Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45:3 (2004), pp 481495

A developmental analysis of self-reported fears

in late childhood through mid-adolescence:
social-evaluative fears on the rise?
P. Michiel Westenberg, Martine J. Drewes, Arnold W. Goedhart,
Berend M. Siebelink, and Philip D.A. Treffers
Leiden University, The Netherlands

Background: The frequently reported decline in the overall frequency and intensity of fears during late
childhood and adolescence may mask different developmental patterns for two broad subclasses of
fears: fears concerning physical danger and fears concerning social evaluation. It was investigated if
physical fears decrease between late childhood and mid-adolescence, while social-evaluative fears increase during this period. It was also studied if changes in both sets of fears are more strongly related to
socio-cognitive maturity than to age, which itself is only a proxy measure of maturity. Methods: A nonclinical sample of 882 children and adolescents (ages 818) was recruited for study. Fears were assessed
using the Ollendick Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R). A Principal Components
Analysis (PCA) was conducted to study the factor structure of the Failure and Criticism subscale of the
FSSC-R. Level of development was assessed using the Sentence Completion Test for Youth (SCT-Y), a
measure of socio-cognitive maturity that is based on Loevingers model, and measure, of ego development. Results: The PCA of the Failure and Criticism subscale revealed three factors: Social Evaluation,
Achievement Evaluation, and Punishment. As predicted, the significant decrease of overall fearfulness
obscured two contradictory developmental patterns: (a) fears of physical danger and punishment decreased with age, whereas (b) fears of social and achievement evaluation increased with age. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the age effect for social-evaluative fears was explained entirely
on the basis of developmental differences in socio-cognitive maturity (controlling for verbal ability). In
contrast, age was a better predictor of the decrease of physical and punishment fears (although sociocognitive maturity still added to the predictive value of age). Conclusion: The expression of social
evaluation fears during adolescence appears not atypical and might be a corollary of socio-cognitive
maturation. At the same time, the natural presence of those fears during adolescence appears to constitute a vulnerability for developing a social anxiety disorder. Keywords: Adolescence, conformity, ego
development, fears, normal development, school children. Abbreviations: WUSCT: Washington University Sentence Completion Test; SCT-Y: Sentence Completion Test for Youth; FSSC-R: Fear Survey
Schedule for Children Revised.

The fears of children and adolescents have been

studied extensively (see Gullone, 2000; Marks, 1987).
In general, findings suggest that the overall frequency,
and intensity, of fears declines between late childhood
and adolescence (e.g., Campbell & Rapee, 1994;
Dong, Xia, Lin, Yang, & Ollendick, 1995; Gullone &
King, 1992, 1997; Gullone, King, & Ollendick, 2001;
King, Gullone, & Ollendick, 1992; King et al., 1989;
Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989; Spence & McCathie,
1993). This decline has been reported in cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies and has been
observed in several countries (see Fonseca, Yule, &
Erol, 1994). Such findings have led many professionals to assume that the expression of fears during
childhood is normal and transitory, while the
expression of fears during adolescence is atypical and
possibly a sign of psychopathology.
However, the frequently reported decline in overall
fearfulness may mask different developmental
patterns for two broad classes of fears: fears concerning physical danger and fears concerning social

evaluation. The present study examined whether

fears concerning social evaluation increase between
middle childhood and mid-adolescence, while fears
of physical danger decrease during this period. This
study also examined if the frequency of self-reported
social-evaluative fears is related to socio-cognitive
maturation.

Developmental paths of physical and social fears

Support for a global distinction between physical
and social fears was provided by a factor-analytic
study conducted by Campbell and Rapee (1994). In a
pilot study they generated a list of 31 fear items. The
list of items was presented to a sample of 560 children and adolescents (aged 6 to 16). A factor analysis
indicated that youngsters are concerned about two
types of feared outcomes: physical harm (e.g., being
burned) and social problems (e.g., being teased). The
same two factors were observed in adults (Lovibond
& Rapee, 1993).

Association for Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2004.

Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA

482

P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

Most researchers have used the Fear Survey

Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick,
1983) or the FSSC-II (a revised version of the FSSCR; Gullone & King, 1992) to study age changes in the
frequency and intensity of fears. The FSSC-R and
FSSC-II each consist of 5 subscales. Fears of physical danger are typically categorized into four subscales: 1) fear of minor injury and small animals,
2) fear of danger and death, 3) fear of medical
situations, and 4) fear of the unknown. A fifth subscale is used to assess fears of social evaluation: fear
of failure and criticism.
Most studies using the FSSC-R and FSSC-II report
statistically significant declines in physical fear
scores between childhood and late adolescence (e.g.,
Dong et al., 1995; Dong, Yang, & Ollendick, 1994;
Gullone & King, 1997; Gullone et al., 2001; Gullone
& Lane, 2002; King et al., 1992; King et al., 1989;
Ollendick et al., 1989; see also Campbell & Rapee,
1994). The prominence of fears of physical threats in
early and middle childhood has been attributed to its
survival value. Children appear endowed with a
natural inclination to avoid potentially harmful stimuli
and they are encouraged by their caretakers to do so
(e.g., Marks, 1987). The observed decline of physical
fears during late childhood and early adolescence
has been attributed to cognitive and physical maturation and to increasing knowledge of ones physical surroundings (see Gullone, 2000).
In contrast with the consistent and understandable
decrease of physical fears, the relationship between
age and social fears is more equivocal. Most studies
using the FSSC-R report no relationship between age
and the scores on the fear of failure and criticism
subscale (e.g., Gullone et al., 2001; King et al., 1992;
King et al., 1989; Ollendick, Matson, & Helsel, 1985),
while a few other studies report a decrease in scores on
the fear of failure and criticism subscale (e.g.,Dong
et al., 1995; Gullone & Lane, 2002; Ollendick et al.,
1989). One study reports a non-linear relationship
with age: an increase between late childhood and early
adolescence, followed by a decrease (Dong et al.,
1994). And one study reports an increase in scores on
the psychic stressmedical fear subscale of the FSSCII (this scale includes 5 social fear items; Gullone &
King, 1997).
Studies that were based on other methods for assessing social-evaluative concerns also yielded inconsistent findings. For example, a cross-sectional
study of school children (ages 6 to 16) with the Child
and Adolescent Worry Scale did not yield a significant relationship with age (Campbell & Rapee,
1994), whereas a longitudinal study of adolescents
(ages 13 to 15) with a list of fear items derived from
the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children
revealed an increase with age (Poulton et al., 1997).
In contrast with the inconsistent age trends
observed in studies of social-evaluative fears in
nonclinical populations, a more consistent age
trend has been observed in studies of social anxiety

disorders in clinical populations as well as in

samples of the general population. Most clinical
and epidemiological studies suggest an increasing
prevalence of social anxiety disorders, or related
disorders, during mid-adolescence (e.g., McGee,
Feehan, Williams, & Anderson, 1992; Westenberg,
Siebelink, Warmenhoven, & Treffers, 1999). For
example, a study of social phobia and social fears
among 1035 adolescents (ages 1217) has shown a
significant increase of the frequency of social phobia
from early to mid-adolescence (Essau, Conradt, &
Petermann, 1999).
Some authors have suggested that the increase of
social anxiety disorders in the adolescent years is
related to an increase of normally occurring social
fears (e.g., Poulton et al., 1997; Westenberg, Siebelink, & Treffers, 2001). This connection has not,
however, been firmly established empirically. Indeed, as was noted earlier, most studies on socialevaluative fears in nonclinical populations have not
reported an age-related increase of social-evaluative
fears.
Inspection of the items on the fear of failure and
criticism subscale of the FSSC-R and FSSC-II suggests an explanation for the absence of a consistent
age pattern. Some items depict situations that are
characterized by a fear of punishment (e.g., getting
punished by mother, being sent to the principal),
while other items depict situations that are characterized by a fear of social evaluation (e.g., looking
foolish, being criticized by others, getting a report
card). These two types of fears may follow a different
developmental course between late childhood and
mid-adolescence. Specifically, fears of social evaluation might increase during this period, while fears
of punishment might decrease.
Support for this tentative hypothesis is provided
by findings of a few studies. For example, Ollendick
et al. (1989) administered the FSSC-R to 1185 participants ages 716. Post-hoc analyses revealed that
the item being sent to the principal was more frequently endorsed by respondents ages 710,
whereas the item failing a test was more frequently
endorsed by respondents ages 1416. Similar findings were reported by Gullone and King (1993) in a
study of participants ages 718. Children (ages 710)
were more concerned about being sent to the principal, whereas adolescents (ages 1518) were more
concerned about giving an oral report. Finally, King
et al. (1989) assessed the fears of 3118 children and
adolescents (ages 816), and reported that punishment-related fear items were endorsed with greater
frequency by children (ages 810), whereas socialevaluation fear items were endorsed with greater
frequency by adolescents (ages 1416): [f]oremost of
these items were having to talk to the class, having to
sing or put on a play, taking a test, failing a test and
poor grades (p. 778).
Although several investigators have incidentally
noted an increase of some social-evaluative fears

A developmental analysis of social fears

during adolescence, the latter increase was typically

not regarded as part of normal development. Rutter
and Garmezy (1983), for example, noted that ...
certain social anxieties that generally arise at, or
after, puberty... are not part of normal development... [and] are generally considered intrinsically
abnormal fears or phobias (pp. 804805). More recently, however, researchers have proposed that
increases in social-evaluative fears in the adolescent
years might be part of normal development (e.g.,
Gullone & King, 1997; Ollendick & Hirshfeld-Becker,
2002; Velting & Albano, 2001; Westenberg, Siebelink et al., 2001). Ollendick and Hirshfeld-Becker
(2002), for example, noted that as children emerge
from infancy into childhood and adolescence, they
place increasing importance on how peers, friends,
and adults perceive them and how they come
across in their social interactions with them. Transient episodes of social anxiety are not uncommon
and are part and parcel of normal development
(p. 44).

Social-evaluative fears and socio-cognitive

maturity
Several models of socio-cognitive development predict a rise in self-consciousness and self-awareness
during adolescence, developmental changes that
may result in fears about negative evaluation. Gullone and King (1997) propose that an increase of
social-evaluative fears may be due to the advent of
what Elkind (as cited in Elkind & Bowen, 1979) refers to as adolescent egocentrism. Elkind proposes
that teenagers move through a period of egocentrism, characterized by the belief that he or she is the
continual object of everyones attention (a phenomenon that Elkind refers to as the imaginary audience). Notably Elkind regards the growth of
adolescent egocentrism as an inevitable by-product
of the growth of abstract reasoning and thus a
developmental transition traversed by most teenagers. Likewise, Selman (1980) proposes that young
adolescents develop an increasing capacity for perspective-taking, enabling them to view themselves
through the eyes of other people. In its nascent form,
such perspective-taking results in heightened selfconsciousness and, presumably, fear of social evaluation.
Speculations regarding the connection between
socio-cognitive maturation on the one hand and a
possible rise in fear of social evaluation on the other
hand has not yet been subjected to empirical
scrutiny. Indeed, as was noted earlier, a rise in social
fears did not consistently emerge from empirical research and is not considered by all to be an inevitable by-effect of normal socio-cognitive development.
In other words, the link between social-evaluative
fears and other aspects of social and cognitive
development is not an undisputed fact. The present
study therefore sought to empirically investigate the

483

proposed connection between social-evaluative fears

and socio-cognitive development.
In a search for candidates to study the developmental course of fears in childhood and adolescence,
Westenberg, Siebelink et al. (2001) considered several theories (and measures) of socio-cognitive
development, such as Selmans (1980) developmental model of social cognition, Eriksons (1950) model
of psychosocial development, Damons (1977) model
of social understanding, and Loevingers (1976)
model of ego development. It was concluded that, for
conceptual as well as empirical reasons, Jane
Loevingers theory and measure of ego development
would be best suited to study the potential connection between social fears and socio-cognitive development in the age period from late childhood
through mid-adolescence (age 8 to 18 years). Her
account of development captures the common
ground of the various theories and is accompanied
by a solid research tool that allows for a direct
empirical test of the presumed relationship between
social fears and developmental maturity.
Loevinger (1976, 1997) portrays socio-cognitive
growth as a series of changes in impulse control,
interpersonal relations, and conscious preoccupations. Developmental advances in these domains are
depicted in terms of stages, a term that implies an
underlying coherence and structure to personality.
Eight developmental stages have been identified by
Loevinger and her colleagues (see below); each
developmental stage, or ego level, is defined by a
characteristic way of perceiving and responding to
the social world.
The term ego refers to a ... striving to master, to
integrate, [and] to make sense of experience...
(Loevinger, 1976, p. 59). For Loevinger the ego is an
abstraction, not an extant structure; thus she describes the ego informally, referring to it as a frame
of reference, or lens, through which individuals
perceive their world (ego development thus represents a change in ones frame of reference). Several
authors have mistakenly associated Loevingers
model of ego development with the psychoanalytic
tradition. The link is nonexistent, however, as Loevinger has repeatedly stated (Loevinger, 1976,
1993; see also Westen, 1998).
The first four ego levels are relevant for the course
of fears in late childhood through adolescence. The
following summary descriptions of these four ego
levels, and the proposed link with fears, are based on
a large-scale study of ego development in children
and adolescents (N 2773; Westenberg, Jonckheer,
Treffers, & Drewes, 1998).
The first, Impulsive, ego level is characterized in
part by a preoccupation with aggressive impulses
and by dependency on caretakers to regulate
aggressive, and other, impulses in self and others.
Impulsive individuals feel generally vulnerable and
rely on their caretakers for protection against
(physical) threats from the outside. Caretakers and

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P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

other adults are expected to set the rules and enforce

them. Yet, impulses may temporarily override the
generally docile attitude. It is conceivable that
Impulsive individuals are particularly fearful of
physical threats and of punishment imposed by elders (e.g., parents, teachers). They fear (physical)
punishment itself because it could be hurtful and
because they might fear the loss of protection. The
caretaker is the one who should be in control of self
and others and should provide care, guidance, and
protection against physical dangers, not punishment. In contrast, social evaluation is not expected
to be a prominent concern at this stage of development.
The second, Self-protective, ego level is characterized in part by a preoccupation with control of self
and others and by an emphasis on self-reliance and
self-determination. The need for control may be expressed in self-focused ways or in ways focused at
other people: manipulation of ones own feelings
(e.g., denial of hurt feelings or problems generally) is
as typical as the manipulation of other people. These
individuals do not like to depend on the care and
protection afforded by parents or teachers; on the
contrary, they like to fend for themselves. It is conceivable that Self-protective individuals will report
fewer fears of physical dangers and of punishment
than Impulsive individuals. They might think that
they are in control of the physical environment and
feel that they can handle the punishment. Self-protective individuals are also likely to report a relatively
low fear of social evaluation. What other people think
of them is not of much concern.
The third, Conformist, ego level is characterized in
part by a heightened concern with the pursuit of
social approval. Conformist individuals want to meet
the demands of their reference group, in terms of
correct opinions, behavior, appearance, and
achievements. Relationships with other people are
intrinsically valuable, and are characterized by
reciprocity, equality, and like-mindedness. When
unable to meet social expectations or standards for
achievement they assume a self-blaming attitude. It
is conceivable, therefore, that Conformists would
report fears of social and achievement evaluation.
They might fear that they cannot meet the demands
of their social group and that failure would lead to
being ridiculed and ostracized. Indeed, a mild level of
social fearfulness might support their adaptability to
the social environment. In contrast, punishment and
physical threats are not expected to be prominent
concerns at this stage of development.
The fourth, Self-aware, ego level is characterized in
part by an internal orientation toward personal
feelings, thoughts, and opinions. Self-aware people
are focused on their own world, a world possibly
different from the outside world. Personal feelings
and thoughts are cherished, adjustment to the outside world is undesirable. But while they are geared
toward inner feelings and thoughts, they still need

the approval and mental support of others. The wish

to be true to their own feelings and thoughts may
cause social disapproval and isolation. It is thus
expected that Self-aware individuals are likely to
report fears of negative evaluation. Thus, Self-aware
individuals are not expected to be less fearful of
social evaluation than are Conformist people.
Higher ego levels Conscientious, Individualistic,
Autonomous, and Integrated rarely occur during
childhood and adolescence. In the population of
adolescents and children over 8 years of age, the
Impulsive ego level is most prevalent among 8- to
10-year-olds, the Self-protective ego level is most
prevalent among 11- to 13-year-olds, the Conformist
ego level among 14- to 17-year-olds, and the Selfaware ego level becomes more prevalent at 18 years
of age (see Avery & Ryan, 1988; Cohn, 1998;
Westenberg & Block, 1993; Westenberg, Jonckheer
et al., 1998). Notably, however, the developmental
changes depicted by Loevingers model of socio-cognitive development are not strictly age-related; there
are striking individual differences in the speed and
timing of the developmental steps outlined above
(e.g., Gfellner, 1986; Westenberg & Gjerde, 1999). An
individuals pace, and extent, of development depends on many influences beyond the mere passage
of time. Recent studies have identified some of these,
social and biological, influences (Allen, Hauser, Bell,
& OConnor, 1994; Hauser et al., 1984; Newman,
Tellegen, & Bouchard, 1998).
Hence, developmental variability should be taken
into account when studying age trends in the frequency and intensity of social fears. Mature teenagers (be they age 12, 15, or 18) are expected to
express more fears about social evaluation, while
less mature teenagers (be they age 12, 15, 18) are
expected to express more fears about punishment
and fighting. If the latter prediction is accurate, then
studies which simply report age trends in the socialevaluative fears may overlook important developmental trends.

Study aims and hypotheses

The current study investigates if social-evaluative
fears increase while physical and punishment fears
decrease between late childhood and mid-adolescence (age 8 to 18). Punishment and physical fears
are expected to be most prevalent at the lowest level
of socio-cognitive maturity (i.e., Impulsive ego level),
whereas social-evaluative fears are expected to be
most prevalent at higher levels of maturity (i.e.,
Conformist and Self-aware ego levels). Hence, since
socio-cognitive maturity is generally age-related,
fears of physical dangers and of punishment are
expected to be most prevalent in children ages 811,
whereas fears of social evaluation are expected to be
most prevalent in adolescents ages 1518. These
developmental patterns are expected to be similar for
boys and girls. That is, a significant age (or ego level)

A developmental analysis of social fears

by gender interaction effect is not expected. The

study also investigates if changes in both sets of
fears are more strongly related to socio-cognitive
maturity than to age, which itself is only a proxy
measure of maturity. Finally, it was studied whether
the relationship between fears and developmental
maturity might be an artifact of individual differences in verbal ability.

Method
Participants
Participants were 882 children and adolescents
recruited from three elementary schools (grades 36;
ages 812; N 290) and two high schools (grades
712; ages 1218; N 592) in the Netherlands. The
schools were selected to represent all SES levels and
academic backgrounds (e.g., college preparatory
schools, technical schools). Parental consent was
obtained in the following manner. Parents received an
elaborate description of the study at their home
address and they were given access to the measures (in
the school directors office). Parents were asked if their
child might participate in the research. If not, parents
were asked to note their rejection on an enclosed form
in a stamped return envelope. Only 3 parents did not
allow their child to participate in the research. The
pupils themselves were also asked to participate in the
research and it was explained to them that their participation was entirely voluntary. None of the children
refused; on the contrary, most children were eager to
participate. The entire project, including recruitment
and consent procedures, was approved by the Medical
Ethical Committee of the Leiden University Medical
Center.
The average age of the participants was 13.7 years
(SD 2.7); boys were significantly older than girls (14.0
vs. 13.3 years of age, respectively; t 3.77; df 879;
p < .001). For purposes of data analyses, participants
were assigned to three age groups: late childhood (811
years of age; N 288: 135 boys, 153 girls), early adolescence (1214 years of age; N 303: 174 boys, 129
girls), and mid-adolescence (1518 years of age;
N 291: 180 boys, 111 girls).

Procedures
All measures were administered in the classroom in two
separate 45-minute sessions (ego development was
assessed in session 1, fears and verbal ability were
assessed in session 2).

Assessment of socio-cognitive maturation. Sociocognitive maturity was assessed using the Sentence
Completion Test for Children and Youths (SCT-Y; Westenberg, Treffers, & Drewes, 1998). The SCT-Y is a
revised version of Loevingers (1985) Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT; Hy & Loevinger, 1996). The SCT-Y and accompanying scoring
manual was specifically constructed for use with
adolescents and children over 8 years of age (Westenberg, Jonckheer et al., 1998), whereas Loevingers

485

WUSCT was constructed on the basis of (young) adult

samples (Loevinger, 1998).
The SCT-Y consists of 32 incomplete sentences (e.g.,
If I cant get what I want ; My mother and I );
respondents are instructed to complete the sentence
stems in any way that they wish. The scoring manual
for the SCT-Y consists of over 2000 response categories
(i.e., clusters of similar responses that were collected
from a large database used to construct the manual).
The scoring manual consists of about 80 response
categories for each of the 32 items. These response
categories are catalogued by ego level. Examples of responses to the item If I cant get what I want are: I ask
my father (catalogued at the Impulsive ego level); I dont
care (placed at the Self-protective ego level); I must
accept it (Conformist ego level); I feel disappointed
(Self-aware level); and so forth. The scoring manual is
empirically constructed by an iterative, self-correcting
procedure called micro-validation (Loevinger, 1993).
That is, response categories were catalogued by ego
level based on data obtained from large and heterogeneous samples (Westenberg, Jonckheer et al., 1998).
The responses were scored according to the following
procedures: (1) for each respondent the 32 responses
were typed into a spreadsheet; (2) the responses were
then sorted by item and put in random order (i.e., all
882 responses to item 1 were grouped together and
randomized); (3) raters were kept blind to participants
demographic information, such as age, gender, and
grade level; (4) each response was matched by two
independent raters with a response category in the
scoring manual; (5) the relatively few disagreements
between the two raters were resolved by asking a third
rater to rate these responses, to resolve the differences
by a majority vote; (6) the responses plus the ego level
ratings were then resorted to the original protocols,
yielding a set of 32 independent item ratings for each
individual; (7) the frequency distribution of the 32 item
ratings of each individual SCT-Y protocol was converted
to a Total Protocol Rating (TPR) by matching the individual frequency distribution with the prototypical frequency distribution for each ego level presented in the
scoring manual. The TPR reflects the respondents core
ego level: 1 Impulsive, 2 Self-protective, 3 ConConformist, 4 Self-aware, and 5 Conscientious (the
higher ego levels Individualistic and Autonomous did
not emerge in our sample). In addition to the discrete
TPR, a continuous ego level score was computed by
averaging the 32 item ratings (i.e., Item Average Score;
IAS).
The SCT-Y has excellent psychometric properties
(e.g., high internal consistency of the items and high
testretest stability of total scores; see Westenberg,
Hauser, & Cohn, 2003). Perfect interrater agreement in
the present study ranged from 79% to 93% (the Kappa
statistic ranged from .73 to .91, p < .001). Cronbachs
alpha for the 32 items was .95.
Evidence for the construct validity of Loevingers
model and measure is extensive. Findings of over 350
empirical studies generally support critical assumptions underlying the ego development construct: (a)
longitudinal studies have confirmed the invariance of
the developmental steps (i.e., no stage can be skipped;
see Loevinger, 1998); (b) average increases with age as
well as individual differences in ego level maturity have

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P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

been documented (Cohn, 1998; Westenberg & Gjerde,

1999); (c) ego level maturity is related to a wide variety
of relevant individual differences within age groups (see
Manners & Durkin, 2001; Westenberg, Blasi, & Cohn,
1998); (d) ego level scores display incremental validity
over IQ and SES (e.g., Browning, 1987; Cohn & Westenberg, 2002); and (e) the construct and the measure
have proved applicable in different countries, cultures,
and languages (see Carlson & Westenberg, 1998). The
SCT-Y was only recently developed and cross-validated
and thus lacks a similarly large research base. Evidence
for the construct validity of the SCT-Y is accumulating
(Drewes & Westenberg, 2001; Westenberg, van Strien,
& Drewes, 2001; Westenberg, Siebelink et al., 1999; for
an overview, see Westenberg et al., 2003).

Assessment of fears. A Dutch translation of the

Ollendick (1983) Fear Survey Schedule for Children
Revised (FSSC-R; Oosterlaan, Prins, Hartman, &
Sergeant, 1995) was used to assess the frequency and
intensity of social and physical fears. The FSSC-R
consists of 80 items; each item describes a different
fear. Respondents are required to rate each item on a
three-point scale: 1 no fear, 2 some fear, 3 much
fear. The FSSC-R consists of five subscales: (1) fear of
failure and criticism (23 items), (2) fear of the unknown
(18 items), (3) fear of minor injury and small animals
(17 items), (4) fear of danger and death (12 items), and
(5) medical fears (4 items; Ollendick et al., 1989). The
Failure and Criticism subscale assesses social fears
(e.g., being criticized by others); the other 4 subscales
depict physical fears (e.g., being hit by a car or truck).
Subscale scores represent the average of the corresponding item scores. In addition, a Total Fear Score was
computed by averaging the 80 item scores.
Previous studies have shown a consistent gender effect: at all ages, girls report more fears than boys on all
scales of the FSSC-R (see Gullone, 2000). This main
effect for gender might cause artificial differences in fear
level among developmental groups, due to the uneven
distribution of boys and girls in each age group and at
each ego level. Therefore, fear scale scores were standardized to eliminate the main effect for gender. That is,
z-transformations of the fear scores were computed
separately for boys and for girls, resulting in standardized scores with the same mean (and standard
deviation) for each gender.
The FSSC-R is reported to have good reliability and
validity (e.g., Ollendick, 1983; Ollendick et al., 1989). In
the present study Cronbachs alpha was .90 for the
Failure and Criticism subscale, .88 for the Unknown
subscale, .85 for the Animals and Small Injury subscale, .89 for the Danger and Death subscale, and .69
for the Medical subscale. Cronbachs alpha of the Total
Fear Score was .95.
Assessment of verbal ability. Vocabulary was
selected as the index of individual differences in verbal
ability. Previous studies have shown that level of ego
development is significantly related to individual differences in vocabulary, and that the magnitude of this
relationship is similar to the magnitude of the
relationship with verbal intelligence as assessed with
multiple subtests (see Cohn & Westenberg, 2002).
Vocabulary was assessed with two instruments: (a) 3rd

through 6th grade participants (ages 8 to 12) were given

the vocabulary subtest of the Test Battery for Elementary Schools by the Cito-group (i.e., Dutch Educational
Testing Service); and (b) 7th through 12th grade participants (ages 13 to 18) were given the vocabulary
subtest of the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT; Bennett,
Seashore, & Wesman, 1974; Dutch adaptation by Evers
& Lucassen, 1984).
Both instruments consist of a booklet containing
multiple choice questions and respondents are asked to
check the correct responses on a separate form (suitable for automatic processing). The Cito-test requires
respondents to choose the correct definition, out of 4
alternatives, of a word presented in the context of a brief
sentence. The DAT requires respondents to choose the
correct synonym, out of 5 alternatives, for the presented
term. The Cito-form for 3rd and 4th graders consists of
34 items; the form for 5th and 6th graders consists of
41 items. The DAT-form consists of 75 items. Total
scores were computed by counting the number of correct responses. For each grade level, standardized
scores were then computed, to account for the differences between the tests (i.e., item number and item
content varied among the three vocabulary tests).

Results
Level of socio-cognitive maturity and age group
Participants of the present study were mostly at the
Impulsive (N 165: 93 boys, 72 girls), Self-protective (N 375: 244 boys, 131 girls), and Conformist/
Self-aware (N 342: 152 boys, 190 girls) ego levels.
(Participants at the Self-aware, or higher, ego level
were relatively rare and it was not expected that this
group would differ significantly from the participants
at the Conformist level. Hence Self-aware participants were merged with the Conformist group for
purposes of data analyses.) The distribution of children in each ego level by age group is presented in
Figure 1.

Principal Components Analysis of the Failure

and Criticism Scale
A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted to test the hypothesis that the Failure and
Criticism subscale of the FSSC-R would consist of
at least two factors (i.e., fear of social evaluation
and fear of punishment). The PCA suggested a
three-factor solution: the eigenvalues for the first
three factors were 6.91, 1.62, and 1.50. A scree plot
showed a clear break between the third and the
fourth factors (the eigenvalue for the fourth factor
was 1.09). A varimax rotation of the three factors
yielded conceptually distinct subscales, which
might be termed fear of social evaluation (9 items),
fear of achievement evaluation (6 items), and fear
of punishment (7 items; see Table 1). Two items did
not load on any factor (factor loadings did not exceed .30). A Principal Axis Factoring with oblimin
rotation yielded the exact same factor structure.

A developmental analysis of social fears

487

70

60

Percentage of Participants

50

40
Impulsive
Self-protective
Conformist/Self-aware
30

20

10

0
Late Childhood (age 811)

Early Adolescence (age 1214)

Mid Adolescence (age 1518)

Figure 1 Level of ego development by age group

Table 1 Principal Components Analysis of the Fear of Failure and Criticism Scale of the FSSC-R1 (factor loadings)

Subscale 1. Social evaluation

46. Having to put on a recital
69. Doing something new
1. Giving an oral report
63. Having to wear clothes different from others
19. Meeting someone for the first time
48. Being criticized by others
24. Being teased
5. Looking foolish
Subscale 2. Achievement evaluation
29. Getting poor grades
40. Failing a test
80. Taking a test
54. Getting a report card
66. Making mistakes
31. My parents criticizing me
Subscale 3. Punishment
3. Getting punished by my mother
64. Getting punished by my father
15. Being sent to the principal
65. Having to stay after school
44. Having my parents argue
28. Being called on by the teacher
14. Getting sick at school
Not included in Subscale
38. Having to eat food I dont like
42. Having to go to school

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

.68
.65
.62
.59
.57
.52
.49
.43

.00
.15
.22
.18
.11
.36
.17
.25

.13
.10
.00
.13
.13
.33
.33
.31

.15
.17
.25
.16
.45
.17

.80
.80
.74
.70
.53
.49

.20
.21
.00
.12
.17
.43

.00
.00
.21
.30
.13
.39
.14

.00
.22
.14
.19
.25
.12
.00

.71
.69
.60
.59
.55
.47
.45

.12
.29

.24
.13

.23
.12

Note: Factor loadings above or equal to .30 are italicized.

Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989)

Both factor analyses yielded highly similar factor

structures for girls and boys separately. The three
factors explained 44% of the variance. Cronbachs
alphas were .80 for Social evaluation, .84 for
Achievement Evaluation, and .75 for Punishment.
Subsequent analyses were conducted for the three
subscales as well as for the entire Failure and
Criticism scale.

Developmental changes in fears

Three sets of statistical analyses were conducted to
study the relationship of age and ego level with fear
scores: (1) analyses of variance, (2) hierarchical
regression analyses, and (3) Chi-square analyses.
Because of the large sample size the minimum significance level was set at .01 for all analyses.

488

P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

1. Analyses of variance. Analyses of variance

(ANOVA) were applied to investigate the predicted
relationship between scores on the various fear
scales with the participants age and level of ego
development. Age (or ego level) by gender interaction
effects were included in the analyses to test the
hypothesis that the developmental pattern would be
similar for boys and girls. (The main effect for gender
had been eliminated by means of the z-transformations of the fear scores; see Method.)
Relations to age. A 3 (age) 2 (gender) MANOVA
showed a significant main effect of age (i.e., 3 age
groups) on the three social subscales (F(6,
1746) 51.85, p < .001; the age data and the Univariate F-tests for each subscale are presented in
Table 2). The age by gender interaction effect was not
significant (F(6, 1746) 0.89, ns.), demonstrating
that the relationship with age was similar for boys
and girls. Based on post-hoc tests of group differences (Scheffe procedure and effect sizes) it can be
concluded that children ages 811 were significantly
more concerned about punishment than were adolescents (ages 1214 and 1518), whereas mid-adolescents ages 1518 were significantly more
concerned about social evaluation than were
younger participants (ages 811 and 1214; see
Table 2). A linear relationship was detected for
achievement evaluation: the youngest age group is
significantly less fearful than the middle age group,
and the latter age group is significantly less fearful
than the oldest age group. Overall, the largest effect
sizes were obtained for the difference between the
youngest and the oldest age groups. Those findings
were consistent with expectations: child participants
were more concerned about being punished,
whereas mid-adolescents were more concerned
about social and achievement evaluation.

Also as expected, the very clear age trends reported above were masked when the analysis was
restricted to the total Failure and Criticism scale. A
3 (age) 2 (gender) ANOVA revealed that the total
score on the Failure and Criticism scale was weakly
related to age, but this relationship was not statistically significant (see Table 2). The age by gender
interaction effect was not significant either
(F(2,876) 2.45, ns.).
A 3 (age) 2 (gender) MANOVA also indicated a
significant effect of age on the four physical subscales (F(8, 1746) 13.46, p < .001; the age data,
Univariate F-tests, post-hoc tests of mean differences, and effect sizes are presented in Table 2). The
age by gender interaction effect was not significant
(F(8, 1746) 1.29, ns.). Results revealed the expected decrease of physical fears: children (ages 811)
were significantly more fearful than were adolescents
(ages 1218) of the unknown, of animals and small
injury, and of danger and death. Children were also
more fearful of medical situations than were early
adolescents. The two adolescent age groups (1214
and 1518 years) were not significantly different
from each other on any of the physical subscales.
Consistent with the findings of several prior fear
survey studies, the results also revealed the agerelated decrease of the Total Fear Score (i.e., the
average score of the 80 FSSC-R items). Children ages
811 report significantly more fear than adolescents
ages 1218 (see Table 2). Again, the age by gender
interaction effect was not significant (F(2, 876)
1.16, ns.).
Relations to ego level maturity. A 3 (ego level) 2
(gender) MANOVA indicated a significant effect of ego
level on the three social subscales (F(6,1746)
24.09, p < .001; the data, Univariate F-tests, results
of Scheffe procedure, and effect sizes are presented

Table 2 Effect of age group on social and physical fear scores (fear scores standardized by gender)
Means (standard deviations)
Age groups:
N:
Social fears
Social evaluationb
Achievement evaluationb
Punishmentb
Failure and criticisma
Physical fears
The unknowna
Animals and small injurya
Danger and deatha
Medical situationsa
Total Fear Score
a

1. 811
288

2. 1214
303

3. 1518
291

Univariate
F-tests
F (2,876)

Post-hoc tests1
(Scheffe
procedure)

).13
).32
.32
).07

(.92)
(.90)
(1.09)
(1.02)

).14
.03
).07
).07

(.94)
(.95)
(.96)
(.98)

.28
.29
).24
.13

(1.08)
(1.05)
(.86)
(.99)

16.77**
26.43**
24.26**
3.79

13; 23
12; 13; 23;
12; 13

.34
.22
.44
.14
.25

(1.16)
(1.06)
(.93)
(.90)
(1.09)

).19
).17
).18
).09
).18

(.85)
(.89)
(.96)
(.98)
(.90)

).15
).04
).24
).04
).07

(.88)
(1.01)
(.97)
(1.10)
(.96)

27.22**
12.22**
45.99**
4.85*
15.40**

12; 13
12; 13
12; 13
12
12; 13

Effect size (d2)

of group
differences
12; 13; 23
.01; .41; .41
.37; .62; .26
.37; .57; .19
.00; .20; .20
12; 13; 23
.53; .57; .05
.40; .25; .14
.66; .72; .06
.26; .18; .05
.43; .31; .12

Scales from the Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989).
Subscale of the Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R (see Table 1).
1
Significant differences between age groups are reported (e.g., 12 means that age group 1 differed significantly from age group 2;
p < .05).
2
d M1 ) M2/((SD1 + SD2)/2).
* p < .01; ** p < .001.
b

A developmental analysis of social fears

489

Table 3 Effect of ego level on social and physical fear scores (fear scores standardized by gender)
Means (standard deviations)

Ego level:
N:
Social fears
Social evaluationb
Achievement evaluationb
Punishmentb
Failure and criticisma
Physical fears
The unknowna
Animals and small injurya
Danger and deatha
Medical situationsa
Total Fear Score

1. Impulsive
165

2. Selfprotective
375

3. Conformist/
Selfaware
342

Univariate
F-tests
F (2,876)

Post-hoc tests1
(Scheffe
procedure)

).28
).34
.21
).17

(.80)
(.84)
(1.08)
(.94)

).12
).08
).02
).08

(.93)
(.95)
(.96)
(.96)

.26
.26
).07
.17

(1.10)
(1.06)
(.99)
(1.05)

21.70**
23.28**
4.63*
8.83**

13; 23
12; 13; 23
12; 13
13; 23

.23
.13
.30
.12
.13

(1.09)
(1.01)
(.95)
(.92)
(1.04)

).05
).04
.04
).07
).05

(.96)
(.97)
(.97)
(.93)
(.96)

).06
).02
).18
.02
).01

(.99)
(1.02)
(1.02)
(1.10)
(1.02)

5.06*
1.93
13.99**
2.17
1.77

12; 13

12; 13; 23

Effect size (d2)

of group
differences
12; 13; 23
.18; .57; .38
.29; .63; .34
.24; .28; .05
.09; .34; .25
12; 13; 23
.26; .27; .01
.17; .15; .02
.27; .48; .22
.21; .10; .09
.18; .14; .04

Scales from the Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989).
Subscale of the Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R (see Table 1).
1
Significant differences between ego level groups are reported (e.g., 12 means that Impulsive ego level differed significantly from
Self-protective ego level; p < .05).
2
d M1 ) M2/((SD1+SD2)/2).
* p < .01; ** p < .001.
b

in Table 3). The gender by ego level interaction effect

was not significant (F(6, 1746) 2,54, ns.), demonstrating that the relationship with age was similar for
boys and girls. As predicted, the fears of social
evaluation and of achievement evaluation were positively related to ego level: Conformist/Self-aware
individuals were more fearful of this than were
Impulsive and Self-protective individuals. Also as
predicted, the fear of punishment was negatively
related to level of ego development: Impulsive individuals were most concerned about this, whereas
Conformist/Self-aware individuals were least concerned about it.
A 3 (ego level) 2 (gender) ANOVA revealed a
positive and significant relationship with ego level for
the Failure and Criticism scale: Conformist/Selfaware individuals were more concerned about this
than were Impulsive and Self-protective individuals
(see Table 3). The gender by ego level interaction
effect was not significant (F(2,876) 4.03, ns.).
A 3 (ego level) 2 (gender) MANOVA also indicated
a significant effect of ego level on the four physical
subscales (F(8, 1746) 5.27, p < .001), but univariate F-tests only revealed a significant effect for
two scales: fears of the unknown and fears of danger
and death. Scheffe tests indicated that Impulsive
individuals are significantly more concerned about
the unknown and about danger and death than are
higher-level participants (see Table 3). The gender by
ego level interaction effect was not significant (F(8,
1746) 2.30, ns.).
A 3 (ego level) 2 (gender) ANOVA also revealed
that level of ego development was unrelated to the
Total Fear Score (see Table 3). The gender by ego
level interaction effect, however, was statistically
significant (F(2, 876) 5.70, p < .01). Yet, separate
ANOVAs for boys and girls did not reveal a significant

relationship between the total fear score and ego

level for either gender (F-boys(3,485) 2.14, ns.;
F-girls(3,389) 3.16, ns.).

2. Hierarchical regression analyses. Hierarchical

regression analyses (HRA) were conducted to
investigate whether age or ego level was the strongest
predictor of the various fears. The HRAs were also
utilized to address the question of whether the relationship between ego level and fears might in part
reflect the importance of individual differences in
verbal ability (as measured by vocabulary). Two
HRAs were conducted: one with age entered first,
vocabulary entered second, and ego level entered
third (to see whether ego level had additional predictive value over age and vocabulary in the prediction of fear scores; see Table 4), and another one with
ego level entered first, vocabulary entered second,
and age entered third (to see whether age had additional predictive value over ego level and vocabulary
in the prediction of fear scores; see Table 5). The
HRAs were based on the continuous age score, the
continuous ego level score (i.e., average of the 32
item scores: Item Average Score [IAS]), and the
standardized vocabulary scores.
The productmoment correlation between ego level
(IAS) and age (continuous variable) was .69
(p < .001), the correlation between ego level and vocabulary was .31 (p < .001), and the correlation between age and vocabulary was .00 (due to the
standardization of vocabulary scores for each grade
level).
As predicted, ego level added significantly to age
and vocabulary in the prediction of the social fears:
the R2-change for ego level was significant for the
three subscales (social evaluation, achievement
evaluation, punishment) as well as for the combined

490

P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

Table 4 Incremental effect of ego level on social and physical fears (controlling for effects of age and verbal ability)
Hierarchical Regression Analyses
Step 1. Age
(continuous score)

Social fears
Social evaluationb
Achievement evaluationb
Punishmentb
Failure and criticisma
Physical fears
The unknowna
Animals and small injurya
Danger and deatha
Medical situationsa
Total Fear Score

Step 2. Verbal ability

(vocabulary)

Step 3. Ego level

(item average score)

R2

F (1, 870)

R2-change

F (2, 869)

R2-change

F (1, 868)

.034
.068
.060
.008

30.81**
63.23**
55.05**
6.84*

.000
.012
.013
.010

.02
11.17*
12.28**
8.53*

.031
.028
.012
.030

28.81**
27.24**
11.10*
27.62**

.042
.013
.089
.005
.019

38.23**
11.38*
85.09**
4.58
16.65**

.014
.016
.034
.004
.024

12.63**
14.48**
33.34**
3.72
22.04**

.013
.009
.006
.004
.020

11.84*
7.80*
6.47
3.40
18.71**

Scales from the Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989).
Subscale of the Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R (see Table 1).
* p < .01; ** p < .001.
b

Table 5 Incremental effect of age on social and physical fears (controlling for effects of ego level and verbal ability)
Hierarchical Regression Analyses
step 1. Ego level
(item average score)

Social fears
Social evaluationb
Achievement evaluationb
Punishmentb
Failure and criticisma
Physical fears
The unknowna
Animals and small injurya
Danger and deatha
Medical situationsa
Total Fear Score

Step 2. Verbal ability

(vocabulary)

Step 3. Age
(continuous score)

R2

F (1, 870)

R2-change

F (2, 869)

R2-change

F (1, 868)

.058
.065
.018
.021

53.76**
60.53**
15.49*
18.55**

.007
.039
.006
.023

6.56
37.99**
5.37
20.60**

.000
.003
.061
.004

.00
3.39
57.64**
3.83

.011
.003
.044
.001
.002

9.39*
2.79
39.82**
.71
2.11

.008
.013
.016
.003
.022

7.07*
11.75*
14.33**
3.04
19.45**

.050
.021
.070
.009
.039

46.45**
19.17**
69.75**
7.94*
36.13**

Scales from the Fear Survey Schedule for Children Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick, King, & Frary, 1989).
Subscale of the Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R (see Table 1).
* p < .01; ** p < .001.
b

Failure and Criticism scale (see Table 4). Ego level

also added significantly to age and vocabulary in the
prediction of two physical fear scores (fears of the
unknown, animals and small injury) and the total
fear scores (see Table 4).
The second HRA was carried out to study the effect
of age over and above the effects of ego level and
vocabulary on fear scores (i.e., ego level was entered
first, vocabulary second, and age third). The results
presented in Table 5 show that age did not add to the
prediction of social and achievement evaluation fears
over and above the effects of ego level and vocabulary. In contrast, age added significantly to the prediction of the punishment fears, the four physical
fears, and the total fear score.
Comparing the results of both sets of regression
analyses indicated the following pattern: (a) ego level
was the best predictor of the fear of social evaluation
and achievement evaluation (age did not add signi-

ficantly to the effects of ego level and vocabulary),

and (b) age was the strongest predictor of the fear of
punishment, the four physical fears, and the total
fear score (yet, ego level added significantly to the
effects of age and vocabulary in all but two cases).
Interestingly, the second HRA showed that ego level
by itself was unrelated to fears of animals and small
injury and was also unrelated to the total fear score
(see Table 5, step 1). However, controlling for age
and vocabulary produced a significant effect for ego
level for those fear scores (see Table 4, step 3).
Vocabulary might operate as a statistical suppressor
of the existing relationship between ego level and
physical fears.

3. Chi-square analyses. Chi-square analyses were

conducted to test the assumption that the rise in
social and achievement evaluation fears was normative in the statistical sense. That is, a normative

A developmental analysis of social fears

rise should be due to a relatively large proportion of

participants with moderately elevated levels,
whereas a non-normative rise should be due to a
relatively small proportion with highly elevated levels. Since fears of social evaluation and fears of
achievement evaluation followed the same developmental pattern (strongly and positively related to age
and ego level, with ego level being the strongest
predictor), the items of both scales were combined
into one scale comprising all fears of social evaluation and achievement. Standardized scores were
computed for boys and girls separately (see Method
for rationale). Four fear levels were then defined: no
fear (z-score below )1), mild fear (z-score between )1
and 0), moderate fear (z-score between 0 and 1), and
strong fear (z-score above 1).
Chi-square analyses were conducted to test the
association between the four fear levels on the one
hand and the three-way groupings of age and ego
level on the other hand. Both associations were
highly significant: the X2 for the association between
age and fear level was 64.71 (p < .001); the X2 for the
association between ego level and fear level was
54.88 (p < .001). The association between social
evaluation fears and age revealed the following pattern. Of children (ages 811), 21.5% fell in the no fear
category and 46.5% fell in the mild fear category (i.e.,
a majority of 68% reported mild or no fear); whereas
22.2% fell in the moderate fear category and only 9.7
fell in the strong fear category. The reverse pattern
was observed in adolescents (ages 1518), of whom
only 9.3% fell in the no fear category and 28.5% fell
in the mild fear category; whereas 38.8% fell in the
moderate fear category and 23.4% fell in the strong
fear category (i.e., a majority of 62.2% reported
moderate or strong fear).
A similar pattern was observed for level of ego
development. Impulsive participants are more likely

to report no or mild fear (in total 72.1%), whereas

relatively few reported strong fear (6.7%). In contrast, Conformist/Self-aware participants were more
likely to present moderate or strong fear (in total
57.6%), whereas relatively few reported no fear
(9.6%). The association between fear level and ego
level is presented in Figure 2.
In sum, a majority of relatively mature participants reported at least a moderate fear of social
evaluation and achievement, whereas a small
minority did not report any fear. In contrast, a
majority of relatively immature participants reported
little or no social fear, whereas only a small majority
reported strong fear. These findings showed that the
average rise of social fearfulness was not due to a few
adolescents with highly elevated fear levels, but was
due to an overall shift of the distribution of the scores
indicative of a normative increase.

Discussion
Several investigators have noted that the overall
frequency and intensity of fears declines during late
childhood and adolescence, and some have argued
that this age-related decline is part of normal development (see Gullone, 2000; Marks, 1987). The current findings, however, provide only partial support
for this assertion: fears concerning physical danger
and of punishment decreased with age, whereas
fears concerning social evaluation and achievement
increased with age.
The different age trends for social-evaluative fears
on the one hand and physical and punishment fears
on the other were masked when all fear items were
combined into one fear scale (i.e., Total Fear Score).
Prior research, as well as the present study, has generally shown that Total Fear Scores computed from all

Percentage of Participants in Fear Category

60

50

40
No Fear
Mild Fear
Moderate Fear
Strong Fear

30

20

10

0
Impulsive

491

Self-protective

Conformist/Self-aware

Level of Ego Development

Figure 2 Level of ego development and the intensity of social-evaluative fears

492

P. Michiel Westenberg et al.

items decline between late childhood and adolescence

(e.g., Campbell & Rapee, 1994; Dong et al., 1995;
Gullone & King, 1992, 1997; Spence & McCathie,
1993). However, the Total Fear Score is more heavily
weighted with the physical fears (75% of items), and is
therefore more likely to decrease with age.
Likewise, the different age trends for fears of social
evaluation and achievement on the one hand and
fears of punishment on the other were masked when
all items were combined into one social fear scale
(i.e., Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R).
Several prior studies, as well as the current study,
have shown that scores on the fear of failure and
criticism scale are not related to age (e.g., Gullone
et al., 2001; King et al., 1992; Ollendick et al., 1985).
Apparently, the negative relationship between age
and punishment fears cancels the positive relationship between age and social-evaluative fears. The
developmental distinction between punishment
fears and social-evaluative fears is supported by the
outcome of the Principal Components Analysis of the
Failure and Criticism scale of the FSSC-R. Important
conceptual and developmental differences appear to
be obscured by combining both sets of fears into one
social fear scale.
The fears of punishment followed the same developmental course as the fears of physical danger:
children ages 811 were significantly more concerned
about punishment than were adolescents age 1218.
A parallel pattern was also observed for level of ego
development: Impulsive individuals were more likely
to endorse fears of punishment and of physical danger than were individuals at higher ego levels. Finally,
ego level added moderately to age in the prediction of
punishment and physical fears, but age was the
strongest predictor of both sets of fears (i.e., age
added strongly to the effect of ego level). This consistent pattern in the results suggests that punishment fears are more closely aligned with physical
fears than with social-evaluative fears. The punishment fears might not be as much social-evaluative,
but might be based on the fear of losing the protection
of parents and teachers on whose care they depend.
As predicted, the age-related increase of socialevaluative fears was a function of socio-cognitive
maturation (as measured by level of ego development): Conformist and Self-aware participants
reported a greater concern with fears of social evaluation and achievement than Impulsive and Selfprotective participants. Indeed, ego level maturity
added significantly to the prediction of the socialevaluative fears beyond the predictive power of age,
whereas age did not add significantly to the prediction of those fears beyond the predictive power of ego
level. In other words, the more mature participants
were more likely to report social-evaluative fears,
regardless of their age.
The results furthermore indicated that the relationship between social-evaluative fears and level of
ego development was not an artifact of verbal ability

(as measured by vocabulary). The magnitude, and

the direction, of the correlation between vocabulary
and ego level scores in the present study (i.e.,
r .31) was similar to the findings of previous
studies (for a meta-analysis, see Cohn & Westenberg, 2002). The present study also showed that ego
level scores demonstrated clear incremental validity
after statistically removing the influence of verbal
ability (as well as age).
The positive relationship between ego level maturity and social-evaluative fears suggests that a rise
of certain social fears in mid-adolescence is not abnormal, but might be ... part and parcel of normal
development (Ollendick & Hirshfeld-Becker, 2002,
p. 44). The results at least indicated that the rise of
social-evaluative fears is normative in the statistical
sense. That is, the rise was not due to a minority of
mature participants with relatively high fear levels,
but was due to a large proportion of adolescents in
the older age group having moderate to strong fears.
Progress to the Conformist/Self-aware levels includes a greater sensitivity to the interests and views
of others regarding ones own social or academic
performance. This greater concern with being judged
by others appears to be accompanied by a moderate
level of social apprehension or fearfulness. Youngsters have to jump this hurdle without falling back to
the indifferent attitude of the Self-protective ego level
and without becoming too anxious about what other
people might think about them. If all goes well they
should come out as socially competent and confident
individuals. As Loevinger (1968) noted: ... every
stage has its weaknesses, its problems, and its
paradoxes, which provide both a potential for maladjustment and a potential for growth (p. 169).
The literature on the prevalence of social anxiety
disorders suggests that some youngsters are not able
to successfully deal with this developmental challenge. As was noted earlier, social anxiety disorder is
more prevalent among adolescents than it is among
children (e.g., Essau et al., 1999; McGee et al., 1992),
and the average age of onset appears to be in the midteens (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Wittchen, Stein, & Kessler, 1999). An empirical study of
the connection between social anxiety disorder and
level of ego development has, however, not been conducted. Preliminary support for this connection is
provided by a study of the empirical relationship
between level of ego development and Overanxious
Disorder (OAD) in 118 psychiatric outpatients (ages
818; Westenberg, Siebelink et al., 1999). A central
aspect of OAD is the preoccupation with being critically evaluated and with doing well socially and at
school (i.e., social-evaluative fears are paramount).
As was anticipated, more mature participants (at
Conformist ego level or above) were diagnosed most
frequently with OAD; less mature participants
(mostly at Impulsive ego level) were diagnosed most
frequently with Separation Anxiety Disorder (statistically controlling for age, sex, and verbal IQ).

A developmental analysis of social fears

The emergence of a social anxiety disorder in

adolescence cannot, however, be attributed solely to
the Conformist/Self-aware level of socio-cognitive
maturity. The ability to negotiate this developmental
hurdle is determined by several different factors,
such as an inhibited temperament or an overprotective parental style (see Ollendick & HirshfeldBecker, 2002; Velting & Albano, 2001).
It could be argued that the normative rise of socialevaluative fears in mid-adolescence might be due
primarily to the fact that parents, teachers, and the
society at large are likely to put greater demands on
adolescents than on children. For example, children
are rarely exposed to serious exams, whereas older
adolescents are frequently exposed to tests of all
kinds, tests that may have important implications for
future success in college or on the job market. The
findings of the present study are consistent with this
hypothesis: social-evaluative fears were strongly and
positively related to age. However, the effect of age on
social fears was fully explained by the effect of ego
level. Yet, environmental pressures to do well were
not included in the present study. Future research
needs to address this issue more systematically.
Future research also needs to determine whether
increases in social-evaluative fears are also obtained
by means of different methods (e.g., experimental
procedures, psychophysiological techniques) and
from different sources (e.g., parents, expert observers). In addition, interdisciplinary research seems
needed to study the relative impact of the various
developmental factors (e.g., puberty, attachment
security, peer relations, socio-cognitive maturity) on
the rise of social fears and the emergence of social
anxiety disorder in mid-adolescence.

Author note
P. Michiel Westenberg and Martine J. Drewes,
Department of Psychology, Leiden University, The
Netherlands; Arnold W. Goedhart, Berend M. Siebelink, and Philip D. A. Treffers, Department of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands.
This research was supported in part by grants
from the Dutch National Fund for Mental Health
(Utrecht) and the Frijling Prins Fund (Amsterdam).
The article has benefited greatly from comments by
Lawrence D. Cohn (University of Texas, El Paso),
Jaklien Gillis (Leiden University, The Netherlands),
Brian E. Vaughn (Auburn University, Alabama), and
two reviewers on earlier versions.

Correspondence to
P. Michiel Westenberg, Department of Psychology,
Faculty of Social Sciences, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands.
Email: westenberg@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

493

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Manuscript accepted 13 March 2003