Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Santos
Grade 9 - Gold
2. Adolf Hitler
Born in Austria in 1889, Adolf Hitler rose to power in German politics as
leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, also known as the Nazi
Party. Hitler was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and served as
dictator from 1934 to 1945. His policies precipitated World War II and the
Holocaust. Hitler committed suicide with wife Eva Braun on April 30, 1945, in his
Berlin bunker.
At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler applied to serve in the German army.
He was accepted in August 1914, though he was still an Austrian citizen.
Although he spent much of his time away from the front lines, Hitler was present
at a number of significant battles and was wounded at the Somme. He was
decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross First Class and the Black Wound
Badge.
Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort. The
experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism, and he was shocked by
Germany's surrender in 1918. Like other German nationalists, he believed that
the German army had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists. He found
the Treaty of Versailles degrading, particularly the demilitarization of the
Rhineland and the stipulation that Germany accept responsibility for starting the
war.
After World War I, Hitler returned to Munich and continued to work for the
military as an intelligence officer. While monitoring the activities of the German
Workers Party (DAP), Hitler adopted many of the anti-Semitic, nationalist and
anti-Marxist ideas of DAP founder Anton Drexler. Drexler invited Hitler to join the
DAP, which he did in 1919.
To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the
Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP). Hitler personally
designed the party banner, featuring a swastika in a white circle on a red
background. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his vitriolic speeches against the
Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, Marxists and Jews. In 1921, Hitler replaced
Drexler as NSDAP party chairman.
Hitler's vitriolic beer-hall speeches began attracting regular audiences.
Early followers included army captain Ernst Rohm, the head of the Nazi
paramilitary organization, the Sturmabteilung (SA), which protected meetings and
frequently attacked political opponents.
On November 8, 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of
3,000 people at a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler announced that the national
revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government. After a
short struggle including 20 deaths, the coup, known as the "Beer Hall Putsch,"
failed.
Hitler was arrested three days later and tried for high treason. He served a
year in prison, during which time he dictated most of the first volume of Mein
Kampf ("My Struggle") to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book laid out Hitler's plans
for transforming German society into one based on race.
The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for
Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic and increasingly
open to extremist options. In 1932, Hitler ran against Paul von Hindenburg for the
presidency. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more
than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. The election established Hitler as
a strong force in German politics. Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler
as chancellor in order to promote political balance.
Hitler used his position as chancellor to form a de facto legal dictatorship.
The Reichstag Fire Decree, announced after a suspicious fire at the Reichstag,
suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Hitler also engineered
the passage of the Enabling Act, which gave his cabinet full legislative powers for
a period of four years and allowed deviations from the constitution.
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of
suffered defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk. On June 6,
1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France. As a result of these
significant setbacks, many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable
and that Hitler's denial would result in the destruction of the country.
By early 1945, Hitler realized that Germany was going to lose the war. The
Soviets had driven the German army back into Western Europe, and the Allies
were advancing into Germany. On April 29, 1945, Hitler married his girlfriend,
Eva Braun, in a small civil ceremony in his Berlin bunker. Around this time, Hitler
was informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Afraid of
falling into the hands of enemy troops, Hitler and Braun committed suicide the
day after their wedding, on April 30, 1945. Their bodies were carried to the
bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were burned.
Berlin fell on May 2, 1945. Five days later, on May 7, 1945, Germany
surrendered unconditionally to the Allies.
Hitler's political program had brought about a world war, leaving behind a
devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe, including Germany.
His policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale and resulted in
the death of an estimated 40 million people, including about 27 million in the
Soviet Union. Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history
dominated by Germany, and the defeat of fascism. A new ideological global
conflict, the Cold War, emerged in the aftermath of World War II.
source: http://www.biography.com/people/adolf-hitler-9340144#death-and-legacy
3. Vladimir Lenin
Lenin was one of the leading political figures and revolutionary thinkers of
the 20th century, who masterminded the Bolshevik take-over of power in Russia
in 1917, and was the architect and first head of the USSR.
Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov was born in Simbirsk on the Volga River on 22 April
1870 into a well-educated family. He excelled at school and went on to study law.
At university, he was exposed to radical thinking, and his views were also
influenced by the execution of his elder brother, a member of a revolutionary
group.
Expelled from university for his radical policies, Lenin completed his law
degree as an external student in 1891. He moved to St Petersburg and became
a professional revolutionary. Like many of his contemporaries, he was arrested
and exiled to Siberia, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his Siberian
exile, Lenin - the pseudonym he adopted in 1901 - spent most of the subsequent
decade and a half in western Europe, where he emerged as a prominent figure in
the international revolutionary movement and became the leader of the
'Bolshevik' faction of the Russian Social Democratic Worker's Party.
In 1917, exhausted by World War One, Russia was ripe for change.
Assisted by the Germans, who hoped that he would undermine the Russian war
effort, Lenin returned home and started working against the provisional
government that had overthrown the tsarist regime. He eventually led what was
soon to be known as the October Revolution, but was effectively a coup d'etat.
Almost three years of civil war followed. The Bolsheviks were victorious and
assumed total control of the country. During this period of revolution, war and
famine, Lenin demonstrated a chilling disregard for the sufferings of his fellow
countrymen and mercilessly crushed any opposition.
Although Lenin was ruthless he was also pragmatic. When his efforts to
transform the Russian economy to a socialist model stalled, he introduced the
New Economic Policy, where a measure of private enterprise was again
permitted, a policy that continued for several years after his death. In 1918, Lenin
narrowly survived an assassination attempt, but was severely wounded. His long
term health was affected, and in 1922 he suffered a stroke from which he never
fully recovered. In his declining years, he worried about the bureaucratisation of
the regime and also expressed concern over the increasing power of his eventual
successor Joseph Stalin. Lenin died on 24 January 1924. His corpse was
embalmed and placed in a mausoleum on Moscow's Red Square.
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/lenin_vladimir.shtml
4. Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) was the dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) from 1929 to 1953. Under Stalin, the Soviet Union was
transformed from a peasant society into an industrial and military superpower.
However, he ruled by terror, and millions of his own citizens died during his brutal
reign. Born into poverty, Stalin became involved in revolutionary politics, as well
as criminal activities, as a young man. After Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin
(1870-1924) died, Stalin outmaneuvered his rivals for control of the party. Once
in power, he collectivized farming and had potential enemies executed or sent to
forced labor camps. Stalin aligned with the United States and Britain in World
War II (1939-1945) but afterward engaged in an increasingly tense relationship
with the West known as the Cold War (1946-1991). After his death, the Soviets
initiated a de-Stalinization process.
After leaving school, Stalin became an underground political agitator,
taking part in labor demonstrations and strikes. He adopted the name Koba, after
a fictional Georgian outlaw-hero, and joined the more militant wing of the Marxist
Social Democratic movement, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin. Stalin also
became involved in various criminal activities, including bank heists, the
proceeds from which were used to help fund the Bolshevik Party. He was
arrested multiple times between 1902 and 1913, and subjected to imprisonment
and exile in Siberia.
In 1906, Stalin married Ekaterina Kato Svanidze (1885-1907), a
seamstress. The couple had one son, Yakov (1907-1943), who died as a prisoner
in Germany during World War II. Ekaterina perished from typhus when her son
was an infant. In 1918 (some sources cite 1919), Stalin married his second wife,
Nadezhda Nadya Alliluyeva (1901-1932), the daughter of a Russian
revolutionary. They had two children, a boy and a girl. Nadezhda committed
suicide in her early 30s. Stalin also fathered several children out of wedlock.
arrested within a year and spent two years in prison before being tried, convicted
and sent to Siberia for a four-year sentence. While in prison, he met and married
Alexandra Lvovna, a co- revolutionary who had also been sentenced to Siberia.
While there, they had two daughters.
During the early years of the Social Democratic Party, there were often
disputes among the party's leadership over its form and strategy. Vladimir Lenin
argued for a small party of professional revolutionaries who would lead a large
contingent of non-party supporters. Julius Martov advocated for a larger, more
democratic organization of supporters. Leon Trotsky tried to reconcile the two
factions, resulting in numerous clashes with both groups' leaders. Many of the
Social Democrats, including the ambitious Joseph Stalin, sided with Lenin.
Trotsky's neutrality was seen as disloyal.
On January 22, 1905, unarmed demonstrators marching against the
Russian Tsar were killed by the Imperial Guard. When word reached Leon
Trotsky, he returned to Russia to support the uprisings. By the end of 1905, he
had become a leader of the movement. In December, the rebellion was crushed,
and Trotsky was arrested and once again sent to Siberia. At his trial, he put on a
spirited defense and increased his popularity among the party's elite. In January
1907, Trotsky escaped prison and traveled to Europe, where he spent 10 years
in exile in various cities, including Vienna, Zurich, Paris and New York, spending
much of the time writing for Russian revolutionary journals, including Pravda, and
advocating an anti-war policy.
After the overthrow of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, in February 1917, Trotsky
set out for Russia from New York. However, Okhrana (the Tsar's secret police)
persuaded British authorities to have him detained at Halifax, Canada. He was
held there for a month, before the Russian provisional government demanded his
release. After he arrived in Russia in May 1917, he quickly addressed some of
the problems forming in post-revolutionary Russia. He disapproved of the
provisional government because he felt it was ineffectual. The new prime
minister, Alexander Kerensky, saw Trotsky as a major threat and had him
arrested. While in jail, Trotsky was admitted to the Bolshevik Party and released
soon after. He was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, a strong hold of
dissent against the provisional government.
In November 1917, the provisional government was overthrown and the
Soviet Council of People's Commissars was formed, with Vladimir Lenin elected
chairman. Leon Trotskys first role in the new government was serving as
commissar for foreign affairs and making peace with the Germans. Talks began
in January 1918, and Germany had a long list of demands for territory and
reparations. Trotsky wanted to wait out the German government, in hopes that it
would be defeated by the Allies or suffer internal insurrection. However, Lenin felt
that peace with Germany needed to be made so they could concentrate on
building a communist government in Russia. Trotsky disagreed and resigned
from this post.
After the Bolsheviks took control of the Soviet government, Lenin ordered
the formation of the Red Army and appointed Leon Trotsky its leader. The army's
first orders were to neutralize the White Army (Socialist revolutionaries opposed
to Bolshevik control) during the Russian Civil War. Trotsky proved to be an
outstanding military leader, as he led the army of 3 million to victory. The task
was difficult, as Trotsky directed a war effort that was at times on 16 different
fronts. It also didn't help that some members of the Soviet leadership, including
Lenin, became involved in military strategy, redirecting the Red Army's efforts
and countermanding some of Trotsky's orders. In late 1920, the Bolsheviks finally
won the Civil War, ensuring Bolshevik control of the Soviet government. After the
White Army surrendered, Trotsky was elected a member of the Communist Party
central committee. He was clearly positioned as the Soviet Union's number-two
man, next to Lenin.
During the winter of 1920-21, as the Soviet government moved from war
to peace-time operations, an increasingly acrimonious debate grew over the role
of trade unions. Believing that the workers should have nothing to fear from the
government, Leon Trotsky advocated the state control the trade unions. He
reasoned that this would give officials a tighter control over labor and facilitate a
greater integration between government and the proletariat. Lenin criticized
Trotsky, accusing him of harassing the unions and abandoning his support for the
proletariat. A breach between the two developed and other officials, including
Joseph Stalin, took advantage, siding with Lenin to gain favor. As Trotsky dug in
and refused to modify his position, the dissention grew and Lenin feared the
conflict would splinter the party. At a meeting at the Tenth Party Congress in
March 1921, the issue came to a head when several of Trotsky's supporters were
replaced by Lenin's lieutenants. Trotsky finally dropped his opposition and, to
show his allegiance to Lenin, ordered the suppression of the Kronstadt Rebellion
(an uprising of sailors and longshoremen protesting heavy-handed Bolshevik
tactics). But the damage was done, and Trotsky had lost much of his political
influence over the dispute.
By 1922, the pressures of revolution and injuries from an earlier
assassination attempt had taken their toll on Vladimir Lenin. In May, he suffered
his first stroke and questions arose over who would succeed him. Leon Trotsky
had a stellar record as a military leader and administrator and seemed the
obvious choice among the rank and file membership of the Communist Party. But
he had offended many in the Politburo (the Communist Party's executive
committee), and a group of Politburo members, led by Joseph Stalin, joined
forces to oppose him. The previous month, Lenin had appointed Stalin to the new
post of Central Committee General Secretary. Though not a significant post at
the time, it gave Stalin control over all party-member appointments. He quickly
consolidated his power and started lining up allies against Trotsky.
Between 1922 and 1924, Vladimir Lenin tried to counter some of Stalin's
influence and support Trotsky on several occasions. However, a third stroke
virtually silenced Lenin and Stalin was free to completely push Trotsky out of
power. Lenin died on January 21, 1924, and Trotsky was isolated and alone,
outmaneuvered by Stalin. From that point on, Trotsky was steadily pushed out of
important roles on Soviet government and, eventually, pushed out of the country.
Between 1925 and 1928, Trotsky was gradually pushed from power and
influence by Stalin and his allies, who discredited Trotsky's role in the Russian
Revolution and his military record. In October 1927, Trotsky was expelled from
the Central Committee and exiled the following January to the very remote AlmaAta, located in present-day Kazakhstan. Apparently, that was not far enough for
Stalin, so in February, 1929, Trotsky was banished entirely from the Soviet
Union. Over the next seven years, he lived in Turkey, France and Norway, before
arriving in Mexico City.
Trotsky continued to write and criticize Joseph Stalin and the Soviet
government. During the 1930s, Stalin conducted political purges and named
Trotsky, in absentia, a major conspirator and enemy of the people. In August
1936, 16 of Trotsky's allies were charged with aiding Trotsky in treason. All 16
were found guilty and executed. Stalin then set out to assassinate Trotsky. In
1937, Trotsky moved to Mexico, eventually settling in Mexico City, where he
continued to criticize Soviet leadership.
source: http://www.biography.com/people/leon-trotsky-9510793#death-andlegacy
6. Hedeki Tojo
Wartime leader of Japans government, General Tj Hideki (1884-1948),
with his close-cropped hair, mustache, and round spectacles, became for Allied
propagandists one of the most commonly caricatured members of Japans
military dictatorship throughout the Pacific war. Shrewd at bureaucratic infighting
and fiercely partisan in presenting the armys perspective while army minister, he
was surprisingly indecisive as national leader.
Known within the army as Razor Tj both for his bureaucratic efficiency
and for his strict, uncompromising attention to detail, he climbed the command
ladders, in close association with the army faction seeking to upgrade and
improve Japans fighting capabilities despite tight budgets and civilian
interference. Tj built up a personal power base and used his position as head
some officials close to the throne that Tj should be left in office to the end to
accept responsibility for the loss of the war so that a court official could step in
to deliver peace.
After Japans surrender the next year, Tj attempted suicide when
threatened with arrest by occupation authorities, but he was tried and hanged as
a war criminal on December 23, 1948. At his trial, he asserted his personal
responsibility for the war and attempted to deflect attention from the emperor. In
1978, despite the protest of many citizens opposed to honoring the man they felt
had brought disaster on Japan, Tjs name, along with those of thirteen other
class A war criminals, was commemorated at Yasukuni, the shrine in Tokyo
dedicated to the memory of warriors fallen in service to the imperial family.
source: http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/tojo-hideki
7. Cory Aquino
Corazon Aquino was the 11th president (and first female president) of the
Philippines. She restored democracy after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand
Marcos.
Maria Corazon Aquino was born January 25, 1933, in Tarlac, Philippines.
Her husband had been an opponent of Ferdinand Marcos and was assassinated
upon returning from exile. When Marcos unexpectedly called for elections in
1986, Corazon Aquino became the unified opposition's presidential candidate.
She took office after Marcos fled the country, and served as president, with mixed
results, until 1992.
Maria Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco was born January 25, 1933, in the
Tarlac Province to a wealthy political and banking family. She attended school in
Manila until the age of 13, then finished her education in the United States, first in
Philadelphia and later in New York City. She graduated from the College of
Mount St. Vincent in New York in 1953, with a bachelor's degree in both French
and mathematics.
began to turn. The army, and then the defense minister, soon declared support
for Aquino, prompting Marcos to seek exile in Hawaii. Aquino was sworn into
office on February 25, 1986, becoming the first female president of the
Philippines. That same year, she was named TIME magazine's Woman of the
Year.
During her six years as the country's president, Aquino fended off coup
attempts by Marcos supporters, and struggled to address her country's economic
problems. In 1992 she left office, and was succeeded by her former defense
secretary, Fidel Ramos.
Aquino did not go quietly into retirement. Instead, she ran a think tank on
non-violence and periodically helped lead street protests against the policies of
endorsed by her successors.
In 2008, she learned she had colon cancer. She passed on August 1, 2009.
source: http://www.biography.com/people/corazon-aquino-9187250#final-years
8. Ferdinand Marcos
Known for running a corrupt, undemocratic regime, Ferdinand Marcos was
the president of the Philippines from 1966 to 1986.
A lawyer, a member of the Philippine House of Representatives (19491959) and a member of the Philippine Senate (1959-1965), Ferdinand Marcos
became the president of the Philippines in 1966, a post he held until 1986, when
his people rose against his dictatorial rule and he fled.
Ferdinand Marcos went to school in Manila and later attended law school
at the University of the Philippines. His father, Mariano Marcos, was a Filipino
politician, and on September 20, 1935, the day after Julio Nalundasan defeated
Mariano Marcos for a seat in the National Assembly (for the second time),
Nalundasan was shot and killed in his home. Ferdinand, Mariano and
Ferdinands brother and brother-in-law were tried for the assassination, and
Ferdinand and his brother-in-law were found guilty of the murder. Ferdinand
argued their case on appeal to the Philippine Supreme Court and won acquittal a
year later.
Remarkably, while Marcos was preparing his case, he was studying for the
bar exam and became a trial lawyer in Manila subsequent to the acquittal.
During World War II, Ferdinand Marcos served as an officer with the
Philippine armed forces, later claiming that he had been a leader in the Filipino
guerrilla resistance movement. These claims were a principal element in his
subsequent political success, but it was revealed in U.S. government archives
that he actually played little or no part in anti-Japanese activities during World
War II.
At the end of the war, when the American government granted the
Philippines independence on July 4, 1946, the Philippine Congress was created.
Marcos ran and was twice elected as representative to his district and served
from 1949 to 1959. In 1959, Marcos took a seat in the Philippine Senate, a
position he would hold until he ran for and won the presidency in 1965.
source: http://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-marcos-9398625#state-ofthe-regime-and-downfall
9. Karl Marx
German philosopher and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx published The
Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, anticapitalist works that form the basis of
Marxism.
Born in Prussia on May 5, 1818, Karl Marx began exploring sociopolitical
theories at university among the Young Hegelians. He became a journalist, and
his socialist writings would get him expelled from Germany and France. In 1848,
he published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels and was exiled to
London, where he wrote the first volume of Das Kapital and lived the remainder
of his life.
Karl Heinrich Marx was one of nine children born to Heinrich and Henrietta
Marx in Trier, Prussia. His father was a successful lawyer who revered Kant and
Voltaire, and was a passionate activist for Prussian reform. Although both parents
were Jewish with rabbinical ancestry, Karls father converted to Christianity in
1816 at the age of 35.
This was likely a professional concession in response to an 1815 law
banning Jews from high society. He was baptized a Lutheran, rather than a
Catholic, which was the predominant faith in Trier, because he equated
Protestantism with intellectual freedom. When he was 6, Karl was baptized
along with the other children, but his mother waited until 1825, after her father
died.
Marx was an average student. He was educated at home until he was 12
and spent five years, from 1830 to 1835, at the Jesuit high school in Trier, at that
time known as the Friedrich-Wilhelm Gymnasium. The schools principal, a friend
of Marxs father, was a liberal and a Kantian and was respected by the people of
Rhineland but suspect to authorities. The school was under surveillance and was
raided in 1832.
In October of 1835, Marx began studying at the University of Bonn. It had
a lively and rebellious culture, and Marx enthusiastically took part in student life.
In his two semesters there, he was imprisoned for drunkenness and disturbing
the peace, incurred debts and participated in a duel. At the end of the year,
Marxs father insisted he enroll in the more serious University of Berlin.
In Berlin, he studied law and philosophy and was introduced to the
philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel, who had been a professor at Berlin until his death in
1831. Marx was not initially enamored with Hegel, but he soon became involved
with the Young Hegelians, a radical group of students including Bruno Bauer and
Ludwig Feuerbach, who criticized the political and religious establishments of the
day.
In 1836, as he was becoming more politically zealous, Marx was secretly
where Douglas was born was just the first of several military posts on which he
would live during his youth.
In 1893 his family moved to San Antonio, Texas, and MacArthur attended
the West Texas Military Academy, where he began to show academic promise.
He was also a member of several of the schools sports teams. After high school,
MacArthur enrolled in the military academy at West Point, where he excelled,
and in 1903 he graduated with honors.
Following graduation, MacArthur was commissioned as a junior officer in
the Army Corps of Engineers and spent the next decade fulfilling a variety of
duties. This early period in his military career was marked by frequent promotions
and led to posts in countries around the world, including the Philippines, Japan,
Mexico and, in 1914, France.
Douglas MacArthur was born on an Army base in Little Rock, Arkansas,
on January 26, 1880, into a family with a strong military history. His father, Arthur,
was a captain at the time of Douglas birth, and had been decorated for his
service in the Union Army during the Civil War. Douglas mother, Mary, was from
Virginia, and her brothers had fought for the South during the Civil War. The base
where Douglas was born was just the first of several military posts on which he
would live during his youth.
In 1893 his family moved to San Antonio, Texas, and MacArthur attended
the West Texas Military Academy, where he began to show academic promise.
He was also a member of several of the schools sports teams. After high school,
MacArthur enrolled in the military academy at West Point, where he excelled,
and in 1903 he graduated with honors.
Following graduation, MacArthur was commissioned as a junior officer in
the Army Corps of Engineers and spent the next decade fulfilling a variety of
duties. This early period in his military career was marked by frequent promotions
and led to posts in countries around the world, including the Philippines, Japan,
Mexico and, in 1914, France.
Around this time, MacArthur and his wife moved to New York City, and he
was elected chairman of the board for Remington Rand, a manufacturer of
typewriters and early computers. Besides the duties that came with this post,
MacArthur devoted his time to writing his memoirs, which would later be
published as Reminiscences and serialized in Life magazine. He would also
meet with presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to advise them on
military matters.
Douglas MacArthur died in Washington, D.C., on April 5, 1964, at the age
of 84. He was honored with a state funeral and was buried in the Douglas
MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Virginia. The memorial is not only the resting
place of MacArthur and his wife Jean, but also home to a museum collection
documenting his life and military service.
C. MGA PANDAIGDIGANG ORGANISASYON
1. Europian Union (EU)
Ang Unyong Europeo ay isang pang-ekonomiko at pampolotikal na unyon
ng 27 malalayang bansa. Ito ang pinakamalaking kompederasyon ng mga
malalayang estado na itinatag sa ilalim ng pangalang iyon noong 1992. Ang mga
aktibidad ng Unyong Europeo ay sumasakop sa patakarang publiko, patakarang
ekonomika sa ugnayang panlabas, tanggulan, pagsasaka at kalakalan.
2. Organization of American States (OAS)
Ang Samahan ng mga Estadong Amerikano ay isang pandaigdigang
samahang nakabase sa Washington, D.C., Estados Unidos. Mayroon itong
tatlumpu't limang kasaping nagsasariling estado ng Amerika. Layunin nitong
makamit ang kapayapaan at hustisya, itaguyod ang pagkakaisa ng mga
estadong kasapi, patatagin ang kanilang pagtutulungan, pangalagaan ang
kanilang awtonomiya, ang kanilang teritoryo, at ang kanilang kalayaan.
3. Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
source: http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm
10. World Health Organization (WHO)
The World Health Organization (WHO) was founded in 1948 with an
ambitious objective the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level
of health. Its constitution defined 22 wide-ranging functions, of which the first
was to act as the directing and co-ordinating authority on international health
work. Since 1948 many things have changed in the world of global health, in
particular the large number of new initiatives and institutions created that
challenge WHOs role as a directing and coordinating authority. Examples include
the entry of the World Bank into healthsector lending on a large scale in the
1980s; the creation of new organizations such as UNAIDS, the GAVI Alliance
(formerly the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation), the Global Fund to
Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (The Global Fund) and UNITAID,
developed to tackle specific disease problems; and new public-private
partnerships for product development such as the Medicines for Malaria Venture
or Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative. Meanwhile WHOs secure funding
from governments has stagnated and it has become reliant on voluntary
contributions from governments and other actors usually earmarked for particular
activities favoured by the donor. In recent years, the Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation has become one of the biggest voluntary contributors to WHO. As a
result of the acute funding pressures, Director-General Margaret Chan initiated in
2010 the launch of what became a fresh effort to reform how the organization
functions. There are many questions about how WHO should locate itself in
relation to this new and crowded institutional environment. How should it interpret
or reinterpret its constitutional role? As an intergovernmental organization, how
can it effectively engage with these new actors, including NGOs, charitable
foundations and the private sector? Is WHO principally a normative, standardsetting institution, a knowledge broker and provider of information and evidence,
and advocate for global health? Or is it principally a provider of technical
assistance to governments in various health-related spheres? In addition, should
killed 80,000 people; tens of thousands more would later die of radiation
exposure. Three days later, a second B-29 dropped another A-bomb on
Nagasaki, killing an estimated 40,000 people. Japans Emperor Hirohito
announced his countrys unconditional surrender in World War II in a radio
address on August 15, citing the devastating power of a new and most cruel
bomb.
Even before the outbreak of war in 1939, a group of American scientists
many of them refugees from fascist regimes in Europebecame concerned with
nuclear weapons research being conducted in Nazi Germany. In 1940, the U.S.
government began funding its own atomic weapons development program, which
came under the joint responsibility of the Office of Scientific Research and
Development and the War Department after the U.S. entry into World War II. The
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was tasked with spearheading the construction of
the vast facilities necessary for the top-secret program, codenamed The
Manhattan Project (for the engineering corps Manhattan district).
After World War II, most of Hiroshima would be rebuilt, though one
destroyed section was set aside as a reminder of the effects of the atomic bomb.
Each August 6, thousands of people gather at Peace Memorial Park to join in
interfaith religious services commemorating the anniversary of the bombing.
Over the next several years, the programs scientists worked on producing
the key materials for nuclear fissionuranium-235 and plutonium (Pu-239). They
sent them to Los Alamos, New Mexico, where a team led by J. Robert
Oppenheimer worked to turn these materials into a workable atomic bomb. Early
on the morning of July 16, 1945, the Manhattan Project held its first successful
test of an atomic devicea plutonium bombat the Trinity test site at Alamogordo,
New Mexico.
By the time of the Trinity test, the Allied powers had already defeated
Germany in Europe. Japan, however, vowed to fight to the bitter end in the
Pacific, despite clear indications (as early as 1944) that they had little chance of
winning. In fact, between mid-April 1945 (when President Harry Truman took
office) and mid-July, Japanese forces inflicted Allied casualties totaling nearly half
those suffered in three full years of war in the Pacific, proving that Japan had
become even more deadly when faced with defeat. In late July, Japans militarist
government rejected the Allied demand for surrender put forth in the Potsdam
Declaration, which threatened the Japanese with prompt and utter destruction if
they refused.
General Douglas MacArthur and other top military commanders favored
continuing the conventional bombing of Japan already in effect and following up
with a massive invasion, codenamed Operation Downfall. They advised Truman
that such an invasion would result in U.S. casualties of up to 1 million. In order to
avoid such a high casualty rate, Truman decidedover the moral reservations of
Secretary of War Henry Stimson, General Dwight Eisenhower and a number of
the Manhattan Project scientiststo use the atomic bomb in the hopes of bringing
the war to a quick end. Proponents of the A-bombsuch as James Byrnes,
Trumans secretary of statebelieved that its devastating power would not only
end the war, but also put the U.S. in a dominant position to determine the course
of the postwar world.
Hiroshima, a manufacturing center of some 350,000 people located about
500 miles from Tokyo, was selected as the first target. After arriving at the U.S.
base on the Pacific island of Tinian, the more than 9,000-pound uranium-235
bomb was loaded aboard a modified B-29 bomber christened Enola Gay (after
the mother of its pilot, Colonel Paul Tibbets). The plane dropped the bomb
known as Little Boyby parachute at 8:15 in the morning, and it exploded 2,000
feet above Hiroshima in a blast equal to 12-15,000 tons of TNT, destroying five
square miles of the city.
Hiroshimas devastation failed to elicit immediate Japanese surrender,
however, and on August 9 Major Charles Sweeney flew another B-29 bomber,
Bockscar, from Tinian. Thick clouds over the primary target, the city of Kokura,
drove Sweeney to a secondary target, Nagasaki, where the plutonium bomb Fat
Man was dropped at 11:02 that morning. More powerful than the one used at
Hiroshima, the bomb weighed nearly 10,000 pounds and was built to produce a
22-kiloton blast. The topography of Nagasaki, which was nestled in narrow
valleys between mountains, reduced the bombs effect, limiting the destruction to
2.6 square miles.
At noon on August 15, 1945 (Japanese time), Emperor Hirohito
announced his countrys surrender in a radio broadcast. The news spread
quickly, and Victory in Japan or V-J Day celebrations broke out across the
United States and other Allied nations. The formal surrender agreement was
signed on September 2, aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Tokyo
Bay.