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Application'
This research study, entitled 'Combating Corruption Legal Framework Practice' discusses
specific mechanisms for combating and fighting corruption. Corruption has evolved into one of the
major challenges at the community level that obstruct and undermine such endeavors that seek to
attain an idealistic, democratic community. Moreover, corruption undercuts the developmental
efforts, as it poses serious threats to the community at large. Corruption leads to an uneven balance
in the community. Therefore, this research study, in general, examines the root causes of corruption
in all its forms from a legal perspective in order to review all the legal provisions and texts
pertaining corruption, including bribery, embezzlement, fraud, etc. In addition, this research study
highlights any limitations and/ or failures in the laws that seek to combat corruption, alongside the
main roles and responsibilities of the formal and informal structures in fighting corruption. The
research study also draws recommendations and proposals to effect legislative reform. The research
study also discusses how to re-invigorate the role of different control structures, as well as how to
institutionalize principles of transparency, accountability and integrity.
The Research study addresses a range of aculeate issues. The research is structured into 3 chapters,
which are heralded by an introduction that discusses the relationship between human rights and
corruption as a question that is strongly and frequently asked these days. Accordingly, this research
study attempts to review all the anti-corruption mechanisms and approaches as perceived in the
Egyptian Constitution, as well as other relevant legislations. This is coupled with how to apply
these mechanisms and approaches to fight corruption, wherever corruption exists.
In Chapter 1, the research study offers an overview of the definition of corruption. The research
study points out that researchers and scholars have not been able to reach a common understanding
about corruption, and what corruption is. They believe that reaching a consensus about the
definition of corruption is not imperative. Therefore, this has led to the introduction of several and
various definitions. For instance, the International Transparency Organization defines corruption as
'any act that entails misuse of public office to realize some interests, whether personal or for a group
of individuals. Chapter 1 also introduces the root causes for the high prevalence of corruption.
The research study indicates that these causes underlie in the following: (1) poor salary level in the
governmental sector; (2) immunity granted to top officials; (3) high confidentiality of public
processes and procedures; (4) dysfunction of public expenditure policies; (5) privatization; (6)
increased foreign trade and investments; (7) tight and strict control over the media; and, (8) policies
of financial deregulation. The research study also indicates that there is a wide range of other
causes, which, although highlighted from a different perspective, are analogous to the root causes
referred to above. Relevantly, others group the causes of corruption into the following categories:
A. Economic reasons, including poverty, unemployment, government interference in economic
business activities, poor salary level of civil servants comparable to the private sector, lack of
access to information, and tight control and restrictions over freedom of opinion, expression,
and the media.
B. Political reasons, such as corruption of some political leadership, failing to institutionalize
values of integrity, transparency, and accountability, poor performance of control and oversight
structures, and high prevalence of favoritism, biasness and agency.
C. Cultural and social reasons, including lack of public awareness about the main causes, forms
and threats of corruption, and lack of common understanding of what is ethical versus unethical,
and of what is allowed versus prohibited.
D. Legislative reasons, including multiplicity of, and failing to enforce, legislations.
E. Administrative reasons, including poor salary schemes of civil servants, and tedious
administrative processes required to access services.
The research study also addresses the different forms and manifestations of corruption, as to
minor versus gross acts of corruption. This is in order to gain a better understanding about the
impact of corruption on the economic, social, political and cultural life.
In Chapter 2, the research study addresses the effective approaches to combating and eliminating
corruption. For instance, the World Bank developed a strategy to fight corruption, which revolves
around the following areas of focus: (a) develop legal and constitutional control systems to monitor
and to hold government officials responsible; (b) ensure engagement of civil society organizations
in all the efforts of oversight, accountability and anti-corruption, through enhancing principles of
accountability, transparency and good governance; (c) enforce, improve and update relevant laws
and legislations; and, (d) enhance the role of the oversight and control structures. Chapter 2 also
gives a brief overview of the key structures that are mandated to fight corruption in Egypt.
Chapter 3 discusses how corruption is accounted for in the Egyptian Legislation, as well as
international conventions. Chapter 3 highlights the key international anti-corruption endeavors
that are introduced by the International Transparency Organization to reinforce principles of
transparency and integrity. The International Transparency Organization believes strongly that
fighting corruption is an on-going process. The International Transparency Organization offers
funding to a number of governmental and non-governmental organizations, as well as other
economic institutions, such as the World Bank, etc. The International Transparency Organization
seeks to eliminate corruption through re-invigorating a global federation, as well as improving and
strengthening values of local and international integrity. The International Transparency
Organization also embraces certain guidelines, including enhancing a shared, public responsibility
for combating corruption, emphasizing principles and values of civic participation, decentralization,
diversification, transparency, etc., at the local level.
The research study pinpoints the successes achieved by the International Transparency
Organization. For instance, the Organization gained universal reputation as a key partner in the
warfare against corruption, and as a key actor in breaking down barriers of caution that ban any
discussion about corruption. The Research study lists the key international conventions against
corruption, as follows: on fighting and combating corruption:
UN Convention against Corruption, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in
October 2003, and ratified by 25 countries, including Egypt, Algeria and Jordan.
Instrument of Alexandria in 2004, which includes several focuses for reform, such as political
reform, social reform, cultural reform, economic reform, and monitoring mechanisms of civil
society.
Greater Middle East Initiative, 2004.
Tunisia Declaration, May 2004.
Tunisia Reform, Modernization, and Development March Instrument, 2004.
Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business
Transactions, 1997.
UN Convention on Combating Planned Non-National Crimes, 2000.
Other UN resolutions on combating corruption.
The research study did not overlook how the Egyptian Constitution of 1971 addresses corruption.
However, the Egyptian Constitution did not use the term 'corruption', either literarily or figuratively,
as it is perceived to be an unstructured legal term. In addition, the Egyptian laws place a special
emphasis on combating corruption through establishing two types of legal accountability for civil
servants; i.e. criminal and disciplinary liability. The Egyptian Penalty Law incriminates any act that
constitutes a violation or misuse of public property and utilities, as well as public office. Articles
103 111, of Chapter III of the said Penalty Law, address the crime of bribery (criminal liability).
The research study also discusses disciplinary sanctions and penalties that may be imposed against
the civil servants, including warning, deferment of due bonuses, suspension, termination of service,
dismissal, etc. However, top officials may not be sanctioned except as follows: reproaching,
warning, termination of service.
Exercising control and oversight over the public institutions is one of the key pillars of the Egyptian
Legislation. Accordingly, the research study gives special consideration to re-invigorating this role.
The research study tackles four different kinds of control over the public institutions, as follows:
Internal control.
Triangulate control and oversight among the three state branches, i.e. oversight over the
Legislative Branch by the Executive Branch, control and oversight over the activities and
processes of the Executive Branch by the People's Assembly, and oversight over Executive and
Legislative Branches by the Judiciary System.
Legally-mandated control agencies. By virtue of the law, certain structures and systems are
legally mandated to carry out control and oversight activities, such as: Central Auditing Agency,
Anti-Illicit Gain Department, Administrative Control Organization, local councils, and integrity
and transparency committee.
Civil control and oversight. The Law on Exercising Political Rights is one of the instruments
that can be used to effectuate civil control and oversight. In addition, other several civic
organizations and institutions are entitled to exercise civic control and oversight, as follows:
press, syndicates and labor unions, political parties, and civil society organizations.
The research study also discusses the underlying reasons for the legislative crisis that led to a rise in
the prevalence of corruption in the Egyptian Society, as follows:
A. Dominance and supremacy of Executive Branch over the other two branches, coupled with
alienation of the principle of separation and circulation of power.
B. Diminished oversight role of the People's Assembly.
C. Dominance of Executive Branch, comparable to the Judiciary System.
D. Diminished role of the legislative authority within the Egyptian Society.
The research study also highlights two different types of legal restrictions that obstruct circulation
of and access to information in Egypt; i.e. general legal restrictions, and special legal restrictions.
A. General Legal Rules and Regulations Imposed on Access to Information
The research study underlines the full alienation and exclusion of the civil society organizations and
non-governmental organizations. The legislature imposed restrictions on the functions and mandate
of the civil society organizations; thus undermining their role in the community development
process. Even more, the overstated dominance and control of the executive authority over the
functions of the civil society organizations, combined with the far-reaching mandate granted to the
Minister of Social Solidarity, which goes far beyond any control or coordination role to the
dissolution or disbanding of these organizations and assemblies by the Minister of Social Solidarity.
The research study concludes that it is crucial to establish a set of effective programs and
mechanisms to combat corruption, which is raging in our communities, and which is rising day after
day. This research study is not meant to chase down and prosecute corrupt officials. Rather, the
purpose of this research study is to seek to effect substantial changes in the organizational structures
that feed or fails to control this phenomenon.
The research study recommends that a comprehensive and all-inclusive strategy should be adopted
to combat corruption and to support civic participation and engagement in creating a community
that maintains integrity and transparency through the following:
Adopt and maintain a democratic system that enhances separation of powers and the rule of law.
Construct an autonomous, well-functioning and disinterested judiciary system.
Enforce laws against corruption, at all levels.
Improve the oversight and accountability role of the legislative authority.
Promote ethics in the public, private and civic sectors.
Allow the press more freedom and improve press access to information.
Improve the public role in combating corruption through introducing awareness and programs
about corruption and its associated threats.
Reinforce the UN Convention against Corruption, which Egypt acceded to in October 14, 2003.
Re-invigorate the role of the civil society enable it to perform its mandate, as to building a
grassroots base.
The research study also includes means of communication with the different structures that are
concerned with enhancing transparency and integrity, which the interested community members can
contact, as follow:
Administrative Control Agency
Ministry of Justice
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Commerce and Industry
Consumer Protection and Prevention of Monopoly Agency
Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics
Information and Decision Support Center, at the Cabinet
Other structures that are concerned with enhancing integrity and fighting corruption.
The research study pays special attention to citing the contact information of different relevant
governmental agencies, including:
Public Fund Policing
Universal Commercial Chambers Federation
Central Bank of Egypt
Public Agency for Combating Illicit Gains
Public Service Network
Other governmental agencies