Chapter Three

Matrices
p
Matrix: A square or rectangular array of numbers or
functions that obey certain laws, as in the case of
determinants, the numbers or functions in a matrix
are called elements, and these elements are
distinguished by two subscripts having the same
indication as the two subscripts of an element in a
determinant.
If a matrix A has m rows and n columns it is written
in the form

A=

a11 a12
a21 a 22

a1 n
a2 n

a m 1 a m2 a mn

(1)

Where parentheses are used to enclose the array of

elements and are called a matrix of order
by n). If

m=n

m n

(m

the matrix is called a square matrix.

The main diagonal in a square matrix consists of

the elements a11 , a22 ,, ann ,their is called thetrace .
If the matrix is a square matrix, it is possible to
construct a determinant form the elements of the
matrix arranged in the same way called the
determinant of the matrix. If the expansion of the
determinant of the matrix vanishes the matrix is
called singular matrix.
It is worth while at this stage to emphasize on the
following important remarks.
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

i) The matrix element (unlike the determinant

elements) cannot be combined.
ii) it follows for the above remark that the matrix is
not a single number.
We see that we are heading towards constructing a
new form of mathematics.
2. Laws and Properties of Matrices
a) Equality
Matrix A = Matrix B
If and only if

aij =b ij

for all values of

i j

. This of

course requires that A and B are of the same order.

b) Addition (Subtraction)
The operation of addition (or subtraction) of two
m n

matrices is defined as

C=A B

(2)

Where c ij =aij b ij for all i j

Example 1
Given the matrices

7 4 3
B= 2 5 6
1
3 2

Find

2 1 3
A= 4 5 1
6 2 3

A + BB A .

Solution:
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

2+ 7 14 3+3
A + B= 42 5+5 1+6
6+1 2+3 3+ 2

9 5 6
A + B= 2 10 7
7 5 5

72 4+ 1 33
B A= 24 55 61
16
32 23

5 3 0
B A= 6 0
5
5 1 1

c) Multiplication
The multiplication of matrix A by a scalar quantity

is defined by

A=( A )

(3)

In which the elements of A are a ij , that is, each

element of matrix A is multiplied by the scalar
factor. A consequence of this scalar multiplication is
that
A=A

(4)

For two matrices A and B, two kinds of products are

defined; they are called the matrix product, AB, and
direct product,

A B.

The matrix product

C=AB

is obtained by use of the

following definition

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Cij = aik b kj

(5)

k=1

Where the orders of A, B and C are

respectively.

Note

defined

conformable

for

that

the

matrix

matrices

m s , s nm n ,

product
only .

is

This

means that the number of columns of A must equal

number of rows of B.
Example. 2.

( )

0 1
Given that 1= 1 0

1 0
and 3 = 0 1

Find 1 3

Solution:

( )(

1 3= 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1

( 0 )( 1 ) + ( 1 ) (0) ( 0 )( 0 )+ ( 1 ) (1)
( 1 ) ( 1 ) + ( 0 ) (0) (1 ) ( 0 ) + ( 0 ) (1)

1 3= 0 1
1 0

It can be shown by use of definitions, that matrix

product is not commutative except in special cases.
On the other hand the associative law is valid
( AB ) C= A ( BC ) . There is also a distributive law
A (B+C)=AB + AC .

The direct product (tensor product) is defined for

general matrices. If A is an
(n r )

(m s )

matrix and B an

matrix, then the direct product is

where C

A B=C

is an (mn sr ) matrix.
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

a11 a12 a13

A= a 21 a22 a 23
a 31 a32 a33

If

B=

a11 B a12 B a13 B

A B= a21 B a22 B a23 B
a31 B a32 B a33 B

a 11 b11
a11 b 21
a b
A B= 21 11
a21 b 21
a31 b11
a31 b 21

a11 b12
a11 b 22
a21 b12
a21 b22
a31 b 12
a31 b 22

b11 b 12
b21 b 22

then

a 12 b11
a12 b21
a 22 b11
a22 b21
a 32 b11
a32 b21

a12 b12
a12 b22
a22 b12
a22 b22
a32 b12
a32 b22

a13 b 11
a 13 b21
a23 b 11
a 23 b21
a33 b 11
a 33 b21

a13 b 12
a13 b 22
a23 b 12
a23 b 22
a33 b 12
a33 b 22

Example 3.

( )

0 1
Given that 1= 1 0

1 0
and 3 = 0 1

Find 1 3

Solution:

( ) (

1 3= 0 1 1 0
1 0
0 1

0 3 1 3
1 3 0 3

0
0
1 3=
1
0

0 1 0
0 0 1
0
0 0
1 0 0

d Division

The operation of division of a matrix by general

matrix is not uniquely defined.
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

e) The derivative of a matrix

if the elements of matrix A are functions of x then
the derivative of the matrix A with respect to x is a
matrix
whose
elements
are
the
derived
elements(with respect to x) of matrix A.
Example.4
2 x 6 x2
d x 2 2 x3 1
= x
e ex
dx e x ex ln x

0
1
x

f) The Integral of a Matrix

To integrate a matrix with respect to a certain
variable x, each element is integrated separately
with respect to x.
Example.5

) (

ln x+ c 1
c2
e + c3
1
0 ex
3
dx= x
x
+c 4 x+ c5 3 x+ c6
2
x 1 3
3
x

)(

ln x c 2 e
c 0 c3
x3
+ 1
x 3 x c 4 c5 c 6
3

g) Transpose of a matrix
A new matrix

AT

is constructed by interchanging

the row and columns of matrix A, the resulting

matrix is called the transpose of A.
Example 6.
Find the transpose of the matrix

A= 2 1 3
4 2 1

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

( )

2 4
A T = 1 2
3 1

Example 7.
T
T
T
Show that ( AB) =B A

Solution:

( AB)Tij =( AB) ji = A jk Bki

k

( AB)Tij = ATkj BTik

k

T
T
T
T
B ik A kj =( B A )ij
k

then
( AB )T =BT AT

3. Special matrices
A number of matrices are of special interest and
take special forms
(i) The row Matrix
A=(a11 a12a 1n )

Is called a row vector and usually it is written in the

form [a], it is clear that it consists of one row and n
columns.
(ii) The column Matrix

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

a11
a21
A=

a n1

()

Is called a column vector and usually it is written in

the form { a } , it is clear that it consists of n rows
and one column.
(iii)The Null or Zero Matrix
If

aij =0

for all

i j

, then 0 is called a null matrix.

For example

( )

0 0 0
0= 0 0 0
0 0 0

The null matrix has the property

A +0=A

and the

property
0 A= A 0=0

(iv) The Unit Matrix

This is square matrix whose elements are

ij

kronecker delta. For example

( )

1 0 0
1= 0 1 0
0 0 1

It has the property

A 1=1 A

(v) Diagonal Matrix

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

This is square matrix in which the nondiagonal

3 3

elements are zero. Specifically if a

matrix is

diagonal then

a 11 0
0
A= 0 a 22 0
0
0 a33

Multiplication of diagonal matrices is commutative,

i,e.
AB =BA

Provided they are of the same order.

vi)Symmetric Matrix
if a matrix is not changed under transposition then
the matrix is said to be symmetric i.e.
A= A

For instance the matrix

2 1 3
A= 1 5
6
3
6 7

Is symmetric since

2 1 3
A = 1 5
6
3
6 7
T

4. Trace
One of the interesting properties of the square
matrices is that the trace of a product of two such

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

matrices
is
independent
multiplication.

of

the

order

of

Trace ( AB )= ( AB)ii
i

aij b ji
i

b ji a ij
j

(BA) jj
j

Trace ( BA )

This is always true even though AB BA .

Example 8.
Given the two matrices

( )

1 2 3
A= 3 1 2
1 3 2

2 4 3
B= 1 2 3
2
1
3

Show that

)
Trace AB=Trace BA

Solution:

( )(

1 2 3 2 4 3
AB= 3 1 2 1 2 3
1 3 2 2
1
3

6 3
6
9 8 12
3 4
0

)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

)( )

2 4 3 1 2 3
BA= 1 2 3 3 1 2
2
1
3 1 3 2

7 9
4
2 9 5
8 14 14

Trace AB=68+ 0=2

Trace BA=79+14=2

Then we conclude that

Even though

Trace AB=Trace BA

AB BA

5. Matrix Inversion
Consider a square matrix A to be known. Provided
that the matrix is nonsingular matrix the problem is
to find its inverse
1

A1

such that

A A = A A=1

To begin with, we consider the following identities.

a) We Know from the determinates that

a ij c ij= a ji c ji=| A|
i

| A|

Where

is the determinant composed of the

elements of the matrix A and

c ij

is the cofactor of

the element aij .

b) We show that

a ij c ik = a ji c ki =0
i

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Let us consider the left hand side i.e. the sum

a ij c ik
i

, this sum represents the expansion of a

determinant whose elements are the elements of

the determinant A except that the
replaced by the

jth

column is

column, i.e. it represents the

expansion of a determinant whose

kth

kth

jth

column and

column are identical, using the properties of

determinants this gives zero, and we can write:

a ij c ik = a ji c ki =0
i

From (a) and (b) we can write

a ij c ik = a ji c ki = jk| A|
i

Now we use the definition of the inverse matrix i.e.

1

A A =1

The element

( A A 1 )ij = Aik A1
kj
k

ij= A ik A1
kj
k

Multiplying both sides by c i l (cofactor of ai l )

c i l ij = Aik ci l A 1
kj
k

Taking the sum over I we get

c i l ij = A ik c i l A1
kj
i

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

c j l=|A| k l A1
kj
k

c j l=|A| A1
lj
A1
lj =

c jl
| A|

(7)

Equation (7) can be written as

A1=

A CT
| A|
A

Where

CT

is a matrix of the cofactors of the

original matrix but transposed.

Example (9).
Find the inverse of the matrix

3 4 1
2 1 3
2 3 1

Solution:

| | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |

+1
3
A C= 4
3
+4
1

3
1
1
1
1
3

2 3
2 1
+ 3 1
2 1
3 1
2 3

10
4
8
A C = 1 5 17
13 11 5

+ 2
2
3
2
+3
2

1
3
4
3
4
1

10 1 13
A CT = 4
5
11
8 17 5

)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

4 1
1 3
2 3 1

| A|= 2

=3(10)-4(-4) +1(8)
=30+16+8=54
Then
A1=

1 10 1 13
A CT
4
5
11
| A| = 54
8 17 5

Let us examine

)(

1 3 4 1 10 1 13
AA =
2 1 3 4
5
11
54
2 3 1 8 17 5
1

1 54 0 0
0 54 0
54
0 0 54

( )

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

6. Orthogonal Matrices
The ordinary three dimensional spaces may be
described by the Cartesian coordinates system (x,
y, z). Now, let us suppose that there is another
Cartesian frame of reference, centered at the same
origin but has the axes(x', y', z') oriented as shown
in figure (1).

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Fig. 1
The unit vector

^
i'

along the x'-axis can be

considered as a vector in the space defined by the

axes x, y and z, so it can be written using the
projection method as
^
( x ' , x ) + ^jcos ( x' , y ) + k^ cos ( x ' , z)
i^ ' =icos

(9)

Using the same method we get the following

expressions for

^j ' ^k '

^j ' =i^ cos ( y ' , x ) + ^jcos ( y ' , y ) + k^ cos ( y ' , z )

k^ ' =i^ cos ( z ' , x ) + ^j cos ( z ' , y ) + k^ cos ( z ' , z)

(10)
(11)

'
'
'
The cosines, cos ( x , x ) , cos ( x , y )cos ( x , z)

directions cosines of the vector

are called the

i^ ' with respect to

the original frame of reference x, y and z. The

same can be said about the cosines that appeared
in equations (10) and (11).
If we denote the first axes x and x' by 1 and the
axes y and y' by 2, and the axes z and z' by 3, then
we can denote the angle between the
axes and the

nth

primed axes by the

can denote its cosine by the symbol

mth

primed

mn

and we

amn

, so we

can write equations (9), (10) and (11) as

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

'
^ 11 + ^j a12 + k^ a13
i^ =ia

(12a)

^j ' =i^ a21+ ^j a22+ k^ a23

(12b)

k^ ' =i^ a31 + ^j a32 + k^ a33

(12c)

Using the same method we can write

^ i^ ' a11 + ^j ' a21+ k^ ' a 31
i=

(13a)

^j= i^ ' a12+ ^j ' a22+ k^ ' a 32

(13b)
'
'
'
k^ =i^ a13 + ^j a23+ k^ a33 (13c)

Now, let us consider the position vector

which is

represented in the unprimed system by equation

^ y ^j+ z k^
r =x i+

(14)

And in the primed system it is represented by the

equation
r '=x ' i^ ' + y ' ^j ' + z ' k^ '

(15)

But since the vector is fixed in space then

r =r '

(16)

From which we get

^ y ^j+ z k^
x i+

x ' i^ ' + y ' ^j ' + z ' k^ '

(17)

If we dot both sides by

'
'
i^ , ^j k^ '

respectively we

obtain
'

x =x a11 + y a12+z a13

(18a)

y '=x a21 + y a22+ z a23

(18b)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

'

z =x a31 + y a32 + z a 33

(18c)

In matrix notations equations (18) can be written as

( )(

)( )

a11 a 12 a13 x
x'
y ' = a21 a 22 a23 y
z'
a31 a 32 a33 z

(19)

Alternatively if we dot both sides of equation (17)

^ ^ ^
by i, jk

respectively we get

x=x ' a11 + y ' a21 + z ' a 31

(20a)

y=x ' a12+ y ' a22+ z ' a32 (20b)

z=x ' a13+ y ' a 23+ z ' a33 (20c)

In matrix notations equations (20) can be written as

()(

)( )

a11 a21 a31 x '

x
=
y
a12 a22 a32 y '
z
a13 a23 a33 z '

Substituting for

()(

(21)

()
x'
y'
z'

)(

from equation (19) we get

)( )

a11 a21 a31 a11 a 12 a13 x

x
y = a12 a22 a32 a21 a 22 a23 y
z
a13 a23 a33 a31 a 32 a33 z

(22)

This show that

)(

a11 a21 a 31 a11 a12 a13

a 12 a22 a 32 a 21 a22 a23 =1
a13 a23 a 33 a 31 a32 a33

(23)

Then
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

(24)

A A=1

A =A

Or

(25)

Matrices satisfying
orthogonal matrices.

equation

(24)

are

called

Example (10).
Determine which of the following an orthogonal
matrix is and which is not.

1
0
2
3
0
2
0
1

2
A= 1
2
0

a)

1
4
1
1
2
1
0
2

( )
1
5

b) B= 0
1

Solution:
a) As a start we write the transpose matrix

2
AT = 1
2
0

AT

1
0
2
3
0
2
0
1

Then

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

)(

1
0
2
3
0
2
0
1

2
T
A A= 1
2
0

3
2
1
2
0

1
0
2
3
0
2
0
1

( )

1 0 0
A T A= 0 1 0
0 0 1

T
Since A satisfies the orthogonality condition A A=1

,then A is an orthogonal matrix.

b)
1
4
1
1
2
1
0
2

( )
1
5

B= 0
1

We write

( )

1
0
1
5
B T = 1 1 0
1
1 1
4
2
2

Then we calculate

( )(

1
0
1
5
T
B B= 1 1 0
1
1 1
4
2
2

1
5
0
1

1
4
1
1
2
1
0
2
1

)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

26
25
B T B= 1
5
11
20

( )
1
5
2

1
4

7
4
1
4
9
16

Since B does not satisfy the orthogonality condition

then B is not an orthogonal matrix.
7. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
The set of simultaneous equations
AX =X

(26)

Where A is n n matrix,

is a numerical constant

known as the eignvalue, and x is a column vector

known as the eigenvector, this set of equations can be
written more explicitly in the form

x1
a11 a12 a1 n x 1
x2
a 21 a22 a2 n x 2

a n1 an 2 ann x n
xn

)( ) ( )

From which we get the set of the homogenous equations

a
( 11)x 1 +a12 x 2 + a 1n x n=0

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

a
22

( ) x 2+ a2 n x n =0

(27)

a21 x1 +

an 1 x1 +a n 2 x 2+ .. ( ann ) x n=0

This set of equations can have a nontrivial solution if and

only if
a
( 11 ) a12

a1 n
a
a21 (a22)

2n

an 1 an 2
| (ann) |=0

(28)

This is a polynomial equation of degree n in

values of

. The

satisfying this equation (roots) are called

Eigenvalues of matrix A.
Related to each eigenvalue, there is a column vector

x0

, called eigenvector. Eigen is a German word meaning

proper or characteristic and came with the early
treatments of quantum mechanics.
Equation (28) can be written in a compact form as
| A 1|=0

(29)

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

And it is usually called the characteristic equation.

Now, if the roots are all distinct, there will be n
independent eigenvectors. However, when the roots are
not all distinct, it is impossible, in general, to have n
independent eigenvectors, but in the important case of
the Hermitian matrix, there will be always n independent
eigenvectors even if there are nondistinct roots.
In many cases it is desirable to have the eigenvectors
normalized, which means that the sum of their
components is equal to one.
Example (11)
Given the matrix

( )

1 1 2
A= 0 2 1
0 0 3

Find
a) The eigenvalue
b) The eigenvectors
c) The unit eigenvectors (Normalized eigenvectors)
Solutions:
a) the characteristic equation is

1
1
2
0
2
1 =0
0
0
3

( 1 ) [ ( 2 ) ( 3 )0 ]=0

( 1 )( 2 ) ( 3 )=0

The Eigenvalues are

=1,2, 3

b) To find the eigenvector corresponding to

=1

we write

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

( )( ) ( )
x1
1 1 2 x1
0 2 1 x2 =(1) x2
0 0 3 x3
x3

This gives the equations

x 1+ x 2 +2 x 3 =x1

(1)

2 x 2 + x 3=x 2

(2)

3 x3 =x3

(3)

From these equations we get

x 2+2 x 3=0
x 2+ x 3=0
2 x 3=0

(4)
(5)
(6)

From equation (6) we get

x 3=0

and from equations (4) and(5) we obtain

x 2=0

We cannot determine

x1

from these equations, i.e.

x1

is arbitrary, we choose x 1=1 , then the first eigenvector is

()
1
0
0

To find the eigenvector corresponding to

=2

we write

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

( )( ) ( )
x1
1 1 2 x1
0 2 1 x2 =(2) x2
0 0 3 x3
x3

This gives the equations

x 1+ x 2 +2 x 3 =2 x 1
2 x 2 + x 3=2 x2

(7)
(8)

3 x3 =2 x 3

(9)

So
x 3=0
x 2=x 1

and
we choose

x 2=x 1=1

and the eigenvector related to

=2

is

()
1
1
0

To find the eigenvector corresponding to

=3

we write

( )( ) ( )
x1
1 1 2 x1
0 2 1 x2 =(3) x 2
0 0 3 x3
x3

This gives the equations

x 1+ x 2 +2 x 3 =3 x 1
2 x 2 + x 3=3 x 2
3 x3 =3 x 3

(10)
(11)
(12)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

From equation (12)

x 3=2

x3

is not determine, then we choose

, so from equation (11) x 2=2 , and from equation

(10) x 1=3 , then the third eigenvector is

()
3
2
2

c) The unit eigenvector (normalized eigenvectors) are

1
2
1 1
2
1
3
0
0 ,
2
17 2
0

(( ) ) ( )
8.
Reduction
of
(Diagonalization)

Matrix

to

Diagonal

Suppose that A is a square matrix of order

the three distinct eigenvalues

1 , 2 , 3

(3 3)

Form

and has

and the three

corresponding eigenvectors

( )( )( )
c 11 c12 c 13
c 21 , c22 , c 23
c 31 c32 c 33

Let us construct a new matrix C consists of the

eigenvectors as columns, i.e.

( )

c 11 c 12 c 13
C= c21 c 22 c 23
c31 c 32 c 33

(30)

Multiplying matrix C on the left by A gives

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

)( )

a 11 a12 a13 c 11 c 12 c13

AC = a21 a22 a23 c 21 c 22 c23
a31 a32 a33 c 31 c 32 c33

1 c11 2 c12 3 c 13
1 c21 2 c 22 3 c 23
1 c31 2 c32 3 c 33

(31)

Since

( )( )

c 11
1 c 11
A c21 = 1 c 21
c31
1 c 31

And similar results for column (2) and column (3).

Equations (31) can be written as

( )(

c 11 c 12 c13 1
AC = c 21 c 22 c23 0
c 31 c 32 c33 0

0 0
2 0
0 3

(32)

i.e.

1 0 0
AC =C 0 2 0
0 0 3

(33)

Multiplying both sides from the left by the inverse of

1
matrix C (i.e. C yields

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

1
C AC =C C 0
0
1

0 0
2 0
0 3

(35)

(34)

And finally

1
1
C AC= 0
0

0 0
2 0
0 3

From the above procedure we conclude that to diagonalize

a matrix of order
1 , 2 , 3

3 3

and of three distinct eigenvalues

, all what we need is to write these eigenvalues

in the main diagonal and put all other elements equal to

zero.
Even though we have arrived at this result for a

3 3

matrix it is exactly applicable for any square matrix of

order

n n

provided that it has n distinct eigenvalues. If

some roots or all roots are identical it is not possible, in

the general cases, to diagonalize the matrix. However we
will see in the next sections that it is always possible to
diagonalize the Hermitian matrices even if they have
identical roots.
Example 12.
Diagonalize the matrix of example (11)
Solution:
From example (11) we know that the eigenvalues are 1, 2,
and 3 then the diagonalized matrix using the result
obtained in (28) is

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

( )
1 1 2
0 2 1
0 0 3

Example 13.
Diagonalize the matrix of example 11, using the invertible
1
matrix C such that C AC is diagonal.

From example 11 it was found that the eigenvectors are

( )( ) ( )
1 1
3
,

0 1
2
0 0
2

then

( )

1 1 3
C= 0 1 2
0 0 2

Then when we calculate C

C1=

1 2 2 1
0 2 2
2
0 0
1

we find that,

C1=

C CT
|C|

So
C1 AC =

)( )( )

1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
0 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 2
2
0 0
1 0 0 3 0 0 2

)( )

1 0 0
1 2 0 0
C AC = 0 4 0 = 0 2 0
2
0 0 6
0 0 3
1

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Which is the same result as obtained in example 11.

9. Hermitian Matrices, Unitary Matrix
We dealt up to now with matrices of real elements. Such
matrices are sufficient to describe many physical
situations. However, in quantum mechanics we cannot
avoid using matrices that contain complex elements,
therefore to deal with such situations we have to study the
Hermitian matrices.
The Hermitian matrix (self-adjoint matrix) is a square
matrix which is the same as the transpose of its complex
conjugate, so if A is a Hermitian matrix, one can write
T

A= ( A ) = AT
A T

(36)

Is usually denoted by

+
A , and it is called the adjoint

matrix, the equation 36 becomes

+
A= A

(37)

From the above definition we see that the symmetric

matrix is a special case of the Hermitian matrix when all
the elements are real.
A matrix U is said to be unitary matrix if
+
U =U
1

(38)

This matrix has a great importance in quantum

mechanics; it is obvious that the orthogonal matrix
( A1= A T )

is just a special case of the unitary matrix when

all the elements are real.

The similarity transformation is defined by the relation
A '=TA T 1

(39)
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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

If the unitary matrix is used in a similarity transformation,

then it is called unitary transformation and it takes the
form
+
A '=UA U 1 =UA U

(40)

Two important theorems specify the properties of the

eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix.
Theorem (1)
The eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix (or symmetric real
matrix) are real.
Proof.
Let A be a Hermitian matrix and

an eigenvalue

corresponding to the eigenvector X i , so we can write

AX i= i X i

(41)

Taking the adjoint of this equation we get

+

+=i X i

+ A

Xi

(42)

Where we have made use of the result obtained in

example (7) since A is Hermitian we get
+
+ A= i X i
X i

(43)

Multiplying by X i from the right we get

+ X i
+ A X i= i X i
X i

(44)

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Multiplying equation (41) by

+ X i
+ i X i= i X i
+ AX i= X i
X i

+
Xi

from the left we obtain

(45)

From equations (44) and (45) we conclude that

i
i X

(46)

Since X i is not a trivial eigenvector then

+ X i 0
X i

(47)

If follows from equation (46)that

i = i

(48)

Or that i is real.
But this result is true for any value of

then all

eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix (and of course a real

symmetric matrix) are real.
Theorem (2)
The eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix (or real symmetric
matrix) belonging to different eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Proof.

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Let

Xi

and

distinct

Xj

be two eigenvectors belonging to the two

eigenvalues

i , j

respectively

and

let

the

Hermitain matrix under consideration be A, then we have

AX i= i X i

(49)

AX j= j X j

(50)

Multiplying equation (49) by

i
+ X i
+ i X i= i X j
AX
X +
Xj

+
Xj

from the left gives

+
Xi

from the left gives

(51)

Multiplying equation (50) by

j
j
+ X

X
+
+ AX j=X X j= j

Xi

(52)

Taking the adjoint of equation (52) , and taking into

consideration that A is Hermitain we get
i
+ X i
AX
X +
j X j

(53)

From equations (51) and (53) we conclude that

i j
X

+ X i=0

(54)

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Since i j are two distinct roots then

+ X i=0
X j

(55)

Which means that X i X j are orthogonal.

Example (14)
A certain rigid body may be represented by three point
masses
m1=1

at (0, 1, 1)

m2=1

at (1, 1, 0)

m3=1

at (1, 0, 1)

a) Find the moment of inertia matrix I.

b) Find the
eigenvectors.

eigenvalues

and

set

of

orthogonal

Solutions:
a) the inertia matrix has the diagonal components
3

I xx = mi (r 2i xi2)
i

I xx =( 1 ) [ 02 +12 +1202 ] + ( 1 ) [ 12+12 +0 212 ]

+ ( 1 ) [ 12 +0 2+1212 ]=2+ 1+ 1

I xx=4
3

I yy = mi (r 2i y 2i )
i

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

I yy =( 1 ) [ 02 +12+12 12 ]+ (1 ) [ 12+ 12+ 0212 ]

+ ( 1 ) [ 12 +0 2+1202 ]=1+1+2
I yy =4
3

I zz = mi (r i zi )
2

I zz =( 1 ) [ 02 +12+ 1212 ]+ ( 1 ) [ 12 +12+ 020 2 ]

+ ( 1 ) [ 12 +0 2+1212 ]=1+ 2+ 1
I zz =4

For the nondiagonal components of the inertia matrix we

have
3

I xy = mi xi y i
i

[ 1 ( 0 ) ( 1 ) +1 ( 1 ) ( 1 ) +1 ( 1 ) ( 0 ) ]
I xy =1
I xy =I yx =1
3

I xz = mi x i z i
i

[ 1 ( 0 ) ( 1 ) +1 ( 1 ) ( 0 ) +1 ( 1 )( 1 ) ]
I xz =1
I xz =I zx =1

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

I yz= mi y i z i
i

[ 1 ( 1 ) (1 )+1 ( 1 ) ( 0 ) +1 ( 0 )( 1 ) ]
I yz=1
I yz=I zy=1

The moment of inertia matrix I is given by

I xx I xy
I = I yx I yy
I zx I zy

I xz
I yz
I zz

Then

4 1 1
I = 1 4 1
1 1 4

b) The secular equation is

4 1
1
1 4 1 =0
1
1 4

( 4 ) [ ( 4 ) ( 4 )1 ] + [ (1 ) ( 4 )1 ] [ 1+ ( 4 ) ] =0

From this equation we get the eigenvalues

=2,5, 5

The eigenvalue equation associated with

=2

is

)( ) ( )

4 1 1 x
x
=2
1 4 1 y
y
1 1 4 z
z

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

Which can be reduced to the form

)( )

2 1 1 x
1 2 1 y =0
1 1 2 z

From which we get the equations

2 x yz=0

x +2 yz=0
x y+ 2 z=0

Solving these equations we get

x= y=z

Then the eigenvector related to =2 is

()
1
1
1

The normalized eigenvector is

1
3
1
3
1
3

()
The eigenvalue equation associated with

=5

)( ) ( )

4 1 1 x
x
=5
1 4 1 y
y
1 1 4 z
z

Which can be reduced to the form

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

)( )

1 1 1 x
1 1 1 y =0
1 1 1 z

From which we get

x+ y+ z=0

and no more information, then we can make any choice

which satisfies this equation, we choose

x=0, y=1, then z=1

()
0
1
1

and the normalized eigenvector is

0
1
2
1
2

()
To find the third eigenvector which is normal to the first
and the second eigenvectors we denoted the first
eigenvector by r 1 and the second by r 2 then
r 3=r 1 r 2=(

1
1
1
1
1
i+
j+ k )(0 i+
j
k)
3 3 3
2 2

2
1
1
i+
j+
k
6 6 6

Then the third eigenvector is

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

()
2
6
1
6
1
6

The set of orthonormal eigenvectors is

1
2
0
3
6
1
1
1
2
3
6
1
1
1
2
3
6

( )( ) ( )
Example 15
Given the matrix

1 0 6
A= 0 2 0
6 0 6

a) Find the eigenvalues

b) Find the normalized eigenvectors
c) Show that these eigenvectors are orthogonal
d) Write the diagonal matrix
Solution:
a) the secular equation is

1
0
6
0 (2+ )
0 =0
6
0
6

( 1 ) [( 2+ ) ( 6 ) ] +36 ( 2+ ) =0

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

From this equation we get the eigenvalues

b)the eigenvector related to the eigenvalue

=2,3,10
=2

can be

obtained from the equation

1 0 6 x
x
0 2 0 y =2 y
6 0 6 z
z

)( ) ( )

1+2
0
6
x
0 2+2
0
y =0
6
0
6+2 z

)( )

3 x+6 z=0
6 x+ 8 z =0

Then x=0
And z=0
So we choose y=1
The eigenvector related to

=2

is

()
0
1
0

Now, The eigenvector related to

from

the

=3

can be obtained
equation

)( )

1+3
0
6
x
0 2+3
0 y =0
6
0
6+3 z

4 x +6 z=0
y=0

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

6 x+ 9 z=0

So we get
2 x =3 z

If we choose
Then

z=2

x=3

And the eigenvector related to

=3

is

()
3
0
2

To find the eigenvector related to

=10

, we write

)( )

110
0
6
x
0
210
0
y =0
6
0
610 z

9 x +6 z=0
12 y=0

6 x4 z=0
3 x=2 z

We choose z=3, then x=2 and the eigenvector is

()
2
0
3

The normalized eigenvectors are

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim

()

3
0 1
0
2
2
1
,
1
0
13 13
0
3

()

()

c) to prove that the eigenvectors are orthogonal

()

3
( 0 1 0 ) 0 =0
2

And

()
2

( 0 1 0 ) 0 =0
3

Finally

()

2
(3 0 2 ) 0 =6+ 0+6=0
3

This proves that the eigenvectors are orthogonal

d) the diagonal matrix is

2 0
0
0 3 0
0
0 10

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Dr. Abdalsattar.K.Hashim