesize its 2 hormones)
1. Pitocin (Oxytocin)
Synthesized by the paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
Stimulates uterine contraction & mammary glands
2. Pitressin or ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone)
Synthesized by the supraoptic nuclei of the
hypothalamus
Increase water retention

Hypophyseal System
It is formed of venules that connect the capillaries in the
median eminence with the capillary sinusoids in the pars
distalis. It is thru the hypophyseal portal circulation that the
releasing hormones from the hypothalamus reach the
secretory cells of the pars distalis.
The neurohormones from the hypothalamus reach the pars
distalis through nerve fibers.

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T HE T HYROID GLAND
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THYROID GLAND
Develops from epithelial proliferation in the floor of the
pharynx between the tuberculum impar and copula, at a
point later indicated by the foramen cecum.
It descends in front of the pharyngeal gut as a bilobed
diverticulum. This is connected to the tongue by a narrow
canal, the thyroglossal duct, which later disappears. The
cystic remnants of the thyroglossal duct is called the
thyroglossal cyst.
The 5th pharyngeal pouch gives rise to the ultimobranchial
body, which later is incorporated in the thyroid gland. The
cells of the ultimobranchial body give rise to parafollicular
or C-cells of the thyroid gland secreting calcitonin.
THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland lying
in the neck in front of the upper part of the trachea. The
thyroid gland produces hormones of two types:
o Iodine containing Hormones (tri-iodothyronine or T3 and
thyroxine (tetra-iodothyronine or T4)
o Calcitonin
The gland is found in the anterior part of the neck, consisting
of two lobes connected by a narrow isthmus, which crosses
the trachea just below the cricoid cartilage.
It has a connective tissue capsule that is continuous with the
surrounding cervical fascia. The outer capsule is loosely on
its deep surface of another layer of moderately dense
connective tissue that is intimately adherent to the gland.
The structural unit is the spherical cystlike follicles, which
are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium and containing a
gelatinous colloid.

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Aside from the follicular cells, there are cells which are
found singly or in groups wedged between the follicular cells
and the basal lamina or between the thyroid follicles.
These were originally called parafollicular cells based on
their position, but with the discovery that they produce
calcitonin, they are now called C-cells. Other names are
light cells, mitochondria-rich cells and ultimobranchial cells.

FUNCTION OF THE THYROID GLAND

Synthesize, store and release hormones concerned with the
regulation of metabolic rate (tri-iodothyroxine or T3 and
tetra-iodotyroxine or T4) by the follicular epithelial cells. (TH

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increase metabolic rate)
Decrease blood calcium level by the C-cells or parafollicular
cells through the secretion of calcitonin. (inhibits osteoclast
activity)
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PARATHYROID GLAND
It develops from:
Superior parathyroid
o Dorsal wing of the 4th pharyngeal pouches
Inferior parathyroid
o Dorsal wing of the 3rd pharyngeal pouches
THE PARATHYROID GLAND
These are two pairs of glands which are small, yellow-brown
oval bodies adhering to the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland.
A connective tissue capsule separates them from the thyroid
gland.
Delicate connective tissue septa partially divide the gland
into poorly defined lobules and still finer ones separate the
epithelial cells into anastomosing cords and groups.

The parenchyma is composed of two types of cells:

Principal or Chief cells
Constant occurrence
Polyhedral cells with round nuclei, with loosely
arranged chromatin giving a vesicular
appearance, and basophilic cytoplasm
Oxyphil cells
Appears only at the end of the first decade of
life until puberty
Larger cells with smaller and darker nuclei and
acidophilic cytoplasm
The parathyroid glands regulate calcium concentration by
stimulating resorption of bone and reabsorption of calcium
ions from ultrafiltration of the kidneys and with the aid of the
vitamin D absorption of calcium from the gut.
Through the principal cell secretion of parathyroid
hormone (PTH), blood calcium level increases.( by
stimulatng osteoclast activity)
T HE T HYROID GLAND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal cortex
About the 5th week of development, mesothelial cells
proliferate and later differentiate into large acidophilic
structures forming the primitive or fetal cortex of the
adrenal gland
Shortly later, a second wave of cells from the
mesothelium penetrate and surround the original
acidophilic mass. These cells will form the definitive
cortex of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal medulla
Arises from neural crest cells. These cells invade the
medial aspect and become cords and clusters forming
the medulla of the adrenal gland.

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The cells of the adrenal medulla are stained yellowish

brown with chrome salts. Hence, they are called
chromaffin cells.
THE ADRENAL GLAND
The paired adrenal or suprarenal glands are roughly
triangular, flattened organs embedded in the
retroperitoneal fat tissue at the cranial pole of each kidney.
It has a thick capsule of connective tissue that extends into
the cortex as trabeculae.
There are two functionally and structurally distinct parts:
o Cortex
o Medulla
The principal secretory cells of the medulla are derived
from the neural crest cells.
The secretory cells of the cortex are derived from the
mesodermal cells in the nephrogenic ridge.
ADRENAL CORTEX
The cortex forms the bulk of the gland.
It has three distinguishable concentric zones:
o Zona glomerulosa
o Zona fasciculata
o Zona reticularis

ZONA GLUMERULOSA
Adjacent to the capsule is a narrow zone in which the cords
of columnar cells are in ovoid groups.
There is no central cavity within a cell group as in exocrine
glands, but there is a rich network of blood vessels
externally.
It produces Aldosterone, a potent mineralocorticoid
causing water and sodium retention in exchange for
potassium in the kidney.
ZONA FASICULATA
The middle and broadest zone is composed of cell cords
coursing parallel to one another in radial direction toward the
medulla.
The secretory cells are cuboidal or polyhedral, and
sometimes binucleated, which are vesicular.
These cells secrete Glucocorticoids , especially Cortisol
ZONA RETICULARIS
Network of cell cords, which are smaller than those of the
fasciculata, darker nuclei, fewer lipid droplets and numerous
lipofucshin granules.
Also produce Cortisol but primarily secrete Weak

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Androgens including Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
precursors for testosterone & Estrogen
Cortisol, the most important glucocorticoid, has a protein
wasting effect and promotes gluconeogenesis; suppress
immune cell activities
It is probable that the outer part of the fasciculata produces
much of the cortisol in unstressed individuals.

ADRENAL MEDULLA
The secretory cells ( Chromaffin cells) here are in
anastomosing groups associated with blood vessels.
The parenchymal to columnar, and contain cytoplasmic
granules, which become brown when oxidized by potassium
bichromate.
The chromaffin reaction of the granules is due to their
content of catecholamines epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
EPINEPHRINE AND NOR-EPINEPHRINE
Epinephrine increases the heart rate and cardiac output
without signifying increasing the blood pressure and other
metabolic effects; constricts vessels
Norepinephrine is in the brain and peripheral tissues, the
principal transmitter substance of adrenergic neurons;
dilates vessels and increases glucose release
T HE PINEAL GLAND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland develops from the caudal part of the roof
of the diencephalon. It appears as an epithelial
thickening on the midline by the 7th week of development.
Then, it invaginates to become a solid organ located at the
roof of the mesothelium.
PINEAL GLAND
Also known as epiphysis cerebri.
The pineal gland is a slightly flattened cone shape
appendage of the brain, attached to the roof of the 3rd
ventricle by the peduncle.
It is made up of pale staining epitheloid cells, with round or
oval granular nuclei and prominent nucleoli, the
pinealocytes.
The second cell type is the interstitial cells, which occur in
the perivascular areas.
They are less numerous and the nuclei are darker and
smaller.
These neuroglial cells provide supporting network to the
cells.

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Brain sand (corpora arenacea or Psammomas bodies)

are mulberry shaped concretions largely of hydroxyapatite,
which makes the radiological landmark.
The gland reaches its maximal development by the middle
of the first decade and regresses later in life.
It has a high level of serotonin and melatonin secreted
by the pinealocytes.
The pineal gland controls the onset of puberty; regulates
circadian rhythms

PANCREAS
The pancreas has an exocrine portion, which secretes
digestive juice essential for the digestion of carbohydrates,
fats and proteins, and an endocrine portion secreting
hormones.
The endocrine function is performed by a highly
vascularized aggregation of secreting cells, the islets of
Langerhans, which are scattered all throughout.
They are over a million, but comprised only one to two per
cent of the gland.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ISLET OF LANGERHANS
The islets of Langerhans develops from the
parenchymatous pancreatic tissue during the 3rd month of
development and scattered throughout the gland.
Insulin secretion begins on the 5th month of development
ISLET OF LANGERHANS
The islets are spheroidal masses of pale staining cells
arranged in a form of irregular anastomosing cords, with a
few fine connective tissue fibers.
They are more abundant in the tail of the pancreas.
The secretion is released into the interstitium where it has
access to the bloodstream.
By special methods, there are six cell types distinguished.

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PRINCIPAL CELLS OF THE ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
Alpha cells
Periphery, Secrete glucagon ( increase blood glucose)
Beta cells
Predominant type distributed throughout the islet
comprising 60% to 90% of its mass, Secrete insulin
(decrease blood glucose levels)
Delta cells
Least abundant occurring anywhere in the islet,
Secrete somatostatin ( inhibit secretion of
insulin,glucagon and somatotropin)
Pancreatic polypeptide rare, + gastric chief cells;
inhibit bile secretion,pancreatic enzyme & bicarbonate
secretion and intestinal motility
ISLET OF LANGERHANS
The hormones secreted by the three principal types are all
involved in the control of level of blood glucose.
When the sugar falls below the optimal level, the Alpha cells
secrete glucagon, which raises the blood sugar.
When glucose levels rise too high, the Beta cells release
insulin, which lower it.
The somatostatin produced by the Delta cells is capable of
suppressing the secretion of insulin and glucagon and
modulate the activity of the Alpha and Beta cells to maintain
normal glucose levels.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEYDIG CELLS OF

TESTIS/TESTES
Develops from the mesenchyme between the seminiferous
tubules, which are particularly abundant during the 4th to 6th
months of development.
The endocrine component of the testis, the Leydig cells,
are located in the interstices between the seminiferous
tubules. The cells occur in groups of various sizes. Small
blood vessels are usually present. The cells are large and
ovoid or polygonal. They have a large eccentric nucleus
and granular acidophilic cytoplasm, which is peripherally
vacuolated. The ultrastructure typifies that of steroid
secreting cells which have extensive smooth endoplasmic
reticula. Peculiar to human, is a variable number of
proteinaceous crystals, Reinkes crystals.
The Leydig cells synthesize testosterone.

T ESTES (ANG PABORITO NI MANAY MO)

The testes is a compound tubular gland enclosed in a thick
fibrous capsule, the tunica albuginea. Thin fibrous septa, the
septula testis, extend radially dividing the organ into
compartments, the lobuli testis.
Each lobule is composed of one to four highly convoluted
seminiferous tubules, which constitute to the exocrine portion
of the testis.

SE-Seminiferous tubules; I-Interstitium which conatins your

Leydig Cells; C-Capillaries.
OVARIES (ANG PABORITO NI MANOY MO)
The ovaries are slightly flattened, ovoid, paired organs
suspended on either side of the uterus.
In sections side of the ovary has two zones; a central deeper
zone, the medulla, and a broad outer zone, the cortex.
The cortex consists of a compact, cellular connective tissue in
which are scattered the characteristic epithelial structures of
the ovary, the ovarian follicles in different stages of growth
and degeneration.
As the follicles increase in size, the theca folliculi differentiates
into a highly vascular inner layer of secretory cells, the theca
interna, which secretes estrogen, and an outer layer, the
theca externa, composed mainly of connective tissue.

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TE-Theca Externa; TI-Theca Interna; ZG-Zona Glumerolosa;

FA-Follicular Antrum; O-Oocyte; CO-Cumulu Oophorus
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THECA INTERNA CELLS OF THE
OVARY
Develop from secondary cortical cords from the proliferation
of cells in the stroma ovarii
OVARIES
Following ovulation, the follicular wall collapses and its
granulosa cell lining is thrown into folds. There is
extravasation of blood from the capillaries of the theca
interna, resulting in a central clot. The theca interna and
granulosa cells then enlarge and accumulate lipid and are
transformed into plump, pale staining polygonal cells, the
Lutein cells.
This structure is now called the Corpus luteum.
Two kinds of Lutein cells are distinguishable; the peripheral,
smaller and darker stained theca lutein cells, which secrete
a small amount of estrogen and the larger, granulosa
lutein cells, which secrete progesterone.

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T-Zone of Theca Lutein Cells; S-Speta; G-Zone of granulosa

lutein cells; B-Corpus Luteum with blood clot from menstruation
OTHER ORGANS WITH ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS

Placenta

Fat

Kidney

Heart

Thymus
PLACENTA (DITO NAKA-KABIT PUSOD MO DATI!)
The syncitiotrophoblast of the chorionic villi secrete
Human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone (HCG).

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These cells are formed at one angle between the
afferent and efferent arteriole at the vascular pole. They
may produce Erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates
erythropoiesis in the bone marrow.
THYMUS
Located posterior to the sternum
Largest in infants and children
Produces thymosin
Matures some types of white blood cells
Important in developing the immune system

FAT (MERON KA NETO!)

Adipose tissue is a special type of connective tissue in
which fat cells predominate. Fat cells are found isolated in
all loose connective tissue, but in certain places they are
present in such large numbers and have such organization
as to justify the designation of adipose tissue.
Adipose cells are large, oval or spherical shaped cells,
whose cytoplasm is displaced to the peripheral region of the
cell by the presence of a single large fat droplet . The
nucleus is flattened and surrounded by a small amount of
cytoplasm in the periphery giving a characteristic signet
ring appearance.
KIDNEY
Juxta-glomerular (JG) cells:
On one side of the wall of the afferent arteriole at the
vascular pole becomes transformed into modified
smooth muscle cells called juxta-glomerular cells or JG
cells, which have a slightly basophilic cytoplasm and
their specific granules are clearly demonstrated.
Electron microscopy of secretory granules of JG cells
shows that cells are variable in shape and membrane
bounded with an internal crystalline structure. JG cells
secrete Renin, which activates Angiotensinogen into
Angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is inactive but is converted
in the lungs to Angiotensin II, which is a potent
vasoconstrictor, increasing blood pressure.
Lacis cells or extraglomerular mesangial cells:
Also known as polar cushion or polkissens cells.

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FUNTIONAL - CLINICAL CORRELATION

Disorders of the endocrine system involve hyposecretion or
hypersecretion of hormones

Pituitary dwarfism = hyposecretion of growth

hormone by the adenohypophysis

Gigantism = hypersecretion of growth hormone during

childhood

Acromegaly = hypersecretion of growth hormone

during adulthood

Diabetes insipidus = hyposecretion of ADH caused

by damage to the neurohypophysis or the supraoptic
nucleus

Diabetes mellitus = a heterogenous group of

diseases, all of which lead to an elevation of blood
sugar and excretion of glucose in the urine

Cretinism = hyposecretion of thyroid hormones during

the growth years. Two clinical manifestations of the
cretin are dwarfism and mental retardation

Myxedema = hypothyroidism during adulthood.

Hallmark of this disorder is an edema that causes the
facial tissues to swell and look puffy

Graves disease = hyperthyroidism during adult life.

This gives rise to exophthalmic goiter.

Tetany = muscle twitches or spasm and convulsions

as a result of hypoparathyroidism (deficiency in
calcium)

Osteitis fibrosa cystica = hyperparathyroidism that

causes demineralization of bone

Aldosteronism = hypersecretion of the

mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, characterized by a
decrease in the bodys potassium concentration

Addisons disease = primary adrenal insufficiency

that results in hyposecretion of glucocorticoids.
Clinical manifestations include lethargy, weight loss
and hypoglycemia, which leads to muscular weakness

Cushingsyndrome = hypersecretion of
glucocorticoids, especially cortisol and cortisone.
Clinical manifestations include moon face, buffalo
hump on the back and pendulous abdomen

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Pheochromocytoma = tumor of the chromaffin cells

of the adrenal medulla, causes hypersecretion of the
medullary hormones

FREEDOM SPACE

Kung akala niyo tapos na.. HINDI pa! andito pa kami!

Hahahaha.. :P

REFERENCES
1.
2.

Dr. Luceros ppt

Wheaters Histology book

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