Rheologically Stable, Nontoxic,

HighTemperature, WaterBased
Drilling Fluid
Julianne ElwardBerry, SPE, Exxon Production Research Co., and J.B. Darby, SPE, Exxon Co. U.S.A.

Summary
An exceptionally stable, high-temperature, water-based drilling
fluid has been developed based on a fundamental redesign of drilling fluid components and functions, while still using commercially
available materials. Rheological stability was characterized by extensive Fann 50C low-shear-rate viscosity vs. temperature studies
and supporting viscoelastic rheological data. The fluid has been
used in both offshore and land applications, at temperatures as high
as 420F and densities as high as 15.5 lbm/gal.

lar, wells may experience hard-brine influxes, both in the intermediate section (near 16,000 ft) and in the production hole [near total
depth (TD)]. In addition, there exists a strong susceptibility for carbonate contamination of drilling fluid at high temperature, both
from external CO2 influxes from acid-gas intervals and from in-situgenerated CO2 caused by product degradation, particularly with lignite-containing materials.2 Flocculation-controlled rheology and
highly-flocculated filter cakes are the response of traditional freshwater, high-temperature fluids to carbonates.

Introduction
Oil-based or selected synthetic drilling fluids are traditionally selected when drilling wells with bottomhole temperatures between
300 and 500F because they are stable throughout this temperature
range, resulting in consistent and predictable fluid properties with
minimum treatment and operating costs.
In certain instances, however, environmental, logistical, or cost
considerations make water-based fluids desirable even in the hightemperature environment. This paper describes laboratory development and subsequent field experience that enabled the effective use
of a water-based fluid in Exxons drilling operations at Mobile Bay,
as well as in other drilling operations. Mobile Bay operations comprise a deep, sour-dry-gas objective in the Norphlet aeolian sandstone, located in a series of periodic crested dunes below 21,000 ft
and at temperatures typically at or above 400F.

WBHT (WaterBased, HighTemperature) Fluid

We report the development in the laboratory and the application in
the field of a water-based drilling fluid (WBHT)3 that eliminates the
problem of bentonite flocculation. Fig. 2 contains a comparison of
bottoms-up properties of a WBHT field sample from a Mobile Bay
well, taken at a similar depth and density as the CLS-ML example
in Fig. 1. The lack of gelation during a trip is evident.
Based on extensive laboratory data, WBHT appears to be applicable for wells with temperatures to 475F at densities up to
"16 lbm/gal, and up to 400F at higher density. Field applications
so far have been limited to two regimes: 420F with 12.5 lbm/gal
fluid and 370F with 15.5 lbm/gal fluid. In addition, WBHT has
been shown to be very stable in the presence of high levels of salinity
and hardness, and relatively insensitive to carbonate contamination.

Technical Challenges
The technical challenges facing the development of a water-based
drilling-fluid system for hot, acid-gas reservoirs include temperatureinduced gelation, contamination from saline or hard-brine influxes,
the presence of CO2 and H2S in formation fluids, and environmental
compatibility. Because a description of these challenges and a brief
history of water-based drilling-fluid technology were contained in an
earlier review article,1 no further discussion follows.
Temperature-induced gelation occurs with drilling fluids that rely
on bentonite clay for both rheological and filtration control. At temperatures above 250F, slurries of bentonite begin to thicken catastrophically. On average, when a trip is made out of a deep, high-temperature well, the fluid left on bottom will be so excessively thickened
when it is pumped to the surface (bottoms-up) that extensive circulating and conditioning and discarding of several hundred barrels of
the bottoms-up portion of the fluid are usually required. The funnel
viscosity (FV) will typically be well over 100 sec/qt. As an example
of this gelation phenomenon, Fig. 1 contains the fluid properties of
a Mobile Bay drilling fluid based on traditional clay/lignosulfonate/
modified-lignite technology (CLS-ML). In Fig. 1, the bottoms-up
properties were consistently elevated compared to circulating properties, with a measured FV of 136 sec/qt.
Contaminants are a particular problem with deep, high-temperature wells. There is greater potential for contamination because of
the number of days that a particular interval is open, because of slow
drilling rate, and because of the nature of the older fractured formations. Saline or hard-brine influxes may occur in many limestone
formations of heterogeneous permeability. Occasional salt stringers
may also be encountered in deep sections. In Mobile Bay, in particuCopyright 1997 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review 6 July 1993. Paper peer approved 9 June 1997.
Paper (SPE 24589) first presented at the 1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Washington, D.C., 47 October.

158

Laboratory Development
On the basis of a review of available drilling-fluid technology, rheological control appeared to be the most difficult challenge for hightemperature fluid development. Several new temperature-stable,
high-temperature filtration control (HTFC) polymers, which provided suitable filtration control, had appeared on the market.4-8 To
provide thermal stability at the fundamental or colloid particle level,
the search for a high-temperature deflocculant that would solve the
gelation and flocculation problem was abandoned as a solution.
Instead, a fluid was designed that was rheologically-stable without
the aid of deflocculants, yet would still tolerate 6 to 8 vol% drilled
solids. The WBHT fluid employed a low concentration of bentonite
clay and a minimum number of other additives, each with a clearly
defined function.
To simulate long-term fluid performance in a hot hole, an extensive study was made with the Fann 50C rheometer of low-shear-rate
effective viscosity (typically at 60 rev/min or 100 seconds1) vs.
temperature, particularly after hot-roll aging at anticipated bottomhole temperature. The laboratory rule of thumb for these curves was
that an effective viscosity (at 100 seconds1) between 50 cp and
100 cp would be acceptable.
Principles. The working hypothesis for the fluid design was that
temperature-induced dispersion of clays in the fluid was responsible
for system instability. A fundamentally stable fluid must be designed to take advantage of this phenomenon, not to fight it. With
this in mind, a logical three-part solution to the high-temperature
rheology problem resulted, as outlined below.
1. Select the clay concentration for the bottom of the hole to provide sufficient suspension and carrying capacity after aging at the
bottom of the hole during a trip. Clay slurries thicken substantially
with increasing temperature.
2. Add a complementary viscosifier to provide carrying capacity
at the surface as well as constant rheology throughout the temperaSPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997

ture-induced gelation and flocculation. Neither of these occurred

with the WBHT drilling fluid.
Economic Considerations. On a per-barrel basis, WBHT costs U.S.
$30 to $50, depending upon HTFC polymer selected. Although these
figures are more expensive than some water-based fluids, they are
substantially less than oil-based fluids. The cost of using WBHT improved from well to well in Mobile Bay drilling, as confidence in its
superior stability developed and the introduction of in-situ conversion
and relaxed fluid-loss guidelines occurred. Interval costs were reduced to one-third to one-half of the first well, for both vertical and
directional wells, during the development drilling program.
Conclusions
1. A drilling fluid, referred to as WBHT, was designed from fundamental principles, based on the hypothesis that temperature-induced dispersion of clay solids was the root cause of high-temperature water-based drilling-fluid instability.
2. A stable low-shear-rate rheology vs. temperature profile was
confirmed by both laboratory tests and field experience at temperatures up to 425F and fluid densities from 11 to 15.5 lbm/gal.
3. Three fundamental criteria were employed in the WBHT-fluid
design. Within this framework, select commercially available, lowtoxicity components were required.
4. Contrary to traditional drilling fluid practice, the WBHT fluid
was designed for a saline medium, to reduce high-temperature effects and to desensitize the fluid to salinity variation while drilling.
5. On the basis of several successful field tests, the WBHT drilling fluid could be prepared in situ while drilling, beginning with a
spud mud.
6. WBHT-fluid stability was maintained with a significantly
lower treatment rate than traditional CLS-ML fluids, and registered
somewhat lower interval cost on a cost per foot basis than oil-based
fluids, indicative of its similar stability.

6. Hille, M.: Vinylsulfonate/Vinylamide Co-polymers in Drilling Fluids

for Deep, High-Temperature Wells, SPE 13558 (April 1985).
7. Clements, W.R., Nevins, M.J., and Scearce, F.A.: Electrolyte-Tolerant
Polymers for High-Temperature Drilling Fluids, SPE 13614 (March
1985).
8. Plank, J.P. and Hamburger, J.V.: Field Experience with a Novel Calcium-tolerant Fluid-Loss Additive for Drilling Muds, SPE 18372 (October 1988).
9. Chow, T.W. et al.: The Rheological Properties of Cement Slurries: Effects of Vibration, Hydration Conditions, and Additives, SPEPE (November 1988) 543550.
10. van Olphen, H.: An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry, Second Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977, Chapter 3.
11. Darley, C.H. and Gray, G.R.: Composition and Properties of Drilling
and Completion Fluids, Fifth Edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1988, Chapter 6.
12. Speers, R.A.: Drilling Fluid Shear Stress Overshoot Behavior, Rheologica Acta 26 (1987) 447452.
13. Longwell, H.J. III, Grieve, D.V., and Raque, A.K.; Economic and Environmentally Beneficial Reuse of Drilling Waste, SPE 25929, March
1993.
14. Otto, M.G. and Norfleet, J.E.: An Environmentally Acceptable Water
Base Fluid Successfully Conquers Hostile Downhole Conditions,
1992 AADE Technology Conference.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

bbl 1.589 873
E*01 +m3
cp 1.0*
E*03 +Pa@s
ft 3.048*
E*01 +m
ft2 9.290 304* E*02 +m2
F (F*32)/1.8
+C
gal 3.785 412
E*03 +m3
in. 2.54*
E)00 +cm
lbm 4.535 924
E*01 +kg
*Conversion factor is exact.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the management of Exxon Production Research Co. and Exxon Co. U.S.A. for permission to publish this paper. We also thank David Carbajal, who performed the laboratory
experiments; T.W. Chow and L.V. McIntire of Rice U., who performed the viscoelastic measurements; and the Exxon Co. U.S.A.
and service company operating personnel who assisted with the early field tests of the WBHT system.
References
1. Plank, Johann P.: Water-Based Muds Using Synthetic Polymers Developed for High Temperature Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal (2 March
1992) 40.
2. Frost, C.M., Hoeppner, J.J., and Fowkes, W.W.: Source and Some General Properties of Humic Acids from Lignitic Materials, Journal of
Chemical and Engineering Data 4 (1959) 173176.
3. Elward-Berry, J.: Rheologically-Stable Water-Based High-Temperature Drilling Fluid, US Patent 5,179,076, issued January 12, 1993; US
Patent 5,244,877, issued 14 September 1993.
4. Son, A.J., Ballard, T.M., and Loftin, R.E.: Temperature-Stable Polymeric Fluid-Loss Reducer Tolerant to High Electrolyte Contamination, SPEDE (September 1987) 209.
5. Perricone, A.C., Enright, D.P., and Lucas, J.M.: Vinyl-Sulfonate Copolymers for High-Temperature Filtration Control of Water-Base Muds,
SPEDE (October 1986).

162

SPEDC

Julianne ElwardBerry is a senior research specialist in the Drilling

and Completions Div. of Exxon Production Research Co. in
Houston. She joined Exxon in 1980, and has worked since 1986
in drilling research, where her interests include development of
environmentally compatible drilling and completion fluids for
challenging well applications. She holds BS and MS degrees in
chemistry from the U. of California, Berkeley, and a PhD degree
in physical chemistry from the U. of Wisconsin, Madison. John B.
Darby is a division staff engineer in the Exxon U.S.A. Drilling Orga
nization of Exxon Co. U.S.A. He joined Exxon in 1973 and has
been in drilling engineering since 1977. He has worked on deep
highpressure drilling and snubbing operations in Louisiana and
offshore Gulf of Mexico, as well as on deep sourgas drilling op
erations in the Tuscaloosa trend of Louisiana; south Jackson,
Mississippi area; and Mobile Bay area of Alabama. He holds a
BS degree in civil engineering from the U. of Minnesota.
Photograph is unavailable.

SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997

ture-induced gelation and flocculation. Neither of these occurred

with the WBHT drilling fluid.
Economic Considerations. On a per-barrel basis, WBHT costs U.S.
$30 to $50, depending upon HTFC polymer selected. Although these
figures are more expensive than some water-based fluids, they are
substantially less than oil-based fluids. The cost of using WBHT improved from well to well in Mobile Bay drilling, as confidence in its
superior stability developed and the introduction of in-situ conversion
and relaxed fluid-loss guidelines occurred. Interval costs were reduced to one-third to one-half of the first well, for both vertical and
directional wells, during the development drilling program.
Conclusions
1. A drilling fluid, referred to as WBHT, was designed from fundamental principles, based on the hypothesis that temperature-induced dispersion of clay solids was the root cause of high-temperature water-based drilling-fluid instability.
2. A stable low-shear-rate rheology vs. temperature profile was
confirmed by both laboratory tests and field experience at temperatures up to 425F and fluid densities from 11 to 15.5 lbm/gal.
3. Three fundamental criteria were employed in the WBHT-fluid
design. Within this framework, select commercially available, lowtoxicity components were required.
4. Contrary to traditional drilling fluid practice, the WBHT fluid
was designed for a saline medium, to reduce high-temperature effects and to desensitize the fluid to salinity variation while drilling.
5. On the basis of several successful field tests, the WBHT drilling fluid could be prepared in situ while drilling, beginning with a
spud mud.
6. WBHT-fluid stability was maintained with a significantly
lower treatment rate than traditional CLS-ML fluids, and registered
somewhat lower interval cost on a cost per foot basis than oil-based
fluids, indicative of its similar stability.

6. Hille, M.: Vinylsulfonate/Vinylamide Co-polymers in Drilling Fluids

for Deep, High-Temperature Wells, SPE 13558 (April 1985).
7. Clements, W.R., Nevins, M.J., and Scearce, F.A.: Electrolyte-Tolerant
Polymers for High-Temperature Drilling Fluids, SPE 13614 (March
1985).
8. Plank, J.P. and Hamburger, J.V.: Field Experience with a Novel Calcium-tolerant Fluid-Loss Additive for Drilling Muds, SPE 18372 (October 1988).
9. Chow, T.W. et al.: The Rheological Properties of Cement Slurries: Effects of Vibration, Hydration Conditions, and Additives, SPEPE (November 1988) 543550.
10. van Olphen, H.: An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry, Second Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977, Chapter 3.
11. Darley, C.H. and Gray, G.R.: Composition and Properties of Drilling
and Completion Fluids, Fifth Edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1988, Chapter 6.
12. Speers, R.A.: Drilling Fluid Shear Stress Overshoot Behavior, Rheologica Acta 26 (1987) 447452.
13. Longwell, H.J. III, Grieve, D.V., and Raque, A.K.; Economic and Environmentally Beneficial Reuse of Drilling Waste, SPE 25929, March
1993.
14. Otto, M.G. and Norfleet, J.E.: An Environmentally Acceptable Water
Base Fluid Successfully Conquers Hostile Downhole Conditions,
1992 AADE Technology Conference.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

bbl 1.589 873
E*01 +m3
cp 1.0*
E*03 +Pa@s
ft 3.048*
E*01 +m
ft2 9.290 304* E*02 +m2
F (F*32)/1.8
+C
gal 3.785 412
E*03 +m3
in. 2.54*
E)00 +cm
lbm 4.535 924
E*01 +kg
*Conversion factor is exact.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the management of Exxon Production Research Co. and Exxon Co. U.S.A. for permission to publish this paper. We also thank David Carbajal, who performed the laboratory
experiments; T.W. Chow and L.V. McIntire of Rice U., who performed the viscoelastic measurements; and the Exxon Co. U.S.A.
and service company operating personnel who assisted with the early field tests of the WBHT system.
References
1. Plank, Johann P.: Water-Based Muds Using Synthetic Polymers Developed for High Temperature Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal (2 March
1992) 40.
2. Frost, C.M., Hoeppner, J.J., and Fowkes, W.W.: Source and Some General Properties of Humic Acids from Lignitic Materials, Journal of
Chemical and Engineering Data 4 (1959) 173176.
3. Elward-Berry, J.: Rheologically-Stable Water-Based High-Temperature Drilling Fluid, US Patent 5,179,076, issued January 12, 1993; US
Patent 5,244,877, issued 14 September 1993.
4. Son, A.J., Ballard, T.M., and Loftin, R.E.: Temperature-Stable Polymeric Fluid-Loss Reducer Tolerant to High Electrolyte Contamination, SPEDE (September 1987) 209.
5. Perricone, A.C., Enright, D.P., and Lucas, J.M.: Vinyl-Sulfonate Copolymers for High-Temperature Filtration Control of Water-Base Muds,
SPEDE (October 1986).

162

SPEDC

Julianne ElwardBerry is a senior research specialist in the Drilling

and Completions Div. of Exxon Production Research Co. in
Houston. She joined Exxon in 1980, and has worked since 1986
in drilling research, where her interests include development of
environmentally compatible drilling and completion fluids for
challenging well applications. She holds BS and MS degrees in
chemistry from the U. of California, Berkeley, and a PhD degree
in physical chemistry from the U. of Wisconsin, Madison. John B.
Darby is a division staff engineer in the Exxon U.S.A. Drilling Orga
nization of Exxon Co. U.S.A. He joined Exxon in 1973 and has
been in drilling engineering since 1977. He has worked on deep
highpressure drilling and snubbing operations in Louisiana and
offshore Gulf of Mexico, as well as on deep sourgas drilling op
erations in the Tuscaloosa trend of Louisiana; south Jackson,
Mississippi area; and Mobile Bay area of Alabama. He holds a
BS degree in civil engineering from the U. of Minnesota.
Photograph is unavailable.

SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997