Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M am luk (Arabic: mamlk (singular), mamlk (plural), meaning "property" or "ow ned slave" of the king, also
transliterated as mamlouk, mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke or marmeluke) is an Arabic designation f or
slaves.
More specif ically, it ref ers to:
Khw arazmian dynasty in Persia (10771231)
Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi) (12061290)
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) (12501517)
Mamluk dynasty of Iraq (17041831, under Ottoman Iraq)
The most enduring Mamluk realm w as the military caste in medieval Egypt that rose f rom the
ranks of slave soldiers w ho w ere mainly Turkic,[1] Circassian,[2] Georgian,[3][4][5] and Coptic
Egyptian.[6] Many Mamluks could also be of Balkan origin (Albanian, Greek, and South Slavic).
[7][8]
The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specif ic w arrior
class,[9] w as of great political importance and w as extraordinarily long-lived, lasting f rom the
9th to the 19th centuries AD.
Over time, mamluks became a pow erf ul military caste in various societies that w ere controlled
by Muslim rulers. Particularly in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and India, mamluks
held political and military pow er. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, w hile in others
they held regional pow er as amirs or beys. Most notably, mamluk f actions seized the sultanate f or themselves in Egypt and
Syria in a period know n as the Mamluk Sultanate (12501517). The Mamluk Sultanate f amously beat back the troops of the
Ilkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut and f ought the Crusaders, eff ectively driving them out f rom the Levant and Egypt in
1213-1221 and 1154-1169 then off icially in 1302 f rom the Levant ending the era of the Crusades. [10]
While mamluks w ere purchased, their status w as above ordinary slaves, w ho w ere not allow ed to carry w eapons or perf orm
certain tasks. In places such as Egypt f rom the Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks w ere
considered to be true lords" and "true w arriors" w ith social status above the general population in Egypt and the Levant.[6][11]
Overview
[ edit ]
The origins of the mamluk system are disputed. Historians agree that the story of an
entrenched military caste like the mamluks in Islamic societies begins w ith the 9th century
Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The question is more precisely w hen in the 9th century. The
dominant view up to the 1990s w as that the earliest mamluks w ere know n as ghilman (another
term f or slaves, broadly synonymous [12]) and w ere bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especially
al-Mu'tasim (833-842). By the end of the 9th century, these slaves had become the dominant
element in the military. Conf lict betw een these ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted
the caliph al-Mu'tasim to move his capital to the city of Samarra, but this did not succeed in
calming tensions; the caliph al-Mutaw akkil w as assassinated by some of these slave-soldiers
in 861 (see Anarchy at Samarra).[13] A more recent interpretation w ould distinguish betw een a
ghilman system, in Samarra, w ithout training and relying on pre-existing Central Asian
hierarchies, mixing adult slaves and f reemen, and a later creation of an actual mamluk system,
w ith the systematic training of young slaves, af ter the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the
870's.[14] The Mamluk system w ould have been a small-scale experiment of al-Muw aff aq,
combining the eff iciency as w arriors w ith improved reliability. This recent interpretation seems
to have been accepted.[15]
Af ter the f ragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, know n as either mamluks or Ghilman, became the basis of
military pow er throughout the Islamic w orld. The Fatimids of Egypt had f orcibly taken Armenian,
Turkic, Sudanese and Coptic Egyptian adolescents f rom their f amilies in order to be trained as
slave soldiers, w ho f ormed the bulk of their military and of ten their administration. [16] The
pow erf ul vizier Badr al-Jamali, f or example, w as a mamluk of Armenian origin. In Iran and Iraq,
the Buyids used Turkic slaves throughout their empire, such as the rebel al-Basasiri w ho
eventually ushered in Saljuq rule in Baghdad af ter attempting a f ailed rebellion. When the later
Abbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the military slaves called
Ghilman.[17]
Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the pow er of the mamluks increased until they
claimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the Mamluk Sultanate.[6] Military slavery continued to be
employed throughout the Islamic w orld until the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire's devirme,
or "gathering" of young slaves f or the Janissary corps, lasted until the 17th century, w hile
mamluk-based regimes thrived in such Ottoman provinces of the Levant and Egypt until the 19th
century.
Organization
[ edit ]
Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks w ere purchased w hile still young and w ere
raised in the barracks of the Citadel of Cairo. Because of their particular status (no social ties
or political aff iliations) and their austere military training, they w ere of ten trusted as their
training consisted of strict military education.[11] When their training w as completed they w ere
discharged, but remained still attached to the patron w ho had purchased them. Mamluks relied
on the help of their patron f or career advancement and likew ise the patrons reputation and
pow er depended on his recruits. A Mamluk w as also "bound by a strong esprit de corps to his
peers in the same household." [11]
Mamluks lived w ithin their garrisons and mainly spent their time w ith each other. Their
entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of
Ottoman Mamluk heav y
cav alry armour, circa 1550
mounted combat skills at least once a w eek. The intensive and rigorous training of each new
recruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices.[6]
Sultans had the largest number of mamluks, but lesser amirs could have their ow n troops as
w ell. Many Mamluks rose to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. [6] At f irst their status remained
non-hereditary and they w ere strictly prevented f rom f ollow ing their f ather's role of lif e. How ever, over time, in places such
as Egypt, the Mamluk f orces became linked to existing pow er structures and gained signif icant amounts of inf luence on those
pow ers.[6]
[ edit ]
In Egypt, Georgian mamluks retained their native language, w ere aw are of the politics of the Caucasus region, received
f requent visits f rom their parents or other relatives, and sent gif ts to f amily members or gave money to build usef ul structures
(a def ensive tow er, or even a church) in their native villages in Georgia.[18]
Egypt
[ edit ]
[ edit ]
Throughout the past centuries, Egypt w as controlled by the rulers notably the Ikhshidids, Fatimids and Ayyubids. Throughout
these dynasties, thousands of mamluk servants and guards continued to be employed, and even took high off ices. This
increasing level of inf luence w orried the Ayyubids in particular, f oreshadow ing the eventual rise of a Mamluk sultan.[6][19]
According to Fabri a historian, had asserted that mamluks of Egyptian origin w ere all Christian born then became renegades by
f orce once they w ere f orcibly taken f rom their f amily.[6] Although Egyptian mamluks came f rom Christian f amilies, they w ere
also believed by Islamic rulers to be not either true believers of Islam despite f ighting as slave soldiers on behalf of the Islamic
empire.[6]
By 1200 Saladin's brother Al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the w hole empire
by def eating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephew s in turn. With each
victory Al-Adil incorporated the def eated mamluk retinue into his ow n. This process
w as repeated at Al-Adil's death in 1218, and at his son Al-Kamil's death in 1238. The
Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the pow er of the mamluks, acting
semi-autonomously as regional atabegs, and soon involved them in the internal court
politics of the kingdom itself .[6]
[ edit ]
In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took
Damietta. The Egyptian troops retreated at f irst, spurring the sultan to hang more than
50 commanders as deserters. When the Egyptian sultan As-Salih Ayyub died, the
pow er passed brief ly to his son Turanshah and then his f avorite w if e, the Armenian
Shajar al-Durr (or Shajarat-ul-Dur). She took control w ith mamluk support and launched
a counterattack. Troops of the Bahri commander Baibars def eated Louis's troops. The
king delayed his retreat too long and w as captured by the Mamluks in March 1250, and
agreed to a ransom of 400,000 livres (150,000 of w hich w ere never paid).[20] Political
pressure f or a male leader made Shajar marry the mamluk commander Aybak; he w as
later killed in his bath, and in the pow er struggle that ensued vice-regent Qutuz took
over. He f ormally f ounded the f irst Mamluk sultanate and the Bahri dynasty.
The f irst Mamluk dynasty w as named Bahri af ter the name of one of the regiments, the
Bahriya or River Island regiment. The Arabic name Bahri ( Arabic: meaning "of the
sea or river"in Arabic) ref erred to their center in al-Rodah Island in the Nile. The
Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan
Hassan (lef t) along with the later
Al-Rif a'i Mosque (right) and two
Ottoman mosques (f oreground)
Cairo
[ edit ]
When the Mongol Empire's troops of Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 and
advanced tow ards Syria, Mamluk Emir Baibars lef t Damascus f or Cairo w here he w as
w elcomed by Sultan Qutuz.[22] Af ter taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz
surrender Egypt but Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, w ith Baibars' help, mobilized
his troops. Although Hulagu pulled the majority of his f orces out of Syria to attend the
kurultai w hen great Khan Mngke died in action against the Southern Song, he lef t his
Mamluk-Sy rian glassware v essels
f rom the 14th century ; in the course
of trade, the middle v ase shown
ended up in Yemen and then China.
lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge w ith a token f orce of about 18,000 men as a
garrison.[23] Qutuz drew the Ilkhanate army into an ambush near the Orontes River,
routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 and captured and executed Kitbuqa (see
Qutuz).
Af ter this great triumph, Qutuz w as assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It w as said
that Baibars, w ho seized pow er, w as involved in the assassination. In the f ollow ing centuries the rule of mamluks w as
discontinuous, w ith an average span of seven years.
The Mamluks def eated the Ilkhanates a second time in the First Battle of Homs and began to drive them back east. In the
process they consolidated their pow er over Syria, f ortif ied the area, and f ormed mail routes and diplomatic connections
betw een the local princes. Baibars's troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesarea in 1265, and took Antioch in 1268.
Mamluks also def eated new Ilkhanate attacks in Syria in 1271 and 1281 (Second Battle of Homs). They w ere def eated by the
Ilkhanates and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, but soon af ter that the Mamluks def eated the
Ilkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanates and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323.
Burji dynasty
[ edit ]
By the late f ourteenth century, Circassians f rom the North Caucasus region had become the
majority in the Mamluk ranks.[2] In 1382 the Burji dynasty took over, as Barkuk w as proclaimed
sultan, so ending the Bahri dynasty. Burji (Arabic: Burji is an Arabic term meaning "of the
tow er") ref erred to their center in the citadel of Cairo. The dynasty consisted mainly of
Circassians.
Barkuk became an enemy of Timur, w ho threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria,
sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus af ter def eating the Mamluk army. The Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire Bayezid I then invaded Syria w hich w as regained by the Mamluk sultan Faraj
w hen Timur died in 1405, but continually f acing rebellions f rom local emirs, he w as f orced to
abdicate in 1412. In 1421, Egypt w as attacked by the Kingdom of Cyprus, but the Egyptians
f orced the Cypriotes to acknow ledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan Barsbay. During
Barsbay's reign Egypt's population w as greatly reduced f rom w hat it had been a f ew centuries
bef ore, w ith only 1/5 the number of tow ns.
Al-Ashraf came to pow er in 1453 and had f riendly relations w ith the Ottoman Empire, w ho
captured Constantinople later that year, causing great rejoicings in Egypt. How ever, under the
reign of Khoshqadam Egypt began the struggle betw een the Egyptian and the Ottoman sultanates. In 1467 sultan Kait Bey
off ended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II, w hose brother w as poisoned. Bayezid II seized Adana, Tarsus and other places
w ithin Egyptian territory, but w as eventually def eated. Kait also tried to help the Muslims in Spain by threatening the Christians
in Syria, but w ithout eff ect. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great Venetian trading f amilies.
Portuguese-Mamluk Wars
[ edit ]
Vasco da Gama having in 1497 f ound his w ay round the Cape of Good Hope pushed his w ay across the Indian Ocean to the
shores of Malabar and Kozhikode, attacking the f leets that carried f reight and Muslim pilgrims f rom India to the Red Sea, and
struck terror into the potentates all around. Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh
al-Ghaw ri w as aff ronted at the attacks upon the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traff ic, the indignities to w hich Mecca and its
port w ere subjected, and above all at the f ate of one of his ships. He vow ed vengeance upon Portugal, f irst sending monks
f rom the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as envoys, he threatened Pope Julius II that if he did not check Manuel I of Portugal in
his depredations on the Indian Sea, he w ould destroy all Christian holy places. [24]
The rulers of Gujarat and Yemen also turned f or help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Their chief concern w as the f itting-out of
a f leet in the Red Sea w hich could protect their sea routes f rom Portuguese attack. Jeddah w as soon f ortif ied as a harbor of
ref uge so Arabia and the Red Sea w ere protected, but the f leets in the Indian Ocean w ere at the mercy of the enemy.
The last Mamluk sultan Al-Ghaw ri accordingly f itted out a f leet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval w arf are,
the naval enterprise w as carried out w ith the help of the Ottomans. [25] In 1508 at the Battle of Chaul the Mamluk f leet w on over
the Portuguese viceroy's son Loureno de Almeida, but in the f ollow ing year the Portuguese w on the Battle of Diu in w hich the
Port city of Diu w as w rested f rom the Gujarat Sultanate. Some years af ter, Af onso de Albuquerque attacked Aden, w hile the
Egyptian troops suff ered disaster in Yemen. Al-Ghaw ri f itted out a new f leet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade;
but bef ore its results w ere know n, Egypt had lost her sovereignty, and the Red Sea w ith Mecca and all its Arabian interests
had passed into the hands of the Ottoman Empire.
[ edit ]
The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II w as engaged in Europe w hen a new era of hostility w ith Egypt appeared in 1501. It arose out
of the relations w ith the Saf avid dynasty in Persia. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, inviting
Venice to ally w ith Persia and recover her territory taken by the Ottomans. Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghaw ri w as charged
by Selim I w ith giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their w ay to Venice and harboring ref ugees. To appease
him, Al-Ghaw ri placed in conf inement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but af ter a year released them. [26]
Af ter the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim attacked the bey of Dulkadirids, as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof , and sent his
head to Al-Ghaw ri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he f ormed a great army f or the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that
he intended f urther attacks on Persia.
In 1515, Selim began the w ar w hich led to the conquest Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match f or the
Ottoman artillery and Janissary inf antry. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, Sultan Al-Ghaw ri w as killed. Syria
passed into Turkish possession, an event w elcomed in many places as it w as seen as deliverance f rom the Mamelukes. [26]
The Mamluke Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, w hen Selim captured Cairo on 20 January. Although not in the same f orm
as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji
f amily succeeded in regaining much of their inf luence, but as vassals of the Ottomans. [26][27]
[ edit ]
In 1768, Sultan Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence f rom the Ottomans. How ever,
the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position af ter his def eat. By this
time new slave recruits w ere introduced f rom Georgia in the Caucasus.
Napole on invade s
[ edit ]
survivors out to Upper Egypt. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed
only by the addition of musket. The French inf antry f ormed square and held f irm.
Despite multiple victories and an initially successf ul expedition into Syria, mounting
conf lict in Europe and the earlier def eat of the supporting French f leet by the British
Royal Navy at the Battle of the Nile decided the issue.
On 14 September 1799 General Jean Baptiste Klber established a mounted company
of Mamluk auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries f rom Turkish troops captured at the siege
of Acre. Menou reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, f orming 3 companies of 100
men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la Rpublique". In 1801 General Jean Rapp w as sent to Marseille to organize a
squadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order w as canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The
list of eff ectives on 21 April 1802 reveals 3 off icers and 155 other ranks. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks w ere
organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs--Cheval of the Imperial Guard (see Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard).
Napoleon lef t w ith his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General Jean Baptiste Klber, w as assassinated
on 14 June 1800. Command of the Army in Egypt f ell to Jacques-Franois Menou. Isolated and out of supplies, Menou
surrendered to the British in 1801.
After Napoleon
[ edit ]
Af ter the departure of French troops in 1801 Mamluks continued their struggle f or independence, this time against the Ottoman
Empire and Great Britain. In 1803, Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Beg and Usman Beg w rote a letter to the Russian consul-general
and asked him to act as a mediator w ith the Sultan to allow them to negotiate f or a cease-f ire, and a return to their homeland
Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Constantinople categorically ref used to mediate because the Russian government w as
af raid of allow ing Mamluks to return to Georgia, w here a strong national liberation movement w as on the rise that might have
been encouraged by a Mamluk return.[26]
In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This w as an excellent opportunity f or the Mamluks to seize pow er, but internal
tension and betrayal prevented them f rom exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamluks def eated the Turkish f orces several
times, and in June the rival parties concluded a peace treaty by w hich Muhammad Ali, w ho had been appointed as governor of
Egypt on 26 March 1806, w as to be removed and the state authority in Egypt w as returned to the Mamluks. How ever, they
w ere again unable to capitalize on the opportunity due to conf licts theref ore Muhammad Ali kept his authority over them. [6]
[ edit ]
Muhammad Ali knew that he w ould have to deal w ith the Mamluks if he w anted to
control Egypt. They w ere still the f eudal ow ners of Egypt and their land w as still the
source of w ealth and pow er. How ever the economic strain of sustaining the military
manpow er necessary to def end the Mamluks's system f rom the Europeans and Turks
w ould eventually w eaken them to the point of collapse.[28]
On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to
celebrate the declaration of w ar against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Betw een 600 and 700
Mamluks paraded in Cairo. Near the Al-Azab gates, in a narrow road dow n f rom
Mukatam Hill, Muhammad Ali's f orces ambushed and killed almost all, in w hat came to be
know n as the Massacre of the Citadel. According to contemporary reports, only one
Mamluk, w hose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a Besleney), survived w hen he f orced his horse
to leap f rom the w alls of the citadel.[29]
During the f ollow ing w eek an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives w ere killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad's
regular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died.
Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and f led south into w hat is now Sudan.
In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at Dunqulah in the Sennar as a base f or their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of
Sennar inf ormed Muhammad Ali that he w as unable to comply w ith a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the pasha
sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it f or Egypt. The pasha's f orces received the submission of
the kashif , dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered Kordof an, and accepted Sennar's surrender f rom the last Funj sultan,
Badi VII.
[ edit ]
There w ere various places in w hich mamluks gained political or military pow er as a self -replicating military community.
South Asia
[ edit ]
In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim f orces in the Indian subcontinent, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, proclaimed himself Sultan,
becoming in eff ect the f irst independent Sultan-e-Hind. This Mamluk Sultanate lasted until 1290.
Iraq
[ edit ]
Mamluk corps w ere f irst introduced in Iraq by Hasan Pasha of Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq w as ruled, w ith short
intermissions, by Mamluk off icers of Georgian origin[4][30] w ho succeeded in asserting autonomy f rom the Sublime Porte,
suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the pow er of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of
the economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans overthrew Daw ud Pasha, the last Mamluk ruler, and imposed direct control
over Iraq.[31]
Mamluk rulers
In Egypt
[ edit ]
[ edit ]
A Mamluk on horseback,
with a Piton or f oot Mamluk,
and a Bedouin Arab soldier,
1804
In India
[ edit ]
In Iraq
[ edit ]
In Acre
[ edit ]
[ edit ]
The term Mamluk became know n throughout Europe f ollow ing the Ottoman conquests of Egypt and the Levant in 15161517. It
w as used as a derogatory term in Geneva, just prior to the overthrow of Savoy rule in 1526 by the supporters of Philibert
Berthelier, to describe the f action in the state council that advocated the continued rule of the Savoy dynasty. As Mamluk
means "slaves of the king", the republican f action in Geneva used it to suggest that the supporters of Savoy rule w ere the
enemies of f reedom.
[ edit ]
The f ollow ing terms originally come f rom either Turkish or Ottoman language (it is developed f orm of Turkish) that is composed
of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian w ords and grammar structures.
Englis h
Arabic
Note s
The mark or signature of the Sultan put on his decrees, letters and
Alama Sultaniya
Al-Nafir al-Am
Amir
Prince
Amir Akhur
Amir Majlis
Atab ek
Astadar
Barid Jawi
Bayt al-Mal
treasury
Cheshmeh
Dawadar
Fondok
Hajib
Iqta
Jamkiya
Jashnakir
Food taster of the sultan (to assure his beer w as not poisoned)
Jomdar
Kafel al-mamalek
al-sharifah al-islamiya
al-amir al-amri
Khan
documents.
Khaskiya
Khastakhaneh
Khond
Khushdashiya
Mahkamat al-Mazalim
Mamalik Sultaneya
Modwarat al-Sultan
Mohtaseb
Morqadar
Mushrif
Na'ib Al-Sultan
Vice-sultan
Qa'at al-insha'a
Chancery hall
Qadi al-Qoda
Chief justice
Qalat al-Jab al
Citadel of the Mountain (the abode and court of the sultan in Cairo)
Qaranisa
Qussad
Ostaz
Rank
Sanjaqi
Sharab khana
Silihdar
Tab alkhana
Tashrif
Tawashi
Teb aq
Tishtkhana
Wali
responsible f or the f ow l)
Yuq
and sheets. (Related to the present Crimean Tatar w ord Yuqa, "to
sleep". In modern Turkish: Yklk.)
Gallery
[ edit ]
10
Portrait of a
A Mamluk
Armenian
Soldiers of Napoleon's
Mamluk, 1779
cavalryman,
mamluk
62me rgiment de
drawing by Carle
Roustam Raza
Vernet, 1810
was Napoleon's
(historical
personal
reenactment)
bodyguard;
portrait by
Jacques-Nicolas
Paillot de
Montabert
11