Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

Subject: Diagenesis, Catagenesis, and Metagenesis

of Organic Matter. Geochemistry of source rocks.
A. Zonation of thermal maturation

1. Make a short description on the organic zonation of thermal

maturation according the Figure 10.1 (Horsfiled & RullKotter,
1994), considering the different features.
This figure shows the process of formation of kerogen from the organic
matter and the subsequent generation of hydrocarbons. This figure
divides the process into three stages, based on the change in reflectance
(Ro) of vitrinite, which is the maceral ("mineral equivalent of igneous
rocks") reference used to evaluate the thermal maturation of
sedimentary rocks in the field organic.
The process appears as divided into phases called diagenesis,
Catagenesis and Metagenesis where many different processes occur in
different temperature ranges. The diagenesis occurs at temperatures
below 50 C, the diagenesis in the temperature range between 50 C
and 150 C, and the metagenesis from 150 oC until the beginning of
metamorphic rock changes.
The reflectance of the vitrinite is a good indicator of thermal maturation
of the rock, because the temperature rise causes the irreversible
aromatization of vitrinite, which corresponds to an increase of the
reflectance of the same name. The figure analysis indicates in the left

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

column of the vitrinite reflectance values of 0.5% and 2.0% as boundary

values between diagenesis, catagen and metagenesis.
The formation of kerogen begins after the deposition of organic matter
and competes directly with the processes of destruction of the oxidation.
The organic matter preserved is organized again in molecules but no
defined biological structure. These molecules may differ in size and are
designed for the larger of smaller as fulic acids; humic acids; humins.
During the processing of the sediment in sedimentary rock (diagenesis)
by physical, chemical and biological processes at low temperature, these
molecules condense into larger insoluble molecules due to their high
molecular weight. By definition these insoluble molecules are the
kerogen. This process occurs during diagenesis phase analysis described
in the figure, which ends when the temperature increases and starts the
thermal cracking of kerogen generated.
The increase in temperature which facilitates the thermal cracking of
kerogen marks the beginning of the catagen. As hydrocarbons are
produced by this cracking process in the presence of hydrogen, is also at
this time that begins the production of hydrocarbons. As can be seen in
the middle column of figure analysis as thermal aging increases and that
hydrocarbons are being generated hydrogen concentration decreases.
The hydrocarbon production rate, the maturation of kerogen, the
tendency for oil and gas production, the type of crude oil and the total
amount of hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons generation characteristics
listed in the right column of the figure under examination, which depend
on the type of kerogen generated in diagenesis.
To better able to group the hydrocarbon production characteristics,
depending on the kerogen characteristics defined three distinct types of
kerogen, depending mainly on the type of organic matter and sediment
precursor environment. These three types of kerogen essentially differ in
the ratio of carbon to hydrogen. The kerogen type I is that the proportion
of hydrogen is higher for carbon, which implies a greater propensity to
generate the oil kerogen type III has a lower hydrogen proportion. This
propensity varies due to the kerogen structure and respectively binding
energy of the molecules. This structure also influences the kinetic
parameters of evolution of the oil window, including vitrinite reflectance
values, which determine the thermal maturation intervals which is
produced oil or wet gas.
Typically reflectance values between 0.5% and 1.3% define the window
for oil production. Values less than 0.5% point to an immature kerogen
and higher to 1.3% point to the wet gas. However, as can be seen in the
figure adjacent this range may vary slightly depending on the
characteristics of the kerogen.

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

These mature intervals vary not only with the ratio of hydrogen
featuring three types of kerogen, but also other characteristics of the
surrounding environment and organic matter associated with the
generation of the kerogen, which determine the kerogen has different
amounts of sulfur or different and propensity to form condensed or
high wax crudes. These features also influence the structure of
internal connections of the kerogen.
Vitrinite reflectance values greater than 2.0%, imply a thermal
maturation of kerogen that only allows you to generate dry gas. At
this corresponds to the beginning of the ripening metagenesis, which
occurs at elevated temperatures and ending with the beginning of
metamorfiz sedimentary rock and the conversion of the residual
kerogen graphite (R0 4.0%).
2. Chose only ONE of the following subjects:

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

a. What is a thermal maturity biological marker? Indicate

examples of application.
Biomarkers are a group of compounds, primarily hydrocarbons, found in
oils, rock extracts, Recent sediment extracts, and soil extracts. What
distinguishes biomarkers from other compounds in oil is that biomarkers
can reasonably be called "molecular fossils". Biomarkers are structurally
similar to, and are diagenetic alteration products of, specific natural
products (compounds produced by living organisms). Typically,
biomarkers retain all or most of the original carbon skeleton of the
original natural product, and this structural similarity is what leads to the
term "molecular fossils".
Biomarkers have a variety of applications in petroleum exploration. For
example:
1-When samples of oil and candidate source rocks are available,
biomarkers can be used to make oil-source rock correlations, or
2-When samples of candidate source rocks are NOT available,
the biomarker distribution in an oil can be used to infer
characteristics of the source rock that generated the oil
WITHOUT examining the source rock itself. Specifically,
biomarkers in an oil can reveal (1) the relative amount of oilprone vs. gas-prone organic matter in the source kerogen, (2)
the age of the source rock, (3) the environment of deposition as
marine, lacustrine, fluvio-deltaic or hypersaline, (4) the lithology
of the source rock (carbonate vs. shale), and (5) the thermal
maturity of the source rock during generation (e.g., Peters and
Moldowan, 1993). Such data may be key inputs to
effective basin modeling of a prospect or block.

Using biomarkers in oil to access source

thermal maturity
The relative abundances of certain biomarkers in petroleum change as a
function of source rock maturity. As a result, a variety of biomarker
parameters have been identified that are very useful for characterizing the
source rock maturity simply from analysis of the migrated oil (e.g., Peters
and Moldowan, 1993).
Biomarker maturity parameters (e.g., parameters such as those in Table 2)
make use of several processes that occur during source rock maturation:
1. Cracking--large molecules break into smaller molecules

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

2. Isomerization--changes in the 3-dimentional arrangements of

atoms in molecules.
3. Aromatization--formation of aromatic rings (loss of hydrogen from
naphthenes)

4. Petroleum Biomarkers Indicative of Source Rock Maturity (Table

2)
Biomarker Parameter

Effect of

Petroleum Fraction

Measured in Petroleum

Increasing

(Compound Class)

Fraction

Maturity

Saturated
Hydrocarbons

Comments

C29 Steranes [20S/

(20S+20R)]

Increase

Useful in early to
mid oil window.
Decreases at very
high maturity
levels.

C29 Steranes [abb/

(abb+aaa)]

Increase

Useful in early to
mid oil window.

Moretane/Hopane

Decrease

Useful in early oil

window.

C31 Hopane [22S/

(22S+22R)]

Increase

Useful in immature
rocks to onset of
early oil window.

Ts/(Ts+Tm)

Increase

Also influenced by
source lithology.

Tricyclic
Terpanes/Hopanes

Increase

Useful in late oil

window; also
increases at high
levels of
biodegradation.

Diasteranes/Steranes

Increase

Useful in late oil

window; also
affected by source
lithology (low in
carbonates, high in
shales); also
increases at high

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

levels of
biodegradation.
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons

Monoaromatic Steroids:
(C21+C22)/
[C21+C22+C27+C28+C29]

Increase

Useful in early to
late oil window;
resistant to effects
of biodegradation.

Triaromatic Steroids:
(C20+C21)/
[C20+C21+C26+C27+C28]

Increase

Useful in early to
late oil window;
resistant to effects
of biodegradation.

Triaromatic /
(Monoaromatic +
Triaromatic Steroids)

Increase

Useful in early to
late oil window;
resistant to effects
of biodegradation.

Several considerations must be kept in mind when using

petroleum biomarkers to assess source rock thermal
maturity. For example:
1. The exact relationship between a biomarker parameter and the
source maturity is a function of heating rate, source lithofacies, and
source organic facies (kerogen type). As a result, the exact maturity
(i.e., vitrinite reflectance equivalent) associated with a given value
for a biomarker parameter can change from basin to basin.
Furthermore, the relationship between a biomarker maturity
indicator and source rock maturity is generally non-linear.
2. With increasing maturity, many biomarker maturity indicators reach
terminal values; hence, a given biomarker parameter is applicable
only over a specific maturity range.
3. The concentrations of biomarkers in petroleum decrease with
thermal maturity.

B. Applied source organic geochemistry

Applied organic geochemistry provides the information needed to make
maps of the richness, type, and thermal maturity of a source rock. These

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

maps are a necessary step toward determining the stratigraphic and

geographic extent of a pod of active source rock in a petroleum system, and
they are based on geochemical analyses of rock samples from outcrops and
wells that are displayed on logs.
These geochemical well logs are based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis, total organic
carbon, vitrinite reflectance, and other rapid, inexpensive "screening"
methods. The logs define:
(1) potential, effective, and spent petroleum source rock;
(2) thermal maturation gradient, including immature, mature, and
postmature zones;
(3) in situ and migrated petroleum shows.
Useful geochemical logs require proper sample selection, preparation,
analysis, and interpretation. Detailed studies, including oil-source rock
correlations by biomarker and supporting techniques, are undertaken on
selected samples only after the screening methods are completed.
in Applied Source Rock Geochemistry (Peters & Cassa, 1994)
1. Apply the petroleum geochemistry parameters studied in the class
room and the highlighted concepts (Peters & Cassa, 1994) to the
study of the San Joaquin Basin Province, California.

a. What kinds of maps are selected in the study?

1-Stratigraphical map, shows the age of the reservoir rock and source rock.
(Location map of San Joaquin Basin Province (red outline) showing
topography and location of county lines and some cities. Inset shows
location of San Joaquin Basin Province (red outline) within the State of
California).
2-Well location map. Explanation of additional features in San Joaquin Basin
Province (black outline). The regional subdivisionsnorth, central, and south

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

are explained in Hosford Scheirer and Magoon (this volume, chapter 5).
The subsurface trace (dashed line) of the White Wolf Fault (WWF) bounds
the stratigraphic column on the south. Oil fields are outlined in green and
gas fields are outlined in red. The basin axis (heavy red line) is mapped in
the three-dimensional model on the Temblor Composite Surface in the
central and southern regions and on the Ragged Valley Composite Surface in
the northern region. Heavy gray line that is somewhat parallel to the basin
axis divides the area of correspondence (east) from the area of unresolved
complexity (hachured area to the west).

b. What kinds of parameters are related to these maps?

1-Stratigraphical map, shows the age of the reservoir rock and
source rock.
And aslo , (Location map of San Joaquin Basin Province (red
outline) showing topography and location of county lines and
some cities. Inset shows location of San Joaquin Basin Province
(red outline) within the State of California).
2-Geochemical map(right one) :it is showing the locaton of each
well drilled and the type of the Hydrocarbon(oil or gas),
Also, Explanation of additional features in San Joaquin Basin
Province (black outline). The regional subdivisionsnorth, central,
and southare explained in Hosford Scheirer and Magoon (this
volume, chapter 5). The subsurface trace (dashed line) of the
White Wolf Fault (WWF) bounds the stratigraphic column on the
south. Oil fields are outlined in green and gas fields are outlined in
red. The basin axis (heavy red line) is mapped in the threedimensional model on the Temblor Composite Surface in the
central and southern regions and on the Ragged Valley Composite
Surface in the northern region. Heavy gray line that is somewhat
parallel to the basin axis divides the area of correspondence (east)
from the area of unresolved complexity (hachured area to the
west).
The parameters that are related to the above questions are as follows:
- Depth of training, designed to measure the extent to Rock area and its
depth in each zone;
- Formation thickness, which allows to evaluate each area the thickness of
the source rock and thus calculate the volume that is essential to evaluate
the potential of hydrocarbon generation. Knowing the layer thickness in
each zone is also possible to make the respective stratigraphic sections;
- original quantity of organic carbon in% of the total weight of the rock
formation at each point (TOC0-TOC), which together with other parameters
is a key factor in determining the hydrocarbon generation potential and
thermal maturity bedrock. This parameter value was determined through an
assay wherein is measured the carbon dioxide resulting from the
combustion of the collected mother rock samples in each well after
pulverized and removed of contaminants;

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

- original hydrogen index (HI-HI0), which is the ratio between the hydrogen
and the weights of the total amount of organic matter, which together with
evaluating other parameters permits the parent rock thermal maturity, the
hydrocarbon generation potential and the propensity of the kerogen to oil
and gas generation. The value of this parameter was obtained by the
method of Rock-Eval Pyrolysis, applied to samples of bedrock collected from
the wells.

c. Make a short comment on to a geochemical map?

When analyzing the geochemical map can analyze the percentage
of the total organic carbon in source rock.Regard to the figure,
brown color gradation to the blue, that is, the lower values up to
the highest. With this it is possible to conclude that there is a zone
that has the potential to generate oil.

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

d. Make the interpretation of the geochemical data in one

selected well (Data tables 11.5. 11.6. 11.7)) were a
potential source rock has reached the maturity level.

I chose well number 26

T max (Temperature Peak) = 439

It can be figure that it is Kerogen Type III

TOC (Total Organic Content) = 3.55 %

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Exercise 2

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

It means it has
source rock. (it shows the organic richness)

good

HI (Hydrogen Index) = 389 HCg/TOC

It means this well will produce Oil. (Hydrogen

Index is proportional to the amount of hydrogen
contained within the kerogen)

Ro (Oil-Inmersion Vitrinite Reflectance) = 0.38 wt.%

In this case, this particular R o value is indicating an immature kerogen.
Thus, high maturation values (Ro > 1.5%) generally indicate the
presence of predominantly dry gas; intermediate maturation values
(1.1% < Ro < 1.5%) indicate gas with a tendency toward oil
generation at the lower end of the range. Wet gas can be found still
lower in the range (0.8% < Ro < 1.1%). Lower reflectivity values
(0.6% < Ro < 0.8%) indicate predominantly oil.

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Petroleum Systems Geology

Professor: Manuel Francisco Costa Pereira

Maryam Zavichi Tork , Master of Petroleum Engineering, December 2015

Exercise 2