Chapter 5

PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN

Many problems in theory of elasticity are two dimensional in nature and they can be modeled
as plane stress and plane strain. On the other hand the solution of three-dimensional elaticity
problems are generaly very difficult. If the structure enables some necessary conditions, it can
be analyzed using a two-dimensional mathematical model.
i. Plane Stress : A thin plate subjected to in-plane loading acting in its own plane, the
state of stress and deformation within the plate is called plane stress, Fig. 5.1. In this
case only two dimensions (in the plane of plate) are required for the analysis.
ii. Plane Stress: If a long body is subjected to transverse loading and its cross section and
loading do not vary significantly in the longitudinal direction, a small thickness in the
loaded area can be treated as subjected to plane strain, Fig. 5.2.
Now, strain-displacement and stress-strain relationships will be developed.

5.1 BASIC EQUATIONS

5.1.1 Strain-Displacement Relationships
The displacement vector has two components for two dimensional problems.

{} =

(5.1)

The strain-displacement relationships are given as follows. For a two dimensional problem,
there will be only three independent strain components (x, y, xy) and the strain-displacement
relations, Eqs. (2.1), reduced to

x x

y = 0

xy

0
x0

+ y0

y v

xy 0

(5.2)

68

x
z

Figure 5.1 A thin plate under inplane loading.

y
x

Figure 5.2 A long cylinder under internal pressure.

69

Here the second term at the right hand side is the initial strains vector, such as thermal strains.
The first two types, x and y, are normal strains in the x and y directions, and xy is shearing
strain. As before, they may be written in matrix form as:

{} = [d]{} + {0 }

(5.3)

where

[d ] = 0

(5.4)

and in the case of thermal strains

x0
1

{ 0 } = y 0 = T 1
0


xy 0

(5.5)

for plane stress problems and

1
x0

{ 0 } = y 0 = (1 + ) T 1

0

xy 0

(5.6)

for the plane strain problems.

5.1.2 Stress-Strain Relationships

Assuming an isotropic material, we shall develop relationships between stresses and strains
for both plane stress and plane strain.
(i)

Plane Stress

z = zx = yz = 0

yz = zx = 0

If the thermal strains are taken into the account, the 3-D strain-stress relations, given by Eq.
(2.8), reduced to

70
x
0 x x0
1
1

0 y + y 0
y = 1
E 0
0 2(1 + ) xy xy 0

xy

(5.7)

In the case of plane stress, the component of strain in the z direction will be nonzero and is
given by

z =

+ y ) + T

(5.8)

Solving for stresses in terms of the strains, we find:

x
E

y =
2
1
xy

0 x x 0
1

1
0 y y 0

xy xy 0
0 0
2

(5.9)

We can write the constitutive relations as the matrix expressions:

{} = [C]{} + { 0 }

{} = [E]({} { 0 })

(5.10)

where
0
1
E
1
[C] = 1
0 and [E ] =
E
1 2
0
0 2(1 + )

0
1
1
0

0 0
2

(5.11)

For a material that is orthotropic in the x and y directions, the case of plane stress gives the
following strain-stress and stress-strain operators:
1

Ex

[C] = xy
Ex

xy

Ey
1
Ey
0

1
G xy

Ex
[E] = yx E y
0

xy E x
Ey
0

(1 xy yx )G xy
0

(5.12)

Here the symbol xy denotes the strain in the x direction due to strain in the y direction. If we
use for an approximation shear modulus as

1 + yx 1 + xy
1

+
G xy
Ex
Ey

(5.13)

71
we need only three independent constants.
From the reciprocal theorem, we have
Ey
Ex

(ii)

xy

(5.14)

yx

Plane Strain

The case of plane strain is based on the assumptions that:

w
= 0 at every cross section. Here the independent variables are assumed to be
z
functions of only the x and y coordinates provided we consider a cross section of the body
away from the ends.

w = 0 and

yz = zx = 0

z = zx = yz = 0

If the thermal strains are taken into the account, the 3-D strain-stress relations, given by Eq.
(2.3), reduced to
x
1 0 x x 0

1+
1 0 y + y 0
y =

E

0
0
2 xy xy 0
xy

(5.15)

Here, in the case of thermal strains

x0
1

{ 0 } = y 0 = (1 + )T 1
0


xy 0

(5.16)

As before we can solve for the stresses in terms of the corresponding strains to obtain:

x
1
0 x x 0

1
0

y
y y0
1 2
(1 + )(1 2 ) 0

0
xy xy 0

xy
2

(5.17)

The component of stress in the z-direction will be nonzero and is given by

z = ( x + y )
The strain-stress operator [C] is found as

(5.18)

72
1 0
1+
[C] =
1 0
E
0
0
2

(5.19)

In addition, the stress-strain operator [E] is seen from above equation to be:

1
0

E
1
[E ] =
0
(1 + )(1 2 )
1 2
0

0
2

(5.20)

On the other hand, the case of plane strain in an orthotropic material has the following strainstress and stress-strain operators:
d

Ex
c
[C] =
Ex

b
Ey

a
Ey
0

1
Gxy

aE
x
1
[ E] =
cE y
ad bc
0

bE x
dE y
0

( ad bc ) Gxy
0

(5.21)

where
a = 1 yz zy

b = xy + xz zy

c = yx + yz zx

d = 1 xz zx

From the reciprocal theorem we find

Ey
Ex

b
c

5.2 STRESS TRANSFORMATION

Also of interest to us are inclined stresses. For this purpose Figure shows stresses in the
directions of axes x and y, which are inclined at the angle with axes x and y. The stresses
in the inclined axes can be obtained as follows:

73
y
y
yx

yx

xy

xy
x

x
xy

yx
y

y
x

yx

xy

xy

x
x

y
yx

xy
x

xy
yx

yx

Figure 5.3 Stress transformations between the inclined axis.

x =
y =

x + y
2
x + y

=
xy

x y
2

x y
2
x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

(5.22)

cos 2 xy sin 2

(5.23)

sin 2 + xy cos 2

(5.24)

It is possible to find the directions of principal stresses by differentiating this equation with
respect to q and setting the results equal to zero.
dx
=0
d

Hence, we obtain

74

tan 2 P =

2 xy

(5.25)

x y

Principle normal stresses and the accompanying shear stress can be obtained by substitution.
P1 =
P2 =

x + y
2
x + y
2

x y
+ 2xy = max
+
2

x y

2

+ 2xy = min

(5.26)

xy = 0
Thus, the shearing stress is zero when the normal stresses have principal values (maximum
and minimum)
On the other hand, the maximum shearing stress max occurs at an angle that can be found by
differentiating Eq. (5.24) with respect to and setting the results equal to zero, as follows:
d xy
d

=0

Hence,
tan 2 S =

x y
2 xy

(5.27)

where S = P /4 is the value of for which the shearing stress is maximum. The following
expression can be found for maximum shear stress:
max

x y
=
2

+ 2xy

(5.28)

The accompanying normal stresses as:

x = y =

x + y
2

(5.29)

5.3 TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS

Finite elements with a triangular shape prove to be quite versatile for the purpose of
discretizing any two dimensional continuum. One of the earliest and best-known elements is
the constant strain triangle described by the Turner et al. In the present section stiffnesses and
equivalent nodal loads will be developed in detail for this triangle. In addition, a brief
description will be given for the linear strain triangle of Fraejis de Veubeke.

75

y
Q2i
Q2i-1
node i

Figure 5.4 Plane problem and finite element model.

5.3.1 Constant Strain Triangles

Figure shows a constant strain triangle of thickness t, having the following generic
displacements (translations) in the x-y plane:

{} = u

(5.30)

76
Its three corners, points 1, 2, and 3, serve as nodes that are numbered in a counterclockwise
sequence. At each node there are two nodal translations in the directions of x and y, with the
former preceding the latter. We denote the element displacement vector as,

{q} = q1

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6

(5.31)

A triangular element of area A appears in the Figure and any point P(x,y) on the triangle may
be located by dividing it into sub triangles having areas A1, A2, and A3. Dimensionless area
coordinates for the triangle are defined as

A1
A

A2
A

A2
A

(5.32)

By inspection, we see that:

A1 + A 2 + A 3 = A
Thus,

+ + = 1

(5.33)

which shows that , , and are interdependent. Figure indicates that = 1 at point 1 and =
0 along edge 2-3. Also indicated is a linear variation of from point 1 to the opposite edge,
and similarly for and .
The displacements inside the element are now written using the shape functions and the nodal
values of the unknown displacement field.
u = N1q1 + N 2 q3 + N3q5

(5.34)

v = N1q2 + N 2 q4 + N3q6

q6
(x3, y3)
q5

3
v

q2
1
(x1, y1)

te
q4

(x, y)

u
2

(x2, y2)
q3

q1
x
Figure 5.5 Constant strain triangles.

Ae

77

=0
3

A1
A2

=1

(x, y)

A3

=0
=1

Figure 5.6 Natural coordinates.

3

N1
y
N1 = = 1

2
1
x

N2
y

N2 = = 1

2
1
x

N3 = 1- = 1

N3
y

2
1
x
Figure 5.7 Shape functions of CST.

78
The independent shape functions are conveniently represented by the pair , , as follows
N1 =

N2 =

N3 = 1

(5.35)

The relations can be expressed in a matrix format

{} = [ N ]{q}

(5.36)

where [N] is the shape function matrix, given by

N

[ N ] = 01

0
N1

N2
0

0
N2

0
N3

N3
0

(5.37)

If we substitute Eq. (5.36) into the strain-displacement relations, we obtain

{} = 0

u
= [ ][ ] = [ ][ N ]{q} = [ B ]{q}
y v

(5.38)

The strain-displacement matrix [B] can be written as

{B} = [ ]{N} = 0

N1
y 0

0
N1

N2
0

0
N2

N3
0

0
N3

(5.39)
N1

= 0

N1

0
N1
y
N1
x

N 2
x
0
N 2
y

0
N 2
y
N 2
x

N3
x
0
N3
y

N3

y
N3

A finite element is said to be isoparametric if the same interpolation formulas define both the
geometric and the displacement shape functions. Such elements satisfy both geometric and
displacement compatibility conditions. If the geometric interpolation functions are of lower
than the displacement shape functions, the element is called subparametric. If the reverse is
true, the element is referred to as superparametric.

79
Because isoparametric elements are usually curved, they tend to be more suitable than
subparametric elements for modeling geometric boundary conditions. However, straindisplacement relationships are complicated by the fact that generic displacements are
expressed in terms of local coordinates, whereas differentiations with respect to the global
coordinates are required. Also, it becomes necessary to employ numerical integration
whenever explicit integrations are impossible.
For the triangular element, the coordinates x, y can also be represented in terms of nodal
coordinates using the same shape functions, as follows
x = N1x1 + N 2 x2 + N3 x3

(5.40)

y = N1 y1 + N 2 y2 + N3 y3
In matrix form we may write

x N1
=
y 0

N2

N3

N1

N2

x1
y
1
0 x 2

N 3 y 2
x 3

y 3

(5.41)

Using the notation, xij = xi xj and yij = yi yj we can write Eq. (5.40) as
x = x13 + x23 + x3

(5.42)

y = y13 + y23 + y3
This equation relates x and y coordinates to the and coordinates.
Using the chain rule for partial derivatives of shape functions, we have
Ni Ni
=

x
Ni Ni
=

x Ni
+
y
x Ni
+
y

i = 1,2,3

(5.43)

which can be written in matrix notation as

Ni x

=
N

y Ni
x

y Ni
y

i = 1,2,3

where the (2 x 2) square matrix is denoted as the Jacobian of the transformation, [J]:

(5.44)

80

x

[J ] =
x

y
x13
=
y x23

y13
y23

(5.45)

Also, from Eq. (5.44),

Ni
Ni

x 11 12
N =

i 21 22 Ni
y

i = 1,2,3

(5.46)

where [] is the inverse of the Jacobian [J], given by

[ ] = [ J ]1 =

1 y23

det [ J ] x23

y13
x13

(5.47)

det[J] = x13y23 x23y13

From the knowledge of the area of the triangle, it can be seen that the magnitude of det [J] is
twice the area of the triangle. If the points 1, 2, and 3 are ordered in a counterclockwise
manner, det [J] is positive sign. We have

A=

1
det [ J ]
2

where

(5.48)

represents the magnitude. Most computer codes use a counterclockwise order for

the nodes and use det [J] for evaluating the area.
Let us write Eq. (5.46) in following expanded form,

N1 N 2 N3
N1 N 2 N3
x

12

x
x

= 11

N1 N 2 N3 21 22 N1 N 2 N3

y
y

y 42444
42444
144
3
144
3
[ DG ]
[ DL ]

(5.49)

where [DG] and [DL] are the matrices of global and local derivatives of shape functions,
respectively. Substitution of Eqs.(5.35) and (5.47) into Eq. (5.49) yields

[ DG ] =

1 y23

J x23

y13 1 0 1 1 y23
=
x13 0 1 1 J x23

y13

x13

y13 y23
x23 x13

Considering xij = xji and xi,j xkj = xik, we obtain the global derivatives as follows

81

[ DG ] ==

y23
x
32

1
J

y12
x21

y31
x13

The matrix [B] given by Eq. (5.39) can be written in terms of the global derivatives.
DG11
[B ] = 0
DG 21

DG12

DG13

DG 21

DG 22

DG11

DG 22

DG12

DG 23

0
DG 23
DG13

(5.50)

After the multiplication we obtain element strain-displacement matrix,

y23
1
[B] = 0
J
x32

0
x32
y23

y31
0
x13

0
x13
y31

y12
0
x21

0
x21
y12

(5.51)

Here [B] is a (3 x 6) matrix relating the three strains to the six nodal displacements. It may be
noted that all the elements of the [B] matrix are constants expressed in terms of the nodal
coordinates. The element stiffness matrix given by
T

[k ] = [ B] [ E][B] dV = [B]T [E][ B] dV

Ve

Ve

Considering

dV = t A
e

we obtain the stiffness matrix as

Ve

[k ] = te Ae [ B]T [ E][ B]

(5.52)

Equivalent Nodal Forces

Now, the equivalent nodal loads due to the body forces and surface tractions will be
calculated using the finite element formulations.
The vector of body forces is

{f b } = [N] {b}dV
T

Ve

where
b x
and dV = tedA
b y

{b} =

82
fb4
y
2

fb6
b(x,y)
3

fb3

fb5
fb2

x
1

fb1

Figure 5.8 Body forces and equivalent nodal forces on a CST.

T

0
N1 b x
N b

N1
1 y
N 2 b x
0 b x
dA
dA = t e
N b
N 2 b y
Ae 2 y
N3b x
0

N 3
N 3 b y

N1
0

N
{f b } = t e 2
0
Ae
N3

(5.53)

The force components, bx and by, can be expressed in terms of and using the isoparametric
formulation.
Integrals of polynomial terms in the area coordinates and can be obtained as follows [2]:

dA =

Ae

a!b!c!
2A
(a + b + c + 2)! e

If c = 0, it becomes

dA =

Ae

a!b!
2A
(a + b + 2)! e

If the body force is constant, we need the integrations of

N dA . For N1 = , we calculate the

i

Ae

integral as follows:
1!0!

dA = (1 + 0 + 2)! 2A
1

Ae

Similarly,

1
= Ae
3
1

N dA = N dA = 3 A
2

Ae

Ae

. Hence, the body force vector is given as,

83

{f b } = A e t e b x
3

by

bx

by

by

bx

(5.54)

A traction force is distributed load acting on the surface of the body. We can integrate the
traction force to obtain a distributed load on the midline of the surface.

= te

(5.55)

Consider an edge 2 3 acted on by traction x , y , shown in Fig. 5.7. We have

{ f s } = [ N ] {} dl
T

(5.56)

l 23

where

{} = x

(5.57)

Substituting Eqs. (5.37) and (5.57) into Eq. (5.56) we obtain

( x, y )

(x,y

fs4
2

fs6

y
3

fs3

fs5
fs2
fs1

1
x

Figure 5.9 Surface tractions and equivalent nodal forces on a CST.

84

T
N1 x
0

N1 y
N1

N
0 x
2 x dl
=
dl

N
N 2 y
l2 3 2 y

0
N 3 x

N3
N 3 y

N1
0

N
{ fs} = 2
0
l2 3
N3

If the traction force is constant, we need the integrations of

(5.58)

N dl . We note here that N1 = 0

i

li - j

N dl = 0

along the edge 2 - 3 and

l2- 3

On the other hand, for N2 = and li-j = l2-3 we calculate the integral as follows:

dl =

l2 -3

Similarly,

0!1!0!
1
l 2 -3 = l 2 -3
(0 + 1 + 0 + 1)!
2
0!0!1!

N dl = dl (0 + 0 + 1 + 1)! l
3

l2 -3

2-3

l2 -3

1
l 2 - 3 . Hence, the vector of surface forces is given
2

as,

{fs } =

l23
0 0 x
2

(5.59)

We may designate the element temperature load as

{fT } = [B ]T [E]{0 } dV
Ve

where {0} is initial strain vector due to the temperature change, T. From the theory of
elasticity, {0} can be represented by

1
x 0

{0 } = y 0 = T 1

0

xy 0

(5.60)

for plane stress and

1
x 0

{0 } = y 0 = (1 + ) T 1

0

xy 0

(5.61)

85

for plane strain.

If the temperature change is constant on the element the integration may be performed as

{fT } = [B ]T [E]{0 } dV = Aete [ B ]T [E]{0 }

V

(5.62)

The stresses in an element are then obtained by using following equation:

{} = [ E] ({} {0 }) = [ E] ([B]{q} {0 })

(5.63)

Finally, we may use the constant strain triangles in order to model a thin plate subjected to
inplane loads, given in Fig. 5.4. We need to arrange two tables for nodal coordinates and
element connectivity.
Table 5.1 Element connectivity for the FE model given in Fig. 5.4.
Elements
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

11
14
13
12
11
2
5
6
4
8
7
9
10
1
3
2

Nodes
12
11
4
7
1
11
2
5
6
4
8
7
9
10
1
3

13
13
14
13
12
14
14
14
14
13
13
12
12
12
11
11

Table 5.2 Nodal coordinates for the FE model given in Fig. 5.4.
NODE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

X
0.15
-0.3
-9.77E-02
5.00E-02
-0.39993
-0.25379
0.4
0.25992
0.44994
0.34652
-1.91E-04
0.2518
0.14752
-0.12607

Y
-0.4
-0.2
-0.351
0.4
9.50E-02
0.36834
0.1
0.2914
-0.11375
-0.3001
-0.15168
-0.13182
0.10795
0.10327

Z
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

86
The nodal coordinates are stored in a two-dimensional array represented by the total number
of nodes and the two coordinates per node. The connectivity may be clearly seen by isolating
a typical element, as shown in Fig. 5.5. For the three nodes designated locally as 1,2, and 3,
the corresponding global node numbers are defined in Fig. 5.4. This element connectivity
information becomes an array of the size of number of elements and three nodes per element.
A typical connectivity representation is shown in Table 5.2. Most standard finite element
codes use the convention of going around the element in a counterclockwise direction to
avoid calculating a negative area.
Example 5.1 For the two-dimensional loaded plate shown in Figure E5.1, determine the
displacements of points A and B and the element stresses using plane stress conditions. Body
force may be neglected in comparison to the external forces. The thickness of plate is 5 mm,
the Young modulus is 70 GPa and, the Poisson ratio is 0.3.
500 N/mm
A

200 mm
300 mm
40 kN

Figure E5.1-a
Solution:
Finite element model is depicted in Fig. E5.1-b.
y
Q6

Q4
3

Q5
2

Q3

2
Q8

Q2

x
4

Q7
Figure E5.1-b

Q1

87

For the plane stress conditions, the material property matrix is given by

[E] =

E
(1 2 )

0
0
7.69 2.31
1
4
1
0 = 10 2.31 7.69
0

1
0
0
2.69
0 0

3
1

2
1
2

4
Figure E5.1-c

In Fig. E5.1-c, the bold numbers are the global ones and the others are the local numbers.
Then, we establish the connectivity as follows
Element Number
1
1
3

1
2

Nodes
2
2
4

3
4
2

Local numbers
Global numbers

The table of nodal coordinates for the coordinate system depicted in Fig. E5.1-b, is given in
the following table
Node
Number
1
2
3
4

x
(mm)
300
300
0
0

y
(mm)
0
200
200
0

We found first Jacobian matrices for the elements:

[J ] = xx
1

13
23

[J ] = xx
2

13
23

[ ]

y13 300 0
300 0
1
and
det
J
=
= 6x10 4 mm 2
=

y 23 300 200
300 200
y13 300
0
300
0
2
and
det
J
=
= 6x10 4 mm 2
=

y 23 300 200
300 200

[ ]

The strain-nodal displacement matrices [Be] can be determined as

88

0 0 0 2 0
2
1
B =
0 3 0 3 0
0
2
6x10
3 2 3 0 0 2

[ ]
1

0
0 2 0
2 0
1
0
3
0 3 0 0
B2 =
6 x10 2
3 2 3 0 0 2

[ ]

On performing the matrix multiplication [E][B]e , we get

0 2 0 0 0 2 0
7.69 2.31
1
4
10 2.31 7.69
0 0 3 0 3 0 0
[ E ] B =
2
6 x10
0
0
2.69 3 2 3 0 0 2
1

0
115.5 256
0
115.5
256

= 77
384.5
0
384.5 77
0
134.5 89.7 134.5
89.7
0
0
0
115.5 256
0
256 115.5

[E] B = 77 384.5
0
384.5 77
0
134.5 89.7 134.5
0
0 89.7

[ ]
2

The stiffness matrices can be calculated as

2 0 3
0 3 2

256
115.5
0
115.5 256
0

0
0
3
T
30000 x5

1
1
1
k = A1t1 B [ E ] B =
384.5
0
384.5 77
0

77
2
6 x10 0 3 0
134.5 89.7 134.5
89.7
0
0
2 0 0

0 0 2
125 101
57.8 128.2 67.2
229
125
333
67.2 288.4 57.8 44.8

101
67.2
101
0
0
67.2
= 103

0
288.4 57.8
0
57.8 288.4
128.2 57.8
0
0
57.8 128.2

44.8 67.2
0
0
44.8
67.2

89
125
101
128.2 67.2
57.8
229
125
333
67.2 288.4 57.8 44.8

101
67.2
67.2
101
0
0
T
k 2 = A 2 t 2 B 2 [E ] B 2 = 10 3

57.8
0
288.4
0
57.8 288.4
128.2
57.8 128.2
57.8
0
0

44.8 67.2
0
0
44.8
67.2

[ ]

[ ] [ ]

In the above matrices, the global dof association is shown on top. In the problem under
consideration, Q2, Q5, Q6, Q7, and Q8 are all zero. Using the elimination approach, it is now
sufficient to consider the stiffness associated with the degrees of freedom Q1, Q3, Q4. The
force vector due to the distributed load on the 3-1 edge of element 2 can be calculated as:

{fs2 } = l321 x

0 0 x

y =

300
T
0 500 0 0 0 500
2

The forces are neglected. A concentrated load of 40 kN is applied in the direction of Q1.
The set of equations is given by the matrix representation
229 101 57.8 Q1
40

3
10 101 229
0 Q 3 = 10 0
75
57.8
0
333 Q 4

Solving for Q1, Q3 and Q4, we get

Q1 = 0.30326 mm, Q3 = 0.13361 mm, Q4 = -0.27749 mm
For element 1, the element nodal displacement vector is given by

{q } = 0.30326 0
1

0 0.13361 0.27749 0 0

The element stresses 1 are calculated from [E][B] 1{q}1 as

{ } = 45.742
1

83.398 22.839 MPa

Similarly

{q } = 0
2

0 0 0 0.13361 0.27749

The element stresses 2 are calculated from [E][B] 2{q}2 as

{ } = 34.258
2

10.277 24.903 MPa

90

5.3.2 Linear Strain Triangles

The linear strain triangles in the Figure 5.10 have a constant thickness t and the following
generic displacements.

{ } = u

In addition to the three corner nodes (numbered 1, 2, and 3), there are also three mid-edge
nodes (numbered 4, 5, and 6). The linear strain triangle is shown in Fig. 5.12(a) with its
natural coordinates, and its isoparametric counterpart element appears in Fig. 5.12(b). We will
approach this isoparametric element by first examining its straight-sided parent. Nodal
displacements for either element are:
=1

=0

ui

=0 6

vi

=1

(x, y)

q2

(a)

2
4

q1 =

=0

=1
x
3

=1

=0
5

=
v

6
=0

ui

=
u

=1

(x, y)

q2

(b)
1

vi

q1
=1

= 4

=0

x
Figure 5.10 Element T6. (a) Triangular parent (LST) (b) Isoparametric counterpart.

91

{ } = q1

q2

,..., q12 = u 1

,..., v 6

v1

(5.64)

Geometric interpolation functions for the parent element are linear, as is the case for any
triangle with straight sides. Quadratic displacement shape functions may be written in natural
coordinates as:
6

u = Niu i

v = Ni vi

i =1

(5.65)

i =1

where
N1 = (2 1)

N 4 = 4

N 2 = (2 1)

N 5 = 4

N 3 = (2 1)

N 6 = 4

(5.66)

The strain-displacement matrix can be written as follows

{B} = [d ]{N} = 0

y
N1

= 0

N1

N1
y 0

x
0
N1
y
N1
x

N2
0

0
N2

N 6
...
x

0
N1

N 2
x
0
N 2
y

N 2
y
N 2
x

... N 6
... 0

...

...

N 6
y

0
N 6

N 6

y
N 6

(5.67)

Eq. (5.67) can be written in the format

{ } = [ B]1 [B ]2

{q}1

q}2
{

... [ B ]6

M
{q}
6

(5.68)

and hence it can be concisely expressed as:

{ }i = [B]i {q}i
where

(i = 1,2,3,4)

(5.69)

92

x
[B]i = [ ][N]i = 0

Ni
y 0

N i

x
0
= 0
N i
N
i
y

N i
y
N i

(5.70)

(i) Subparametric Triangles: The derivatives in the strain-displacement relationships are

found by using the linear interpolations for the geometry given by Eqs. (5.40) through (5.42).
The global derivatives can be obtained the same relation given with Eq. (5.46) on condition
with the upper index 3 changed to 6.
Ni
Ni

x
11 12
N =

i 21 22 Ni
y

i = 1,2,,6

where the shape functions are the ones given in Eq. (5.66).

(ii) Isoparametric Triangles: For the isoparametric triangle T6 in Fig 3.12(b), we take the
geometric interpolation functions to be:
6

x = Ni xi
i =1

y = N i yi

(5.71)

i =1

where Ni are given by Eqs. (5.5-7). Thus, the edges of the element become quadratic curves,
as indicated in the figure. Because the natural coordinates are curvilinear, the Jacobian matrix
is required. Thus,
x

[ J ] = x

y 6 N i
xi
i =1
=
y 6 N i
xi

i =1

N i

yi
i =1

6
N i
yi

i =1

For the T6 element, the Jacobian matrix is

x1 y1

N1 N 2 N3 N 4 N5 N 6 x2 y2

x3 y3

[J ] =

N1 N 2 N3 N 4 N5 N 6 x4 y4

x
y5

14444444
244444443 5

x6 y6
[ DL ]
1
424
3
[C N ]

(5.72)

93
Here, [DL] matrix can be evaluated using the shape functions given by Eq. (5.66).
0
4 + 4 3 4
4 1
4 1 4 + 4 3 4
0

[ DL ] =

4 (1 3 )

4 (1 3 )

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix, [], has already given by Eq. (5.47), and is repeated here.

[] = [J ]1 =

1 J 22
det[J ] J 21

J12
J11

The matrix of global derivatives is given as follows

[ DG ] = [ ][ DL ]
The terms of this matrix can be determined as

DG11 =

1
( 4 1) J 22
J

DG12 =
DG13 =
DG14

DG 21 =

1
( 4 1) J12
J

DG 22 =

1
( 4 + 4 3)( J 22 J12 )
J

4
= [ J 22 J12 ]
J

DG 23 =
DG 24

DG15 =

4
J 22 (1 3 ) J12
J

DG16 =

4
(1 3 ) J 22 + J12
J

1
( 4 1) J 21
J

1
( 4 1) J11
J
1
( 4 + 4 3)( J11 J 21 )
J

4
= [ J 21 + J11 ]
J

DG 25 =
DG 26 =

(5.73)

4
J 21 + (1 3 ) J11
J
4
(1 3 ) J 21 J11
J

Referring to Eqs. (5.73), we see that the submatrix [B]i may also be written as follows:
Ni

[B ]i = 0

Ni

0
DG1i
Ni
= 0
y
DG 2i
Ni

0
DG 2i
DG1i

i = 1,2,3,4

(5.74)

The matrix [B] is a (3 x 12) element strain-displacement matrix relating the three strains to the
twelve nodal displacements.
Then the stiffness matrix for the element is obtained from:

94

[k ] = te [B ] [E][B ] dA
T

Ae

Hence, the element stiffness matrix given by

[k ] = [B ]12 x3 [E]3 x3 [B]3 x12 dV = te [B ]12 x 3 [E]3 x 3 [B ]3 x12 dA

T

(5.75)

Ae

Integration in the Natural Coordinates:

In order to obtain any term of the stiffness matrix, the type of integration to be performed as:

I = f ( , )dxdy

(5.76)

However, the integral in Eq. (5.76) is more easily evaluated if it is first transformed to the
natural coordinates and . In addition the limits of each integration must be changed to
become 1 to 1; and the infinitesimal area dA = dxdy must be replaced by an appropriate
expression in terms of d and d. For this purpose Fig. 5.11 shows an infinitesimal area dA in
the natural coordinates. Vector r locates a generic point in the Cartesian coordinates x and y as
follows:

r = x + y = xi + yj

(5.77)

The rate of change of r with respect to is:

x
d

y
d

r
d

dA

r
r+
d

y
d

r+

r
d

r
d

x
d

k
i
z
Figure 5.11 Infinitesimal area in naturel coordinates.

95

r x
y
i+
j
=

(5.78)

Also, the rate of change of r with respect to is:

r x
y
i+
j
=

(5.79)

When multiplied by d and d, the derivatives in Eqs. (5.78) and (5.79) form two adjacent
sides of the infinitesimal parallelogram of area dA in the figure. This area may be determined
from the following vector triple product:
r

r
dA = d x
d k

(5.80)

Substitution of Eqs. (5.78) and (5.79) into Eq. (5.80) gives:

x y x y
dd
dA =

(5.81)

The expression in the parentheses of Eq. (5.81) may be written as a determinant. That is,
x

dA =
x

d d = J d d
y

(5.82)

in which [J] is the Jacobian matrix and det[J] is its determinant. Thus, the new form of the
integral in Eq. (5.77) becomes:
1 1

I=

f ( , ) J dd

(5.83)

1 1

Gaussian quadrature procedure will be applied for the numerical integration. For triangles in
natural coordinates the numerical integration formula is [4]:
n

I = A Wjf ( , ) j

(5.84)

j=1

in which Wj is the weighting factor for the jth sampling point. Integration points for n = 1, 3,
and 4 appear in Fig 5.12, and their locations and weighting factors are given in Table 5.3.

96

a
1

2
Linear

a
Quadratic

2
1

Cubic

Figure 5.12 Integration points for n = 1,3, and 4.

Table 5.3 The locations of integration points and weighting factors.
N
1
3

Order
Linear

Points
a

Wj

1
3

1
3

1
2

1
2

1
3

1
2

1
3

1
2

1
3

1
3

1
3

27
48

0.6

0.2

25
48

0.2

0.6

25
48

0.2

0.2

25
48

Quadratic

Cubic

5.4 QUADRILATERAL ELEMENTS

5.4.1 Bilinear Displacement Rectangle
In two-dimensional problems the isoparametric quadrilaterals serve a useful purpose. This
element is the isoparametric parent of the bilinear displacement rectangle, developed by
Melosh [6]. The elements depicted in Fig. 5.13. The generic displacements indicated in the
figure are:

{ } = u, vT
An x and a y translation are shown at each node. Thus, the nodal displacement vector is:

{q} = q1 , q 2 ,..., q 8 ,T = u 1 , v1 ,..., v 4 T

(5.85)

Now let us assume the following displacement functions

6

u = N1u 1 + N 2 u 2 + N 3 u 3 + N 4 u 4 = N i u i
i =1
6

v = N1u 1 + N 2 u 2 + N 3 u 3 + N 4 u 4 = N i v i
i =1

(5.86)

97

in which N1, N2, N3, and N4 are the interpolation functions and they are given as follows:

(1 )(1 )
N 3 = 14 (1 + )(1 + )

N1 =

(1 + )(1 )
N 4 = 14 (1 )(1 + )

N2 =

1
4

1
4

(5.87)

We may write in the matrix form:

u N1
=
v 0

{ } =

N2

N3

N4

N1

N2

N3

q1
0 q 2

N 4 M
q 8

(5.88)

= y/b

q8

q6

q7

q5

2b

q2

= y/b
u

q1

q3

q4

2a
q6

q5

=1

q7
y

4 q8

=
=0

=1

= -
= -1
=0
q2 1 = -1 = -

q1

q3

q4

Figure 5.13 Bilinear displacement rectangle and its isoparametric quadrilateral.

98

Eq. (5.88) can be arranged as follows

{ } = [ N ]{q} = [ N ]1 [ N ]2 [ N ]3

{q}1

{q}2
[ N ]4
{q}3
{q}
4

(5.89)

or it may be written in a concise form as

{ }i = [N]i {q}i

(i = 1,2,3,4)

(5.90)

For example, for node 1 we may write following equations:

{ }1 = [N]1 {q}1

(5.91)

u N1
=
v 1 0

(5.92)

0 q1
1 0 q1
=
N

N1 q2
0 1 q2

The generic displacements {}i in Eq. (5.91) represent the translations at any point due to the
displacements {q}i at node i. As a further efficiency of notation, we can write the functions Ni
as
Ni =

1
(1 + 0 )(1 + 0 )
4

(5.93)

where
0 = 0 =

(i = 1,2,3,4)

(5.94)

[B] matrix can be expressed as:

{ } = [B ]1 [ B]2 [B ]3

{q}1

{q}2
[B ]4
{q}3
{q}
4

(5.95)

This relation can be concisely expressed as:

{}i = [B ]i {q}i
where

(i = 1,2,3,4)

(5.96)

99

[B]i = [ ][ N ]i = 0

N i

x
0
= 0
N i
N i

Ni

y 0

N i

y
N i

(5.97)

In the isoparametric formulation, we use the same shape functions Ni to also express the
coordinates of a point within the element in terms of nodal coordinates. Thus,
x = N1x1 + N 2 x2 + N3 x3 + N 4 x4

(5.98)

y = N1 y1 + N 2 y2 + N3 y3 + N 4 y4
In matrix form we may write

x N1
=
y 0

N2

N3

N4

N1

N2

N3

x1
y
1
x 2

0 y 2

N 4 x 3
y3

x 4
y
4

(5.99)

The Jacobian matrix, [J], is given as follows:,

x

[J ] = x

y 4 N i
xi
i=1
=
y 4 N i
xi

i =1

N i

yi
i =1

4
N i
yi

i =1
4

(5.100)

From Eqs. 6.2.1 and 6.2.2, for the special case of four-node plane element

[ J ] = [ D L ]{C N }

(5.101)

The matrix [DL] given by this expression consists of derivatives of Ni with respect to local
coordinates. That is,

100
N1

[ DL ] =
N
1

N 2

N 2

N3

N3

N 4

1 (1 ) (1 )
=
4 (1 ) (1 + )
N 4

(1 + ) (1 + )
(1 + ) (1 )

(5.102)

[CN] is the matrix of nodal coordinates as follows

x1
x
[C N ] = x2
3

x
4

y1
y2
y3

y4

The matrix [DG] given by this expression consists of derivatives of Ni with respect to global
coordinates. It can be written in terms of local derivatives of shape functions using the inverse
of the Jacobian matrix, [].
N1
x

[ DG ] =
N
1
y

N 2
x
N 2
y

N3
x
N3
y

N 4
x

= [ ][ D L ]
N 4

(5.103)

Evaulating terms in [DG] yields:

DG11 =

1
(1 ) J 22 + (1 ) J12
4J

DG12 =

1
(1 ) J 22 + (1 + ) J12
4J

DG13

1
(1 + ) J 22 (1 + ) J12
=
4J

DG14 =

1
(1 + ) J 22 (1 ) J12
4J

DG 21 =
DG 22 =
DG 23

1
(1 ) J 21 (1 ) J11
4J

1
(1 ) J 21 (1 + ) J11
4J

1
(1 + ) J 21 + (1 + ) J11
=
4J

DG 24 =

(5.104)

1
(1 + ) J 21 + (1 ) J11
4J

By this approach we can find all the terms in [DG] numerically.

Because of the appearance of the determinant of [J] in denominator positions, we usually
cannot integrate explicitly to obtain stiffnesses and equivalent nodal loads. Instead, it becomes
necessary to use numerical integration.
Then, we can obtain the submatrix [B]i using Eqs. (5.104) as follows

101
DG1i
[B ]i = 0
DG 2i

0
DG 2i
DG1i

i = 1,2,3,4

(5.105)

After determining the [B] matrix, we express the stiffness matrix for Q4 element (with
constant thickness t) in Cartesian coordinates. Thus,
1 1

[k ] = te B ( , )8 x3 [E]3 x3 B ( , ) 3 x8 J ( , ) d d
T

(5.106)

1 1

Similarly, equivalent nodal loads due to body forces may be written in natural coordinates as:
1 1

[fb ] = te N ( , )8 x 2 b ( , ) 2 x1 J ( , ) d d
T

(5.107)

1 1

In addition, equivalent nodal loads due to initial strains in natural coordinates are:
1 1

[f0 ] = te B ( , )8 x3 [E]3 x3 0 ( , ) 3 x1 J ( , ) d d
T

(5.108)

1 1

Except in special cases, the integrals in Eqs. (5.107) and (5.108) must be performed by
numerical integration. However, if the element is rectangular, direct explicit integration may
be used. Also, line loadings with or constant may be handled by explicit line integrations.
Of course, if the body forces consist of point loads, no integration is required at all.
Furthermore, note that the determinant of the Jacobian matrix appears in the denominators of
all the terms in matrix [B]. Therefore, the determinant J in Eq. (5.108) cancels throughout;
so the equivalent loads for initial strains may be integrated either explicitly or numerically. If
a temperature change T varies bilinearly, it is defined as:
4

T = N i Ti
i =1

Numerical Integration
For quadrilaterals in natural coordinates, the type of integration to be performed as
1 1

I=

f ( , ) J dd

1 1

Two successive applications of Gaussian quadrature produce:

I = R j R k f ( j , k ) J ( j , k )
n

(5.109)

k =1 j=1

where Rj and Rk are weighting factors for the point (j, k). Integration points for n = 1,2,3
each way on a quadrilateral are shown in Fig. 5.5.

102

n=1

n=3

n=2
Figure 5.14 Integration points for n = 1,3, and 4.

Table 5.4 The locations of integration points and weighting factors for quadrilaterals.
n
1
2

Rj

Rk

2
1

2
1

1
3

1
3

0.7745966692 0.7745966692 0.5555555556 0.5555555556

3

0.0

0.0

0.8888888889

Example:
Derive numerically the stiffness term k12
for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure, using Gaussian integration with n = 2
each way. Assume that thickness t is
constant .The coordinates of nodes are given
in the figure.

(14,14)

G3

(5,10)
G4

G2
G1

Solution:

(20,5)
2

The formula for numerical integration of

terms in [k] is:
n

0.8888888889

(7,1)

[k ] = te R j Rk B ( j ,k )8 x3 [E]3 x3 B ( j ,k ) 3 x8 J ( j ,k )
T

k =1 j =1

Matrices [B] and [J] in this expression are functions of the coordinates j and k for the
integration points (or Gauss points) G1, G2, G3, and G4 shown in the figure. In particular, for
k12 with n = 2, Rj = Rk = 1 so that
n

k12 = te [ B ]1,1 [ E ]3 x 3 [ B ]1,2 J

k =1 j =1

103
In this formula the symbol [B]1,1 denotes the first column of submatrix [B]1 and [B]1,2 is the
second column. Substituting these columns in above equation, we obtain:
n

k12 = te ( E12 + E33 ) DG11 DG 21 J

k =1 j =1

in which the terms E12 and E33 are left in unspecified form.
To evaluate this equation, we first calculate Jacobian matrix as:

[ J ] = [ DL ][C N ] =

1 (1 ) (1 )

4 (1 ) (1 + )

(1 + )
(1 + )

7 1
(1 + ) 20 5
= 1 11 2

(1 ) 14 14 2 4 2

5 10

4
9

Then the determinant of J is:

J =

1
(115 18 + 8 )
4

Terms required from DG are:

DG11 =

1
5 + 9 4
(1 ) J 22 + (1 ) J12 =
4J
2 (115 18 + 8 )

DG 21 =

3 ( 5 + 2 + 3 )
1
(1 ) J 21 (1 ) J11 =
4J
2 (115 18 + 8 )

Evaluating the product DG11DG21| J | at each of the four integration points and summing the
results can be obtained as:
k 12 = 0.1578t e (E12 + E 33 )
which can be finalized using numerical values of t, E12, and E33.

5.4.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral

Figure 5.15(a) shows the rectangular parent of the isoparametric quadrilateral (Q8) element,
which appears in Fig. 5.15(b). In order to understand this higher-order isoparametric element,
it is helpful to study first its rectangular parent. Nodal displacements for either element consist
of x and y translations at each node. Thus,

{q} = q1 , q2 ,..., q16 T = u1 , v1 ,..., v8 T

(5.110)

Now let us assume the following displacement functions

8

u = N i ui
i =1

v = N i vi
i =1

(5.111)

104

= y/b
(a)

q8

q14

q6

q13

q5

q7
2b

q15

q11

q16

q12

q2

q9

q1

q10

(b)

q5

q14
7

q7

q13

4 q8

q12
6

q15

v
8

q1

q11

q16

q9
q2 1

q3

q4

2a
q6

= y/b

q3
5

q4

q10
x

Figure 5.15 (a) Parent rectangular element (b) Isoparmetric quadrilateral (Q8) element.
in which N1, N2, , N8 are the interpolation functions and they are given as follows:
1
(1 + 0 )(1 + 0 )( 0 + 0 1)
4
1
N i = (1 2 )(1 + 0 )
2
1
N i = (1 + 0 )(1 2 )
2

Ni =

where

0 = i

0 = i

(i = 1,2,3,4)
(i = 5,7)
(i = 6,8)

(5.112)

105

This rectangle is called a Serendipity element [1] because nodes appear only on its edges.
If we take the geometric interpolation functions to be the same as the displacement shape
functions in Eqs. (5.112), we formulate the isoparametric (Q8) element. Physically, this
means that the natural coordinates and are curvilinear, and all sides of the element become
quadratic curves [6]. Thus,
8

x = N i xi
i =1

y = N i yi
i =1

The formulation of stiffnesses and equivalent nodal loads for element Q8 is very similar to
that for Q4 element given earlier. Numerical integration also follows the same pattern as
before, even though the local coordinates are curved.
When higher-order elements are available, it is not always clear whether to use them or to
refine network of lower-order elements to achieve the same accuracy. Figure 5.16 depicts a
two-dimensional continuum discretized into Q4 elements and a smaller number of Q8
elements. In this case it seems clear that using Q8 elements instead of tour times as many Q4
elements has advantages. First, we see that the number of nodes is smaller when Q8 elements
are used. Second, this type of element is able to model the curved boundary with superior
accuracy. Third, we can expect greater numerical accuracy in the results because of quadratic
displacement functions in place of linear functions. Of course, the validity of these predictions
can only be verified by numerical experimentation with practical applications.

Figure 5.16 Discretization with Q4 and Q8 elements.

106

PROBLEMS
Problem 1. The element shown in the figure is taken from a finite element model of a thin
aluminum plate with 5 mm thickness. The calculated nodal displacements are given below.
Determine (a) the natural coordinates (,) of point P, (b) the nodal displacement at the point
P, and (c) element stresses.
v3
u1 = 0.05 mm
v1 = 0.02 mm
u2 = 0.04 mm
v2 = 0.0 mm
u3 = 0.03 mm
v3 = 0.0 mm

u3

(9,8)

Coordinates are in mm.

3
u1

v1

v2

P(8,6)
2

(5,6)

(10,5)

u2

Problem 2. A cantilevered beam is made of an aluminum alloy and is subjected a

concentrated load of 10 kN on the free end. The dimensions of the beam are shown in the
Figure.
Model the portion of the beam, shown in the Figure, with two CST elements.
(a)
Apply the loads due to the bending and shear. Use simple calculations of beam theory
(b)
to obtain the loads.
Apply the appropriate boundary conditions.
(c)
Obtain the nodal displacements and element stresses.
(d)
Model the entire beam using FE software. Obtain converged solutions and compare
(e)
the results with yours. (E = 70 GPa, = 0.3)
10 kN

100

Thickness = 10
200

100

1200 mm

Problem 3. The aluminum disc shown in the figure has a radius of 50 mm and a
thickness of 5 mm. A linearly varying pressure load is applied to right and left hand sides
of the disc and its maximum value is 800 MPa.
a. model the disc with two constant strain triangles (use the symmetry of geometry and
loads)
b. determine the nodal displacements and draw the deformed and undeformed shapes
c. calculate the element stresses.

107
d. model the disc using FE software. Obtain converged solutions and compare the results
with yours. (E = 70 GPa, = 0.3)
y

50 mm
x
45

Pmax =800 MPa

Problem 4. Suppose that a bilinear displacement rectangle is subjected to a temperature

change that varies linearly from edge 1-4 to edge 2-3, as indicated in the figure. Develop
equivalent nodal loads for node 2 due to such temperature variation, assuming isotropic
material in plane stress.
=
4
2a
3
2b

u
2

Problem 5. For the bilinear displacement rectangle is subjected to a temperature change that
varies linearly from edge 1-4 to edge 2-3, as indicated in the figure. Develop equivalent nodal
loads for node 2 due to such temperature variation, assuming isotropic material in plane
stress.
ET
2 ET
(Weaver & Johnston, prob. 2.3-6, answer: ft 3 =
tb, f t 4 =
ta )
2 (1 )
3 (1 )
4
2b

2a
v

=
u
2

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Problem 6. Derive numerically the stiffness term k66 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n=2 each way. Assume that the thickness t is
constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (2,1), (8,1), (7,6)
and (1,5), respectively. Give the numerical results to four significant figures (Weaver &
Johnston, prob. 3.4-5, answer: k55 = (0.5312E22 + 0.1929E33)t

2
1
x

Problem 7. Derive numerically the stiffness term k55 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n=2 each way. Assume that the thickness t is
constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (2,1), (8,1), (7,6)
and (1,5), respectively. Give the numerical results to four significant figures.
Problem 8. Derive numerically the stiffness term k56 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n=2 each way. Assume that the thickness t is
constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (2,1), (8,1), (7,6)
and (1,5), respectively. Give the numerical results to four significant figures
Problem 9. Derive numerically the stiffness term k33 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n = 2 each way. Assume that the thickness t
is constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (2,1), (8,1), (7,6)
and (1,5), respectively. four significant figures.
Problem 10. The aluminum plate is subjected the distributed and concentrated loads. The
dimensions of plate are given in the figure. E = 70 GPa, = 0.3 and thickness of the plate 5
mm.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Model the plate with two finite elements

Solve the nodal displacements
Obtain the element stresses
Calculate the support reactions.
Optional: Solve the problem using a FE software and compare the results.

You may use MATLAB software to solve the linear algebraic equations and to perform other
matrix operations.

109

500 mm
40 kN
500 mm

600 mm

90

50 kN/m
800 mm

Problem 11. A linearly varying load (force per unit length) is aplied on the 2-3 edge of Q4
element shown in the Figure.. Obtain the equivalent nodal loads due to the distributed load.
For this purpose, express bx in terms of . The length of edge is l23 and = 1 on this edge. The
coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (2,1), (8,1), (7,6) and (1,5), respectively.

bx3

y
bx2
1
2
x
Problem 12. The cross-section of a long steel axle shown in the figure has a radius of 50 mm.
A linearly varying pressure load is applied to right and left sides of the axleand its maximum
value is 800 MPa.
a) model the disc with two constant strain triangles (use the symmetry of geometry and
loads)
b) determine the nodal displacements and draw the deformed and undeformed shapes
c) calculate the element stresses.
y

50 mm
x
45

Pmax =800 MPa

110

Problem 13. For the bilinear displacement rectangle, derive the equivalent nodal loads due to
the parabolically distributed force by = by0(1-x2) per unit length, apllied in the h direction
along edge 1-2 in the figure.

2b

= y/b

2a

= x/a

u
2

by

by0

Problem 14. Derive numerically the stiffness term k36 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n = 2 each way. Assume that the thickness t
is constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (4,2), (10,2),
(8,8) and (2,6), respectively. Give the numerical results to four significant figures.

1
x

Problem 15. The geometry and loading of a plate which is made from A-36 steel are shown
in the figure. The thickness of plate is 10 mm. (a) model the plate with two constant strain
triangles (b) determine the nodal displacements and draw the deformed and undeformed
shapes (c) calculate the element stresses.

111
200 mm
20 N/mm

400 mm

40 N/mm
400 mm

Problem 16. Suppose that a bilinear displacement rectangle is subjected to a temperature

change that varies linearly from edge 1-2 to edge 3-4, as indicated in the figure. Develop
equivalent nodal loads at node 4 due to such a temperature variation, assuming isotropic
material in plane stress.
= y/b
2a
T
3
4
2b

= x/a
u
2

-T

Problem 17. Derive numerically the stiffness term k34 for the isoparametric Q4 element in the
figure using Gaussian numerical integration with n = 2 each way. Assume that the thickness t
is constant and the material is isotropic. The coordinates for 1,2,3, and 4 are (4,4), (10,6),
(10,12) and (2,8), respectively. Give the numerical results to four significant figures.

3
y

1
x

112

Problem 18. For the Q4 element shown in the figure, the element displacement vector {q} is
given as {q} = 0 0 0.20 0 0.15 0.10 0 0.05

(a) Find the x, y coordinates of a point whose location in the natural coordinates is given
by = 0.5, = 0.5.
(b) Find the u, v displacements of the point P.

Problem 19.
(a) Sketch a four-node plane element for which J is a function of but not of .
(b) Use Gauss quadrature to evaluate the integral
1 1

I=

3+2

2 + 2 d d

1 1

Use (i) one point, (ii) four points. Determine the percentage of error of each result.

Problem 20. Natural coordinates other than the , system may be chosen. One alternative
is the r,s system shown. Write shape functions of the bilinear element in terms of r and s.
s

y
4

s=1

3
r=1
r

2
x

Problem 21. The figure shows a linearly varying force bx (force per unit length) applied in
the x direction along side 2-3 of the Q4 element. By explicit integration derive the equivalent
nodal loads due to such an edge loading. For this purpose, let L23 be the length of edge 2-3
(where =1), and express the intensity of bx in terms of before integration.
(a) Determine the displacement components,
(b) Obtain the strain components
(c) Figure 2b shows a four-node quadrilateral. The (x,y) coordinates of each node are given
in the figure. Find the x,y coordinates of a point P whose location is given by = 0.5, =
0.5.
bx3
3

2
x

113

Problem 23. Figure 2a shows that a four-node element shown was initially a square. Nodal
displacement components, each of magnitude c in both x and y directions, create the
displaced shape indicated by dashed lines. For the point x = y = a/2,
(a) Determine the displacement components,
(b) Obtain the strain components
(c) Figure 2b shows a four-node quadrilateral. The (x,y) coordinates of each node are
given in the figure. Find the x,y coordinates of a point P whose location is given by =
0.5, = 0.5.
3
=x/a
(8,8)
y (1,4)
4
2a

=x/a

1
(1,1)

2a
Figure 2a

(5,1)

Figure 2b

Problem 24. The Q8 element in the figure has a parabolicaly distributed force bx (per unit
length) applied in the x direction on edge 2-6-3. Find the eqivalent loads at node 6 due to this
influence.
3

bx0

Problem 25. For the aluminum square plate shown in the figure, (i) model by two CST
elements (ii) model by one bilinear displacement rectangle. Take Poissons ratio of 0. The
dimension a = 100 mm and the thickness of plate is 1 mm. The distributed load by is 100
N/mm.
(a) Obtain the nodal displacements
(b) Calculate the element stresses. Compare and comment on the results of two solutions.
(c) Find the strain energy of rectangular element.

114
by

Problem 26. The Q8 element in the figure has a linearly distributed force by (per unit length)
applied in the y direction on edge 1-5-2. Find the eqivalent loads at node 5 due to this
influence.
3

by2

by1
x

Problem 27.
(a) Write shape functions of the plane stress element in terms of and .
(b) Explain the isoparametric approach in the element formulations.
(c) Obtain the J11 term of the Jacobian matrix.

115

4
6
1

2
x

Problem 28. For the bilinear displacement rectangle, derive the equivalent nodal loads
due to parabolically distributed force bx = bx0(1-2) per unit length, applied in
the direction along edge 2-3 in the figure.

= y/b

3
bx0

2b

= x/a
1
2

2a

Problem 29. Figure shows that a four-node element shown was initially a square. Nodal
displacement components, each of magnitude c in both x and y directions, create the displaced
shape indicated by dashed lines. Write the displacement functions using the bilinear shape
functions for the Q4 element.
(a) Determine the displacement components for the point x = y = a/2,
(b) Obtain the strain components at this point.

=x/a

2a

=x/a
2a

Problem 30. Figure shows a four-node quadrilateral. The (x,y) coordinates of each node are
given in the figure. Assume that the thickness t is constant and the material is isotropic.
(a) Derive the stiffness term k46 for the isoparametric Q4 element until the application of
numerical integration.
(b) Explain the application of Gaussian numerical integration with n=2 each way.

116
3
(8,8)
y (1,4)
4
1
(1,1)

(5,1)

Problem 30. Write the shape functions of the triangular plane-stress element given in the
figure. The node 4 is at the centroid of triangle. Use the non-dimensional area coordinates
and .
3

y, v

4
1
2

x, u

Problem 31. The nodal coordinates and displacements of a quadrilateral plane-stress element are
given in the figure.
(a) Calculate the displacement components at the point P(12.0, 13.4). The corresponding
natural coordinates are = 0.25 and = 0.60 at the point P.
(b) Obtain the Jacobian matrix of the element.
(c) Calculate the normal strains and normal stresses at the centroid of the element.
E = 200 GPa, = 0.3, element thickness t = 4 mm.
(8,16)
y

Coordinates in mm.

4
P
1
(8,8)

(14,14)
3
2

(16,8)
x

Node No.
1
2
3
4

u (mm)
0.003
0.006
0.004
0.002

v (mm)
0.001
0.005
0.0
-0.001

117

Problem 32. A special plane stress element in a shape of right triangle is shown in the figure.
The element has three corner nodes and hence it is a constant strain triangle.
(a) Write the linear shape functions of element. Notice that the shape function must be
zero at the edge across the related node.
(b) Obtain the [B] matrix. Why this element has the constant strains? Which type of
triangular element provides the linear strain variation within the element? Please
explain.
(c) Calculate the k12 term of stiffness matrix.
=y/b
3
b

=x/a
a
2
Problem 33. The linear strain triangle (LST) element shown in the figure is a plane-stress
element.
(a) Determine shape functions N3 and N4 in terms of non-dimensional coordinates and
.
(b) Sketch their variations on the element.
(c) Let u3, v3, u4, and v4 be the only nonzero d.o.f. In terms of these d.o.f., , , a, and b,
what is the element strain field?
3
1

b
6

=y/2b 5
b

1
a

=x/a

Problem 34. The figure shows a linearly varying load bx (force per unit length) applied in the
x direction along side 2-3 of the Q4 element. By explicit integration derive the equivalent
nodal loads due to such an edge loading. For this purpose, let L23 be the length of edge 2-3
(where = 1), and express the intensity of bx in terms of before integrating.

118

bx3

bx2
2
1
x

Problem 35. A CST element with three nodes is taken from a FE mesh. The nodal
coordinates are shown in the figure and the nodal displacements under the applied loads
and 60C temperature increase are given in the table. The material of element is steel with
E = 70 GPa, = 0.32, and = 23(10-6)/ C. Recover the element stresses.
y
19

(40,40)

Coordinates are in mm.

Node No.
13
17
19

(60,20)
13
17
(20,10)

u (mm)
0.020
0.025
0.015

v (mm)
-0.015
0.010
0.0

Problem 36. (a) Write the shape functions in terms of non-dimensional coordinates for
the rectangular element shown in figure.
(b) If the nodal displacements of a rectangular element a = b = 2 are u1 = 0.215, u2 =
u
at the point x = y = 1.5.
0.180, u3 = u4 = 0.125, compute u and
x
y, = y/b
3

x, = x/a

119

Problem 37. A distributed loading is normal to side 2-3 of the Q4 element. Derive explicit
expression for the equivalent nodal load at node 2.

2 N/mm

(6,6)

(1,5)

4 N/mm
2

(9,1)

(2,1)

Problem 38. Natural coordinates other than the , system may be chosen. One alternative
is the r,s system shown. Write the shape function N1 in terms of r and s. Plot the shape
function.
s

s=1
3
r=1

4
6
8
1

r
5

2
x