Brush up your maths

An access course for H. E. Engineering.

by
Dr. D. Baxter
of
Mid Cheshire College

Acknowledgements
A work of this kind is necessarily derivative and the author acknowledges
the influence of established writers in the field of engineering
mathematics, such as A Greer and G W Taylor, J O Bird and A J C May,
J C Yates and R Sutherland, D Howell and A Wolf, whose books are
recommended to the reader for further study.
Every effort has been made to obtain permission to reproduce copyright,
but if any copyright material has been inadvertently included please get in
touch with Aimhigher (Cheshire and Warrington ) with a view to
correcting this.
The development time was funded by Aimhigher of Cheshire and
Warrington and provided by Mid Cheshire College, whose students
represented a captive audience!

Introduction
This E-book is intended to provide a grounding in some of the
mathematics needed to study Engineering at degree level. As such it is
very focussed upon the basic ideas in each area of mathematics covered.
It is novel in as much as the reader is expected to use modern methods

-1-

of calculation and graphing such as Excel and to access interactive

internet mathematics sites in order to check calculations. In each section
there are worked examples , practice examples and appropriate
engineering problems.

CONTENTS
Chapter One
This consists of an introduction to an important topic in basic algebra,
rearranging equations.

Chapter Two
Comprises a graphical approach to the solution of engineering problems
using Excel.
Topics covered are straight line equations, simultaneous equations,
quadratics and cubics. Algebraic solutions are also covered.

Chapter Three
Introduces extensions to the standard number system which have great
practical application in engineering and includes complex numbers and
vectors.

Chapter Four
Concerns the arithmetic of determinants and matrices and concludes with
an application to simultaneous equations. The use of Excel to do matrix
manipulation is explained.

Chapter Five
This is an introduction to the ideas behind calculus and its two branches,
differentiation and integration.

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Chapter One
REARRANGING EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER IS ABOUT REARRANGING EQUATIONS, WHICH IS A
VERY IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL SKILL. THERE ARE TWO
SECTIONS, THE FIRST
COVERS THE BASIC IDEAS AND THE SECOND LOOKS AT SLIGHTLY
MORE ADVANCED SITUATIONS.

EACH SECTION INCLUDES:

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO
APPLICATION PROBLEMS FOR YOU TO SOLVE WITH YOUR
NEW SKILLS

SECTION ONE

HOW TO REARRANGE EQUATIONS

An algebraic equation consists of quantities on the left hand side and
quantities on the right hand side connected by an equals sign , which
means that both sides have the same value.

It is useful to think of an equation in terms of an old fashioned pair of

scales. The left hand side quantities are in the left hand side scale pan
and the right hand side quantities are in the right hand side one. The two
sides are only equal if the scales balance exactly.

-3-

Imagine that you had 2 kilos of flour on the left hand side and 2 kilos on
the right hand side. the scales would balance and you could say 2 = 2 !
If you now changed one side ( say you added one kilo to the left pan ), you
would have to carry out exactly the same change to the other side in
order to keep the scales in balance. It would now be true to say that 2+1 =
2+1, that is if you add 1 to both sides the scales still balance.
Exactly the same thing applies to equations. Whatever you do to one side
must be done to the other in order to maintain the balance and make the
equals sign true.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Rearranging (or Transposing ) equations where
quantities are connected by a plus or a minus sign
Transpose C = c + 120 for c.
This means rearrange the equation so that c equals something.
Method: If we subtract 120 from the right hand side (rhs), then c
will be by itself, which is what we want. In order to keep the
balance however we need to do exactly the same thing to the other
side (lhs) that is, subtract 120.
We get C-120 = c + 120 -120
Or
C -120 = c
Or
c = C -120 ( It does not matter if the c is on the
left or right )

Transpose Y f = 13 for Y
Method: To get Y by itself we need to ADD f to the lhs. To
maintain the balance we need to add f to the rhs also.
We get
Or

Y-f + f = 13 +f
Y = 13 + f

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Transposing equations where the quantities are

connected as a product.
Transpose V I R for R
Method: In this case we want R by itself but we have I times too
many R`s, so what we need to do is divide by I. If we divide the rhs
by I then we must also divide the lhs by I in order to maintain the
balance.
Dividing both sides by I we get

V
I R
V

which becomes R
I
I
I

Transposing equations where the quantities are

connected as a quotient.
V
for V
I
Method: Here we have V divided by I so we need to multiply both
sides by I to get V by itself.
Transpose R

We get

R I

Transpose R

V I
, so R I V
I

L
for A
A

Method: First of all we get rid of the fraction by multiplying both

sides by A
We get

R A

L A
so
A

R A L

Now we divide both sides by R to get A by itself.

Finally we have

L
R

-5-

R A L

R
R

Transposing equations where the quantities are

contained in brackets.
Transpose x

p
for p
p 1

Method: Multiply both sides by ( p-1). We get x p 1 p

Now multiply out the brackets xp x p
Group the terms containing p on the lhs. xp-p = x
Therefore p(x-1) =x. Divide both sides by (x-1). We get p

x
x 1

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO TRY

Transpose the following:
1
C = d for d
2
S =dn for d
3
PV = c for V
4
A = rl for l
5
Y = x + 17 for x
6
Y = ax + b for x
7
D = B -1.28d for d
8
L = a + (n - 1)d for n
9
A = r(r + h) for h
a
x
10
y for y
E
I
11
for R
R
M E

12
for R
I
R
2R
V
13
for r
R r

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1

If p is the pressure in a thin pipe of outside diameter d

and thickness t, the greatest tensile stress being f, then
pd
t
. Find d when f = 4000, p = 500 and t = .47
p 2f

-6-

If c

E
. Find r if c = 4.02, E = 16.5 and R = 2.8
R r

SECTION TWO

TRANSPOSING EQUATIONS CONTAINING

POWERS AND ROOTS
WORKED EXAMPLES
Equations containing powers:
Consider the following equation V2 = U2 + 2AS
We wish to transpose it to find U.
The first step is to get the U2 by itself.
Subtract 2AS from both sides.
V2 2AS = U2
The next step is to take the square root of both sides

2AS

This gives us

2AS U

Equations containing roots:

Consider the following equation:T 2
We wish to transpose this for g .
The first step is to square both sides.

4 2L

Now multiply each side by g

-7-

L
g

T 2 g 4 2L
Finally divide both sides by T 2

4 2L
T2

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO TRY

Rearrange the following
1

V 2 gh for h

2
3

V d 2h for d
E .5mV 2 for V
f p
D

for f
d
f p

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1

If h

.03LV 2
2dg

Find V when h = .614, L = 168,d = .25 and g = 10

2

If v

2Ve
Find V if e/m =1.8x1011 and v =0.6x108
m

back to contents

Chapter Two
SOLVING PROBLEMS USING GRAPHS
INTRODUCTION
ENGINEERING DESIGN PROBLEMS ARE OFTEN SOLVED BY
REPRESENTING THE SITUATION AS AN EQUATION.
THIS THEN HAS TO BE SOLVED.

-8-

SOME EQUATIONS CAN BE SOLVED USING ALGEBRA, BUT OFTEN,

IN ENGINEERING, OTHER METHODS HAVE TO BE USED AND
GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUES ARE VERY POWERFUL.
GRAPHS HAD TO BE DRAWN BY HAND UNTIL RECENTLY BUT NOW
WE CAN USE SPREADSHEETS TO PRODUCE HIGH QUALITY GRAPHS
RELATIVELY EASILY.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER IS TO SHOW YOU HOW TO USE

MICROSOFT EXCEL TO SOLVE ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
GRAPHICALLY.

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CONTENTS
PRODUCING A CHART FOR A STRAIGHT LINE
SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
PLOTTING POLYNOMIALS
REFERENCE SECTION

THE REFERENCE SECTION CONTAINS INFORMATION ON HOW TO

SOLVE EQUATIONS USING ALGEBRA AND ALSO HELP ON USING
EXCEL

- 10 -

SECTION ONE

PRODUCING A CHART FOR A STRAIGHT LINE

WORKED EXAMPLE

A STRAIGHT LINE IS REPRESENTED MATHEMATICALLY BY THIS

EQUATION:
Y = mx + c
m is the gradient or slope of the line
c is the point on the y-axis where the line crosses.

m and c are numbers which uniquely specify a particular line.

Y = 4x 2
is an example of a straight line with a gradient of 4
and a crossing point or intercept of -2.

QUESTION
What are the gradients and intercepts of the following
lines?
Y = 3X-9, Y = -X + 4 , Y = X/2 -1

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WE WISH TO PRODUCE A CHART OR GRAPH OF Y = 4X - 2 AND WE

ARE GOING TO USE EXCEL TO DO THIS.

OPEN EXCEL ON YOUR COMPUTER

Save the workbook as GRAPH PLOTTER. Each sections work could be
saved on a different worksheet.
Input m and c as shown (CONSULT THE REFERENCE SECTION IF
NECESSARY)

Now we have to input the range of X values that we want to plot for our
graph.
It is easiest to choose whole numbers eg 0,1,2,3 etc.
It may be necessary to change the range or include negative values if we
do not get the part of the line we are interested in straight away. We can
easily do this later.

- 12 -

This time we shall choose values of X from 0 to 8.

Input these values, as shown.

Next we wish to calculate the Y values . To do this we need to input a

formula into the appropriate cell, in this case, B5.
This is the formula we need: ( It is the EXCEL version of y = mX + c)
= $D$1 * A5 + $D$2
Let us look at each part of this formula:
=

( A formula always begins with an equals sign)

$D$1 (This means ALWAYS the number in D1)

*A5

(multiplied by the number in A5 to start with )

+ $D$2 (plus ALWAYS the number in D2)

- 13 -

Now enter the above formula into B5 , shown below.

Next click the on the formula bar to enter the first calculation
To complete the calculation of the Y values, click and drag on the little
square on the bottom right hand corner of cell B5.
The result is as shown.

- 14 -

The final stage is to use the chart wizard to plot the graph in exactly the
way we want it.

Select the x and y data values with a click and drag and click on the chart
wizard icon,as below

- 15 -

Click on the highlighted options below, then Next> to continue:

- 16 -

Use the Chart options sheet shown below to customise your graph, that
is, add titles, choose labels, scales and colours. Click next.

Choose either to embed your graph into the spreadsheet table or have it
completely separate.

- 17 -

Click finish and you should have something like the one below

WELL DONE!!
The great advantage of using EXCEL to plot your graph is not only

SPEED and ACCURACY

but also
If you simply change the values of

and C

The computer will recompute everything,

including the graph !
EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO
- 18 -

Plot the graphs of the following lines on separate charts.

Print out your results and the data tables that go with the graphs

Y = 5X - 7
2. Y = - 4X -2
3. X = 2Y + 9 (you will have to rearrange this first! )
1.

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1.

The volume of a gas V at a temperature T degrees C is given by

V = .046T + 26.14
Plot a graph of V against T for values of T from 10 to 60 degrees
(V vertically). Use your graph to find the volume at 35 degrees.
Contd

2.
A force F applied to a crane lifts a load L
The connection between the force and the load is:

F = 0.2L + 11
Plot a graph of F (vertically) against L for load values between 30 and
1200 Newtons. Find the force needed to lift 1000 Newtons from your
graph.

- 19 -

SECTION TWO

SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

WORKED EXAMPLE
If, instead of one straight line, we have two, it follows that they will
cross at some point.
The only exception to this is if the two lines are parallel.
At the point that they cross, they will both have the same X and Y
values.
If we have the equations of the two lines we can work out the X and Y
values at the crossing point and we call this :

SOLVING THE TWO EQUATIONS SIMULTANEOUSLY

There are two ways of doing this:
a)

Using algebra ( the method is explained in the reference section )

b)

By plotting their graphs and reading off the X and Y values of the
crossing point.

WE SHALL BE USING EXCEL TO CARRY OUT METHOD b).

Consider the two straight lines

Y=-X+5
Y= X2

(m= -1, c = 5 ), and

(m = 1, c = -2)

We shall plot these in EXCEL and find the crossing point.

- 20 -

OPEN EXCEL ON YOUR COMPUTER

Input both sets of values of m and c, as shown below.

Now we select a suitable range of values for X, in this case 0 to 4 should

do. This gives us:

- 21 -

Next we need to enter the two formulae to calculate the Y values, as

before in section 1. Do this to obtain the following result.

Next fill down as before:

- 22 -

Now select the data columns and chart the two lines together, producing
something like:

We can read off the X and Y values from the chart

SO THE SOLUTION FOR THE TWO SIMULTANEOUS

EQUATIONS IS Y = 1.5, X =3.5
If we require a more accurate result then we simply input some more
precise values of X near the crossing point e.g. 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5,
3.6 and rechart the graphs in this region.

- 23 -

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Solve the following simultaneous equations using both an algebraic and a
graphical method. Can you think of another way of checking if your
answers are correct?
a)

and
Y

b)

1
8
X
3
3

Hint : First convert the fractions to decimals

1
3
X
2
2

X 2Y 5

and
2X Y 7

Hint : First you must rearrange each equation

into the form Y = mX + c

APPLICATION QUESTION
The forces F acting on a beam are such that
2F1 + 3F2 = 13 and
4 F1 - 2F2 = 2
Find the values of F1 and F2

SECTION THREE

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

WORKED EXAMPLE

We saw in the previous sections that a straight line can be represented

by the equation Y = mX + c.

- 24 -

Now consider the following equation: Y = 3X2 + 2X + 4. Here the highest

power of X is 2, that is, X2 .
This type of equation always represents a curve and is called a quadratic
equation.
In fact the curve is a parabola.
The general equation for a quadratic is:
Y = aX2 + bX + c

Where a, b and c are any numbers, commonly called

Coefficients. They can be positive or negative.

So , if Y = 4X2 + 5X + 9 , then, for this quadratic equation,

a=4
b=5
c=9
We can use EXCEL to plot any quadratic curve.

- 25 -

OPEN EXCEL ON YOUR COMPUTER

We wish to plot the following quadratic curve:
Y = X2 + 3X + 2 .

So a = 1, b = 3 and c = 2

Input the values of a,b and c as shown.

- 26 -

Select an appropriate range of values for X , -4 to +2 is suitable.

Input these values next

Now we must enter the formula to calculate the Y values as before.

Can you see how the formula is constructed? Consult the reference
section if not.

- 27 -

Finally, fill down. The data can be charted in exactly the same way as
before.
Do this and you should obtain something like the chart below.

Notice that the curve crosses the X axis at two points. X = -2 and X = -1

THESE VALUES OF X ARE CALLED THE SOLUTIONS TO

THE QUADRATIC EQUATION 0 = X2 + 3X + 2
THAT IS , THE SOLUTIONS ARE THE VALUES OF X FOR
WHICH Y = 0.
These values can be obtained as accurately as required by selecting finer
values of X near the crossing points and recharting.
Not all quadratics have two solutions . Some have only one and some have
none!

- 28 -

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Plot the graphs of the following quadratic equations for the values of X
shown.
In each case find the values of X, if any, for which Y = 0.
(That is , find the solutions. )
1.

Y = X2 5X + 3.5

( X from 0.0 to +4.5 in 0.5 steps )

2.

Y = X2 + 3X + 2.25

( X from -2.5 to +1.5 in 0.5 steps )

3.

Y = 2X2 + X + 1

( X from-1.5 to + 2.0 in 0.5 steps )

Use an algebraic method to solve question one and verify your answer
from the graph. Consult the reference section to remind you how to do
this.

APPLICATION QUESTION
The power in watts developed in an electrical circuit is given by :
P = 20I 16I2 where I is the current in Amperes.
Find the current necessary to produce a power of 3 watts in the circuit.
Hint:
Put P = 3 into the equation, then rearrange in the form Y = aI 2 + bI + c

- 29 -

SECTION FOUR

PLOTTING POLYNOMIALS
WORKED EXAMPLE
A polynomial is an equation which looks like this:
Y = a + bX + cX2 + dX3 + eX4 +
Here a, b, c, d and e are any numbers, also known as coefficients.

If c, d, e, etc are 0, then the equation becomes:

Y = a + bX that is, a straight line equation ! Compare it withY = mX + c

If d,e, etc are 0, then the equation becomes:

Y = a+ bX + cX2 that is, a quadratic equation !

IF e etc are 0, then the equation becomes:

Y = = a + bX + cX2 + dX3 that is, a cubic equation!

To plot a straight line we had to input two coefficients (we called them m
and c)
To plot a quadratic we had to input three coefficients (we called them a,
b and c)

To plot a cubic ( where the highest power of X is X cubed) we will have to

input four coefficients a, b, c and d.
We could easily continue to higher power polynomials.
In this case, however, we shall limit ourselves to a cubic.

- 30 -

We wish to plot a graph of the cubic:

Y = - 5 - 8X + X2 + X3
Here a = -5, b = -8, c= 1 and d = 1

OPEN EXCEL ON YOUR COMPUTER

Input a, b, c and d values as shown.

Now we must select a range of X values: ( from -4 to +3 will do )

Input these values into the A column, starting with -4 in A6

- 31 -

Enter the formula into B6 as before to calculate the Y values.

We enter:
= $D$1 + $D$2*A6 + $D$3*A6^2 + $D$4*A6^3

Here:
$D$1 is a
+ This is always positive. If the coefficient is negative, this will be
automatically taken into account.
$D$2*A6

is bX

$D$3*A6^2

is cX2

$D$4*A6^3

is dX3

- 32 -

Now fill down as before and chart the data table produced.
It should look like this:

Notice that this curve crosses the X axis 3 times.

There can be up to 3 solutions to a cubic equation.

- 33 -

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO TRY

Plot the graphs and find the solutions, if any, for the following cubic
equations. (written using the ^ key for powers eg X^2 is X 2)
1.

Y = 1 + X + X^2 + X^3

2.

Y = 1 + 0.5X X^2 + 0.5X^3

APPLICATION QUESTION
Applications of the cubic are beyond the scope of this manual, but here is
an unusual question for you to try !

Using a graphical method solve the following two equations

simultaneously.
Y = 6 5X 2X^2 X^3 and
Y=X+1
(Use values of X from -3 to +4 in 0.5 steps)

- 34 -

SECTION FIVE
REFERENCE

PART ONE: SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

USING AN ALGEBRAIC METHOD.
WORKED EXAMPLE
There are several different algebraic methods for solving simultaneous
equations, but we shall use only one, called the method of substitution.
For example, we wish to solve the following equations:

And

X + 2Y = 5
2X + Y = 4

(1)
(2)

The first step is to rearrange equation (1) so that X is by itself on the

left hand side.
First

= 5 2Y

(We have taken 2Y to the RHS.)

Now we can SUBSTITUTE FOR X in equation (2), that is instead of

X we can write 5 2Y.
So equation (2) becomes:
2(5-2Y) + Y = 4
This equation only contains Y, so we can rearrange it and find Y.
First

That is

10 4Y + Y = 4, so
10 4 = 3Y, and
6/3
=
Y
Y
=2

We know that
X = 5 2Y
So putting Y = 2 into this gives us X
X=54
=1
The equations are now solved. X = 1, Y = 2

- 35 -

- 36 -

PART TWO : SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS USING

ALGEBRA
WORKED EXAMPLE
Again, there are several algebraic methods for solving quadratic
equations, but here we will use only one, the formula method.
Let us solve the following equation using the formula method:
Y = 3X^2 + 12X - 1
Here a = 3, b = 12, c = -1
The quadratic formula is
X

- b b^2 - 4ac
2a

Now
We substitute our values of a,b and c into the formula, so:
X

12 12^ 2 4 * 3 * 1
2*3

12 144 12
6

12 156
6

12 12.5
6

Now, the + option gives us one solution for X and the option the other.
Hence, X = 0.5/6 or X = -24.5/6
Therefore X = .083 or X = - 4.083
A popular mistake when using this method is not to take into account the
negative signs, so take care when substituting negative coefficients into
the equation !

- 37 -

PART THREE: HELP WITH EXCEL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The author is indebted to the publishers Hodder
Headline PLC for their kind permission to reproduce the following section
on EXCEL HELP.

- 38 -

- 39 -

- 40 -

- 41 -

Back to contents

Chapter Three

COMPLEX NUMBERS AND VECTORS

It is easy to forget that number systems are not naturally ocurring, but
were invented by mathematicians. Complex numbers vectors can be
thought of as extensions to our more familiar number system.
Amazingly, even though these things were dreamt up by mathematicians,
they actually turn out to be VERY USEFUL in engineering !
Also, just as we had to learn how to do arithmetic (add, subtract, divide
and multiply)
with ordinary numbers, we also need to be able to do these things with
complex numbers and vectors.

CONTENTS
COMPLEX NUMBERS

- 42 -

VECTORS

EACH SECTION INCLUDES:

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO
APPLICATION PROBLEMS FOR YOU TO SOLVE WITH YOUR
NEW SKILLS

SECTION ONE

COMPLEX NUMBERS
Introduction
Complex numbers were invented to give a meaning to the square root of a
negative number. In the ordinary number system this is not possible.
For example:(+2)2 = + 4
And

(- 2)2 = + 4

Therefore, whether we square a plus 2 or a minus 2, we always end up

with a plus 4.
There is no number we could square and end up with a negative 4!
That however, is what would have to happen if we wanted the square root
of a negative number.
The chosen solution to this problem is partly to sidestep it !
The very cunning plan is to let

1 = j

- 43 -

So for example we could write

4 as

4 x 1 = 2 x j

Now we can write any negative root as the positive root times j
j has some odd properties.
j2 =

1 x 1 = - 1

j3 =

1 x 1 x 1

= j2 x j
= -1 x j
= -j

See if you can continue. Find j4, j5, j6, j7, j8 etc.
What is the pattern?

Cartesian form
We are now in a position to write down a complex number.
It consists of a real part a and an imaginary part b.
If z is a complex number then z = a jb , for example z = 3 + j2
or z = 5 j4. There are several ways of writing a complex number and this
one is called the CARTESIAN or RECTANGULAR form. This name is given
because we can plot complex numbers on a special graph with a on the x
axis (the real axis ) and b on the y axis (the imaginary axis). The graph is
called the complex plane or an Argand diagram.

- 44 -

Argand diagram
6

-2, 5

3, 4

ima
gina
ry
axis

0
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0
-1

-4, -2

real axis

-2

3, -2

-3

Here the complex numbers -2 + 5j , 3 + 4j , -4 -2j and 3 - 2j are plotted

on an Argand diagram.

Complex arithmetic in Cartesian form

WORKED EXAMPLES
We need to be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide complex
numbers.
Addition
If we wish to add two complex numbers together we add the real parts
and add the imaginary parts ( Not too tricky is it!)
Example: If z1 = 2 + 4j and

z2 = 3 + 2j, then

z 1 + z2

6j
Subtraction
If we wish to subtract two complex numbers then we subtract the real
parts and subtract the imaginary parts.

- 45 -

Example: If z1 = 3 + 4j and z2 = 2 - 3j, then z1 - z2 = (3-2) + (4- -3)j

= 1 + 7j
( Take care with the two minuses! )
Multiplication
To multiply two complex numbers we have to be able to multiply out two
brackets
Example: z1 = 3 + 4j and z2 = 2 + 3j, then z1 x z2

= (3 + 4j)( 2+ 3j)

One way of doing this is to multiply the first bracket by the 2, then the
first bracket by the 3j:
z1 x z2 = (3 + 4j)( 2+ 3j)
= 3x2 + 4jx2 + 3x3j +
4jx3j
= 6 + 8j + 9j +
2
12j
(NB j2 = - 1 Therefore 12j2 = 12 x -1 = -12)
z1 x z2

= 6 - 12 + 17j
= -6 + 17j

Division
We want to divide two complex numbers.
Example:

z1 = 4 + 6j and z2 = 3 4j

So we have z1 z2 =

4 6j
3 4j

The first step is to multiply top and bottom of this fraction by 3 + 4j. We
get this by changing the minus sign on the bottom line into a plus sign . 3 +
4j is the complex conjugate of 3 4j. We get the complex conjugate of
any complex number by changing the sign in the middle.
So

z1 z2

(4+ 6j)(3 +4j)

(3-4j)(3+ 4j)

Now we multiply out top and bottom brackets just as we did for
multiplication.

- 46 -

12+18 j +16 j -24

=
9-12 j +12 j +16

12 34 j
12 34

j
=
25
25 25
Notice that the bottom line becomes a real number . This always happens
when you multiply a complex number by its complex conjugate.
So

z1 z2

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

1

Add the following complex numbers

a) 3 +5j, 7+3j
b) 2-7j, 3+8j
c) 4-2j, -5-6j

Subtract the following complex numbers

a) 2+5j minus 2+8j
b) 3-9j minus 7-6j
c) 7-8j minus 3+6j

Multiply the following

a) (2 + 3j)(3+4j)
b) (2-6j)(3-7j)
c) (2+4j)(2-4j)

Divide the following

a) -2-3j by 5 -2j
b) 2+5j by 2-5j

You can check your answers by logging on to the following hyperlinked

site
http://mathinsite.bmth.ac.uk/applet/complex/complex.html

Polar form
Another way of writing complex numbers is in polar form:

complex number, z

Imaginary axis
r

jy

Real axis

Origin, O

- 47 -

Consider the complex

number
z = x + jy, as shown.

It can also be described by the distance of z from the origin, r

and the angle that r makes with the horizontal, as shown.

The polar form of z is written: z = r .

We say this r angle theta . We call r the MODULUS and the
ARGUMENT.
By convention, is measured from the horizontal anticlockwise up to +
180, then from the horizontal clockwise up to 180. This idea is shown
below:
+ 46

+160

-140

180
180

z = r46

180

-45

180

z = r160

z = r-140

z = r-45

Complex arithmetic in Polar form

WORKED EXAMPLES
We do not normally add or subtract complex numbers in polar form, it is
too involved.

Multiplication
Consider z1 = 4 30 and z2 = 3 45
We want to find z1 x z2.
To do this we MULTIPLY the moduli and ADD the arguments
So z1 x z2

= 4x3 (30 + 45)

= 12 75

Division

- 48 -

Consider z1 = 2 15 and z2 = 5 22.

We want to find z1/z2
To do this we DIVIDE the moduli and SUBTRACT the arguments.
So

z1/z2

= 2/5 (15 - 22 )
= 0.4 -7

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

1. Multiply the following complex numbers:
a)
3 23 x 4 46
b)
8 110 x 5 -45
c)
2 -21 x 6 -58
2. Divide the following complex numbers:
7 20
a)
350
b)

10 40
520

c)

3 10
6 5

Conversion between forms

It is possible to convert from polar to cartesian and vice versa. Some
calculators have this facility pre-programmed into them. Consult your
operating manual to find out how to do it on your calculator. We shall do it
by calculation.
a)

Cartesian to Polar
We know x and y and we want to find r and
We use these two equations:

1 y
y 2 and = tan ( )
x

- 49 -

b)

Polar to Cartesian
We know r and and we want to find x and y
x = rcos and y = rsin

WORKED EXAMPLES
Cartesian to polar
Convert z = 3 + 4j to polar form
Here x = 3 and y = 4
We want r and
Using r

y2

r 32 42 = 5
1 y
Using = tan ( ) = tan-1 (4/3) = 53.1
x

The polar form is therefore z = 5 53.1

Polar to cartesian
Convert 3 60 into cartesian form
Here r = 3 and = 60
We want x and y
Using x = rcos and y = rsin

X = 3x .5 = 1.5
Y = 3x .866 = 2.6

- 50 -

So z = 1.5 + 2.6j

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Convert
a)
b)
c)
d)

the following into polar form

2 + 3j
-6
-4 + j
-4j

Convert the following into cartesian form

a) 5 30
b) 3 70
c) 6 -120
You can check your answers using the same hyperlink as before.

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1. Find the impedance, z of a circuit if the voltage of 90 + 56j volts
produces a current of 40 20j amps.
2. Given that the voltage applied to a circuit is 15 = 25j volts and the
current in the circuit is 3 + 5j amps, find the power dissipated in
the circuit.
( Hint: for Q1, impedance is equal to voltage divided by current. In
Q2, power equals voltage times current.)
3. Three forces of magnitude 6, 8 and 10kN are inclined to the
positive x-axis
at angles of 30, 60 and 120 degrees respectively, measured
clockwise.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by
using complex numbers.
( Hint: Express each force as a complex number in polar form, r
being the magnitude and being the angle. Convert into cartesian,
add, then convert your answer back to polar to obtain the final
sum.)
Use the hyperlink to check your answers.
http://mathinsite.bmth.ac.uk/applet/complex/complex.html
back to contents
- 51 -

SECTION TWO

VECTORS

Introduction
A scalar quantity is one which is completely specified by a magnitude
( size ) only.
Examples are mass, length, temperature, volume etc.
Scalars are simply added together, for example the total volume of two
objects
of 1m3 + 2m3 = 3m3.
A vector quantity is one which is completely specified by both
a magnitude and a direction.
Examples are force, acceleration and ac voltages and currents (in
practice).
If two forces are acting upon an object then the overall effect depends
not only upon the size of the forces but also the direction they are acting
in.

10N

6N

6N

10N

Here the same two forces are acting on the object, but the effect is
different due to the changes in direction.
Vector quantities can be represented on a diagram by arrows whose
length represents the magnitude and whose direction corresponds to that
of the vector.

- 52 -

Vector addition
To add two vectors we must take into account the possibility of them
having two different directions.
Parallelogram Rule

u
r

u
r

(Add and )

uu
r
Q

uu
r
ur
ur
The NET effect of P and Q is the vector R which is the diagonal of a
uu
r
ur
parallelogram formed by P and Q . It is called the RESULTANT.
r ur
ur uu
P +Q =R
Important special case
uu
r
ur
P and Q at right angles

u
r

ur
r2 ur2
u
r
The Magnitude
of R R
= P Q

ur u
u
r
The direction of R Q
is given by tan = P/Q

WORKED EXAMPLE
What is the resultant of the following?
The Magnitude
10N

The Direction
horizontal.

= 102 142 = 17.2N

= tan-1(10/14) = 35.4 anticlockwise from the

14N

- 53 -

Notice that this is a very similar process to converting from cartesian to

polar form in complex numbers.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

1 An object is acted upon by two forces of magnitude 6N and 8N.
How would these forces be applied to give a resultant force of
a) 2N b) 14N c)10N ?
2 Find the resultant of the two forces shown below:

7N

12N

Resolution of vectors
The reverse of adding two vectors together is called resolving or taking
components.
If a force F acts at an angle to the horizontal as shown below, its
effect can be represented by two components at right angles to each
other, one horizontal and one vertical.

FH = Fcos

FV

FV = Fsin

FH

This process is called RESOLVING

Simple rule: RESOLVING THROUGH THE ANGLE: use cos
RESOLVING AWAY FROM THE ANGLE: use sin

- 54 -

Notice that this is a very similar process to converting from polar to

cartesian form in complex numbers.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the force shown
below on an object A.
10N

30

Find the vertical components of:

10N
45

30
10N

5N

Find the horizontal components of:

60
10N

5N

- 55 -

Use the hyperlink to check your answers.

http://www.frontiernet.net/~imaging/vector_calculator.htm

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
If the frictional force between the object below and the ground is 100N,
what is the least force F which is required to move it horizontally?

F
60

The object O below is not moving:

F

A
60

45
O
W

1
2
3

In terms of F write an expression for the total horizontal

force on O.
Now calculate force F since the total horizontal force
must equal zero.
Repeat the above for the total vertical force and
calculate W.

back to contents

Chapter Four

Matrices and Determinants

- 56 -

Introduction
Matrices are very useful for solving large sets of simultaneous equations.
A matrix is an ordered set of numbers (or mathematical expressions).
It has no overall numerical value. It cannot be worked out, it is just a
pattern.
x
2 7

It is written like this:
or y

6 9
z

Each number or symbol is called an element
Matrices can have various arrangements:
2

A vertical column of elements is a column matrix eg 6
5

A horizontal row of elements is a row matrix eg x

z n

A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is a square matrix
eg

1 2
3 4

A matrix with a different number of rows and columns is a rectangular

matrix
1 3 9
eg

1 6 4

A determinant is also an ordered set of numbers (or mathematical

expressions).
Unlike a matrix, however, a determinant has an overall numerical value.
Later we will

- 57 -

see how to find this.

Determinants can only be square and are written like this:
1 2
7 4
We need to be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide matrices and also
be able to evaluate determinants.

1) Evaluation of determinants
Working out a 2X2 determinant is very easy.
Any 2x2 determinant can be written:

a b
c d

Its value is given by (axd bxc) .Take care with double minus signs here,
for example if b or c are negative.

WORKED EXAMPLES
2 3
3 6

= (2x6 3x3) = (12 9) = 3

3 2
= (3x -4 - -2x3) = -12 + 6 = -6 ( Note the double minus here )
3 4

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Evaluate a)

3 2
4 5

b)

1 2
3 4

c)

3 2
4 2

Working out larger determinants (3x3, 4x4 etc) is a little trickier.

First of all, each position in a determinant has a sign (positive or
negative),

- 58 -

starting with + in the top left hand corner.

So we have, for a 3x3 determinant,



These signs are used solely when working out the value of a
determinant and are in addition to any signs which the individual elements
may have.
There are several different ways of doing the evaluation, but we shall
stick to only one, expanding along the top row.
As an example, consider the following determinant:
2 3 4

2 6 3 and remember
1 2 5

Starting with the blue 2 in the top left hand corner, this is a + position.
The blue 2 is at the intersection of the first row and first column as
shown below:
2 3 4
6 3
2 6 3 This leaves a 2x2 determinant
, shown in red.
2 5
1 2 5
The first part of working out the value of the 3x3 determinant is
6

+2 x 2 5

Next we use the blue -3 in the top center, this is a - position

2 3 4
2 6 3
1 2 5

remember

- 59 -

The blue -3 is at the intersection of the first row and the second column
as shown below:

2 3 4
2 3
2 6 3 This leaves a 2x2 determinant
, shown in red.
1 5
1 2 5

The second part of working out the value of the 3x3 determinant is
2 3
--3 x 1 5

Finally we use the blue four

position.
2 3 4

2 6 3 remember
1 2 5

in the top right hand corner, this is a +

The blue four is at the intersection of the first row and the third column,
as shown below:
2 3 4
2 6
2 6 3 This leaves a 2x2 determinant
, shown in red.
1 2
1 2 5

The third part of working out the value of the 3x3 determinant is
2 6
+ 4 x 1 2

Therefore, to work out the value of the 3x3 determinant by

expanding along the top row, we get:
6

2 3
2 6
+
4
x
5
1 2

+2 x 2 5 --3 x 1

= 2(6x5 -3x-2) + 3(-2x5 3x1) + 4(-2x-2 6x1)

- 60 -

= 2(30 + 6) + 3( -10 -3 ) + 4( 4 -6)

= 72 -39 -8
= 25

In general, to evaluate any 3x3 determinant, we can expand along the top
row as follows:
a
d
g

b
e
h

c
e
f =+ax
h
i

f
d
-bx
i
g

f
d
+cx
i
g

e
h

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Evaluate the following 3x3 determinants
3 5 7
a) 11 9 13
15 17 19

13 2 23
b) 30 7 53
39 9 70

6 10 14
1
c) 2 1
9 15 12

You should get 144, 34 and 234.

2) Matrix Arithmetic
We need to be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide matrices in order
to use them to solve simultaneous equations.
ADDITION and SUBTRACTION
It is only possible to add or subtract same size matrices,since the
method is simply to add or subtract each individual element in the
matrices.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Add the following matrices
- 61 -

 1 4
2 3
1 2 4 3
3 7
6 3 + 5 8 = 6 5 3 8 = 11 11

2
3
2 3
5

3
4
3 4

= 7
+ =
6
6
6 6
12

1
4 +

6 = Not possible, since the matrices are different.

Subtract the following matrices

2 1
3 0
7 4 - 7 4 =

5 1
14 8

3 1 4
2 7 5
1 6 1
4 3 1 2 1 0 6 2 1
-
=

1 4 3 6 3 4
5 1 7

MULTIPLICATION
Matrix multiplication is a strange process! Some matrices cannot be
multiplied together. You can only multiply two matrices together if;
the size of the rows in the first one is the same as the size of the
columns in the second one.
The examples below show valid matrix combinations
a
b

d
e
f

h
x
i

u
v

(The first matrix has 3 elements in a row, the second matrix has 3
elements in a column)

- 62 -

 n
x

t
l s
x

y
t m

(The first matrix has 2 elements in a row and the second has 2 elements
in a column.)
If the above conditions are satisfied then the multiplication method is :
multiply
each row element by the corresponding column element and add the
results.

WORKED EXAMPLES
2 4
6
2 6 4 7
3 5 x 7 = 36 5 7 =

1 3
2 4 x

2 7
5 8 =

2 3 4
2
1 5 7 1
x =

3 6 8
3

40
53

1 2 3 5 1 7 3 8
2 2 4 5 2 7 4 8 =

2 2 3 1 4 3
1 2 5 1 7 3

3 2 6 1 8 3

10 31
24 46

19

= 28
36

1 3 4
2 5
1 2 3 3 4 4 1 5 3 6 4 7
2 1 5 3 6 2 2 1 3 5 4 2 5 1 6 5 7
x
=
=

3 2 6
4 7
3 2 2 3 6 4 3 5 2 6 6 7

27 51
27 51

36 69

Multiplying a matrix by a single number is comparatively straightforward.

We simply multiply every element in the matrix by the number!
Finally a further strange property of matrix multiplication is :
(MATRIX A x MATRIX B) is not equal to (MATRIX B x MATRIX A)
In other words, the order is important.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

- 63 -

Let

1 4
2 4
; B=

;
2 3
6 5

A =

2

D = 4 ;
6

Find:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

4
C= ;
5

3 2 4

E = 1 3 5 ; F =
4 1 6

1 2
7 4

9 6

A+B
AB
2A
BxC
AxB
ExF
ExD

Later we will look at using Excel to perform matrix arithmetic and you
could use this to check your answers.

DIVISION
Strangely, matrix division involves

multiplying !

The idea is as follows:

A
1
A A B 1
B
B

That is, A divided by B is the same thing as A times the inverse of B.

( 1 over anything is called the inverse)
For example:
3
1
3 3 .25
4
4
Here the division by four has been changed into a multiplication by the
inverse of four ,that is .25.
- 64 -

So, to divide by a matrix, the method is:

Find the INVERSE of the matrix and MULTIPLY.
The only problem now is, how do we find the inverse of a matrix ?
FINDING THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX
This is rather like producing a witches brew, without the eye of newt. The
following steps are involved:
1
2
3
4

Find the cofactors (what?- see later) of the matrix

Transpose (again, later) the matrix of cofactors, producing the
ADJOINT matrix.
Find the determinant of the original matrix
Divide the ADJOINT matrix by the determinant

These four steps produce the required inverse.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Let us find the inverse of matrix A, where
1 2 1

A = 2 0 2
1 1 0

Remember place values

Step one!
Each element in the matrix has a cofactor. A cofactor is the 2x2
determinant left after removing the row and column that the element is
in. The 2x2 determinant carries the sign associated with the position of
the element, just like in the evaluation of a determinant.

Hence the cofactors of the first row are;

- 65 -

0 2
2 2
2 0
= -2 , = +2 , +
= +2
1 0
1 0
1 1

Similarly the cofactors of the second row are;

-

2 1
= +1 ,
1 0

1 1
1 2
= -1 , = +1
1 0
1 1

The cofactors of the third row are;

+

2 1
= +4 ,
0 2

1 1
1 2
=0, +
=-4
2 2
2 0

The matrix formed from these cofactors is therefore;

2 2 2

1 1 1
4 0 4

Step two!
This invoves transposing the new matrix. We swap rows for columns. You
can see below that the first row becomes the first column, the second
row becomes the second column, etc.
4
2 1

2 1 0 This is called the Adjoint matrix.

2 1 4

Step three! is to work out the determinant of the original matrix.

1 2 1
1 2 1

A = 2 0 2 becomes 2 0 2
1 1 0
1 1 0

Expanding along the top row we have;

- 66 -

+1 x

0 2
2 2
2 0
-2x
+1x
1 0
1 0
1 1

=4
Step four!
In this last step we divide the adjoint matrix by the determinant value.
To do this we divide every element of the matrix by 4, or

1/4 x

2 1
4 4
2

2 1 0 =
4
2 1 4
2

1
4
1
4
1
4

4
4

0
4
4

4

Finally we have got it , this is the inverse matrix of the one we started
with!
It seems very complicated, but all you have to do is follow the four steps
explained above.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

See if you can find the inverse of the following matrices. The answers to
the first two are given. Later you will be able to use Excel to work out or
check your answers.
1 2 3

2 1 4 Ans 1/4 x
3 4 1

17 14 5

8 2
10
11
10 3

0
2 1 1
2 1

1 2 2 Ans - 1/3 x 0 3 3
1 3 2
1 5 3

- 67 -

 1 2 0

9 12 6
4 3 3

Remember, the purpose of finding the inverse of a matrix is to do matrix

division.

A
1
A A B 1
B
B
That is, A divided by B is the same thing as A times the inverse of B.
You now have the skills needed to do division.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

1
4
1 1

If A = 33 and B = 2 3 4
2
3 2 2

Find

A
B

13
2 3 4

If A = 2 and B = 3 1 2
1
1 2
1

Using Excel to carry out matrix arithmetic.

Imagine we have the following two matrices, which we wish to divide.

1
2 1 1

A = 1 and B = 2 2 3
3
1 1 2

We need to find the inverse of matrix B and then multiply it by A.

- 68 -

Open Excel. Input the matrix B as shown into, say, cells A1 up to C3.
Now select a region which is the same size as the matrix.( In this case A5
to C7.) Now input the matrix formula as shown onto the formula bar.

Finally, to activate the formula and find the inverse of the given matrix
in Excel, press Control and Shift and Return.

- 69 -

The inverse matrix magically appears!

Finally,we wish to multiply this inverse matrix by the other matrix.
To do this we insert the second matrix as shown into cells A9 to A11, then
select suitable cells for the answer (A13 to A15) and type in the formula
shown in the formula bar.
To carry out the matrix multiplication we now press Control and Shift and
Return.
This gives the solution as shown below.

- 70 -

NB in Excel rounding errors can produce a very, very small number as an

answer instead of 0 ! In this case 1.77636E-15 can be regarded as 0.
Now you can use this method to check your previous answers.

APPLICATION QUESTION
The tensions in
equations:
6T1 +6T2 + 6T3
T1+ 2T2 + 4T3
4 T1+ 2T2 + 0T3

a simple framework, T1, T2 and T3 are given by the

= 8.4
= 2.4
= 4.0

Find T1, T2 and T3.

Hint: The three equations can be rewritten as a matrix equation;

- 71 -


6 6 6 T 1 8.4

1 2 4 T 2 2.4
4 2 0 T 3 4.0

(Check what you get if you multiply out the left hand side)
So,if we divide the matrix on the right hand side by the 3x3 matrix on
T 1

the left hand side, we should end up with a matrix equal to T 2 !!

T 3

back to contents

Chapter Five
MATHS ON THE MOVE : CALCULUS

Introduction
In the times of ancient Egypt and Greece, mathematics was mainly about
the measurement and description of static objects, such as the perimeter
of a field or the total wages bill for an army.There were great
developments in geometry and trigonometry during this period.
When scientists began to study moving objects, however, it became
neccessary to develop ways of describing speed, acceleration and changes
in things using mathematics, so that useful calculations could be done.
Isaac Newton played an important part in developing calculus, a branch of
mathematics which describes changing situations.
Engineering is full of changing situations;
The position of a piston
The size of an AC voltage
The temperature of a furnace
The pressure in a tyre
The charge on a capacitor
It follows that calculus is a very important part of mathematics for
Engineers.
Calculus is split into two main branches, which complement each other,
Differential and Integral calculus.
We shall look at each in turn.

- 72 -

SECTION 0NE

Differential calculus
y

y ( delta
y)
x ( delta x )

The straight line graph in blue above shows the connection between two
quantities, x and y.
The gradient of the line is a measure of how much y changes when we
change x.
The gradient is worked out using the equation:
y
x
Delta y (y in symbols ) means a change in y
Delta x (x in symbols ) means a change in x

gradient

Therefore

y The change in y

x The change in x

You could also say the gradient is the rate of change of y with x.
Consider the following graph of temperature against time;
Temperature
C

T ( delta T)

t ( delta t )

-time
73 - / s

Gradient =T/t
The gradient measures how much the temperature changes in a certain
time
eg change in temp/ second . We could also say that the gradient
represents
the rate of change of temperature with time.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Look at the following graphs and put into words what the gradient
represents:
Voltage /v

V
time / s

Pressure/Pa

Depth/ m

Height /m

Age/ years

- 74 -

SUMMARY
So, if we want to know the rate of change of one quantity with another,
one way to find out is to plot the graph and find the gradient.
There are two problems with this approach. It is time consuming and only
as accurate as the graph drawing. Is there another way?
Yes, the other way involves knowing the algebraic equation of the line. If
we know this we can immediately obtain the exact gradient of the line
without having to draw the graph!
In general any straight line which passes through zero can be
represented by the equation :
Y = mx
In this formula m represents the gradient of the line (see also the
section on straight lines in chapter one).
So y = 4x is an equation which describes a straight line passing through
zero, with a gradient of 4.
Consider the equation V = 3t where V is the voltage in a particular circuit
and t is the
time. The gradient is 3 and this means that , for this circuit, the rate of
change of voltage with time is 3 V/s. We could also say that the change in
voltage is 3 when the the time changes by one second.
There are some special cases .
A horizontal line has a gradient of zero. In this case any change in x
produces no change in y, so the gradient is zero.
If y = 3 is the equation of the line then the gradient is zero!
If y = 231 is the equation of the line then the gradient is zero!
If y = a constant is the equation of the line then the gradient is zero!

A vertical line has an infinite gradient, because no change in x produces

an infinite change in y.

- 75 -

Finally we can now mention calculus! A third way to find the gradient of
an equation
is to differentiate the equation.
This is the purpose of differential calculus, that is, given an equation, to
find an equation representing the gradient. The process is represented
below:

Equation

Differentiate

Gradient

To differentiate is to find the gradient ( sometimes called the

differential coefficient or the derivative).
Remember, the symbols for the gradient were

The symbol for differentiation is

)

y
x

dy
( This is said as dee y by dee x
dx

If we start with the equation y = 3x, the process is:

Y = 3x differentiate

dy
= 3 (we already know the gradient is 3)
dx

In the hundreds of years since calculus was first invented,

mathematicians have worked out how to differentiate lots of different
kinds of equations and have produced tables of formulae to do it. These
are called tables of standard differentials.
dy
The formula used above to get
= 3 was,
dx
If y = axn is the equation , where a is any number and n is any number,
then

dy
= naxn-1
dx

- 76 -

So, if
3x0 = 3
Compare with

dy
= 1 times 3 times x1 1 =
dx

dy
y = axn ( a = 3 and n = 1 )
= n times a times xn-1
dx
y = 3x ( = 3x1 )

Note anything to the power o is 1, that is, x0 = 1

Also, if the equation represents a horizontal line, we know that the
gradient is zero.
dy
Eg for
y = 5,
=0
dx
Using the formula y = axn , we can think of y = 5 as y = 5 x0 (because x0 = 1
)
Therefore a = 5 and n = 0 . Since
x0-1 = 0

dy
dy
= naxn-1 , then
= 0 times 5 times
dx
dx

So, if we differentiate a number which is by itself we get 0.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Differentiate the following equations ( find

dy
)
dx

Y = 2x
Y = 4x
Y = 12.6x
Y=9
Y = 12
Y =12324.9

This complicated process seems fairly pointless for a straight line

equation, because we don`t need calculus to work out the gradient, but
what if the equation is for a more complicated shape than a straight line?
Consider the following graph:

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x1

x2 x

A curve does not have a single gradient like a straight line, but has a
different gradient at every point on it. The gradient at x 1 above is
different from the gradient at x2 as shown by the red lines(called
tangents) . To find the gradient at a point on a curve , we would have to
draw the curve, draw in the tangent at the point of interest, and find the
gradient of the tangent. To find the gradient at another point, we would
have to repeat the process. This is time consuming and of limited
precision.
If we have the equation of the curve we can obtain an equation for
working out its gradient at any point by differentiating the equation as
before.
Imagine we have been asked to find the gradient of the curve y = 4x 2 at
two points,
x = 2 and x = 5.
One way of doing this is to plot the graph of y = 4x 2 , draw in the tangents
at x = 2 and x = 5, then work out the gradients at these points.
Alternatively, we can differentiate y = 4x2 and obtain an equation for
working out the gradient at any point on the curve!
Remember the formula:
If y = axn is the equation , where a is any number and n is any number,
then

dy
= naxn-1
dx

Comparing y = 4x2 with y = axn we can see that a = 4 and n = 2 in this case.
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It follows that

dy
= 2 times 4 times x2-1 = 8x
dx

So, the gradient at x = 2 is 8 times 2 = 16

And the gradient at x = 5 is 8 times 5 = 40
These are exact answers and we have obtained them quickly without
drawing!

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Differentiate the following expressions:
Y=2
Y = 2x
Y = 2x2
Y = 3 x2
Y = 3x3
Y = 4x4
Note : We have been using x and y to represent two quantities, but we
can use any letters we want eg u and v, s and t or whatever. In these
du
ds
cases we would write the differentials as
and
dv
dt

First,a short note on equations:

Equations of the form y = mx are like a kind of computer programme.
If you insert values of x into the right hand side, the programme works
out the value of the left hand side.
The equation gives us the mathematical connection between x and y. If
you know x then the programme shows you how to find y.

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In mathematics we call such a programme a function. We say y is a

function of x
Which is just another way of saying y depends upon x
In symbols we would write :
y = f(x) This means y is a function of x
Some examples are:
y = 3x
or
y = 4x2 + 3x -5
or
y = 3sin( 4x)
Mathematicians have worked out formulae to differentiate most of the
common functions used in Engineering and these are known as standard
differentials.
A table of some of them is shown below:

function differential
axn
sin (ax)
cos (ax)
eax
In (x)

naxn-1
acos(ax)
-asin (ax)
aeax

The a in the table can be any

number, positive or negative.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1/x

We have already practised using the first

one in the table, here are some further examples.
dy
In each case we wish to find
dx
y = 4sin (3x)
If we differentiate sin (3x) we get 3cos (3x)
using the second row in the table above.
We have however, got 4 times this, so the
answer is:

dy
= 4 x 3cos (3x) = 12cos (3x)
dx

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y = 3e5x
fourth row in the table.
answer is:

If we differentiate e5x we get 5 e5x, using the

We have, however, got 3 times this, so the

dy
= 3 x 5 e5x = 15 e5x
dx

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Differentiate the following:
y = 2cos(4x)
y = 4e3x
y = 6sin (-2x)
y = 2e-4x

Combinations of functions
The functions in the standard table can be combined in various ways, such
as added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
We shall only consider the first two combinations here, that is functions
added or subtracted. The other possibilities are more complex to deal
with and are outside the scope of this text.
If we need to differentiate a combination of several functions, which are
added and /or subtracted, then we simply differentiate each separately
and add or subtract the results as appropriate.

WORKED EXAMPLES
If y = 4x3+ 2x2+ 3x +9
Find

dy
dx

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dy
= 12x2 + 4x + 3 + 0
Here we have differentiated each function
dx
separately and added the results.

If y = 3x4 + 2sin(2x) e3x

Find

dy
dx

dy
= 12x3 + 4cos(2x) -3e3x
dx

Here we have differentiated each

function separately and added or
subtracted as appropriate.

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Differentiate the following:

y = 2x5 + 3x4 -9x +4

y = 2sin (6x) 4cos (7x) + 2e4x
v = 3x9- e6x +5x9 3x +3

SECTION TWO
Integral calculus

The intention in this section is to provide a brief introduction to this

important branch of calculus, but the reader is referred to the Further
Sources of Information for an extended discussion and further
examples.
Integral calculus is about the mathematical process of Integration . It
can be thought of in two ways; as the reverse of differentiation, or as an
adding up process on a function which enables us to calculate
complicated areas and volumes.
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We shall only consider the first viewpoint here, as this is sufficient to

acquaint ourselves with the basic process.

Imagine we start with the function y = 3x2+ 2. Then we differentiate it,

dy
getting
= 6x .
dx
What if we had started with
original function , 3x2+ 2 ?

dy
= 6x and wanted to go back to the
dx

This reverse process is called integration and is shown diagrammatically

below:

y = 3x2+ 2

y = 3x2+ c

differentiate

integrate

6x

6x

Note that there is no way of knowing that the 2 was originally there,
because any number when differentiated
is 0. To take account of this, a constant, c is always included when
integrating. This is known as the constant of integration.

dy
which means to
dx
differentiate.Similarly the process of integration has a special symbol
which means to integrate.
The process of differentiation has a symbol,

We would write Work out the integral of 6x as y 6xdx , which is as

we know, 3x2 + c .

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How do we go from 6x to 3x2 ? We use a table of standard integrals in

exactly the same way that we used a table of standard differentials to
differentiate.

function

integral

axndx
sin(ax)dx
cos(ax)dx
eaxdx
(1/x)dx

a x n 1
+ c
n 1

( Except for n = -1)

-(1/a)cos(ax) + c
(1/a)sin(ax) + c
(1/a)eax + c
In (x) + c

The a is any number as before.

The standard integral we were using is the first one.

We wish to find the integral of 6x, that is, 6xdx . Comparing this with

a x ndx

we see that a = 6 and n = 1

( x by itself is x1)

a x n 1
+ c . This gives us 6x1+1/1+1 =
n 1

Using the above table the integral is

6x2/2 = 3x2+ c !

WORKED EXAMPLES
1

4
Integrate x4 that is, find x dx

The appropriate formula is

this case , a = 1 and n = 4
Therefore

x dx
4

= 1x

a x n 1
+ c, where in
n 1

/ 4+ 1

4+1

= x5/5 + c

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Integrate 3 that is, find

3dx . This is a slightly

awkward one until you get used to it.

x0 = 1 , so we can write 3 as 3x0 (that is 3x1)

0
The integral now becomes 3x dx . In this case a =

3 and n = 0 in
Therefore

a x n 1
n 1

3dx

= 3x0 +1/ 0+1 = 3x/1 =3x + c

In general, therefore 1dx = x, 2dx = 2x, 3dx =

3x etc
3

Integrate 2sin(3x) that is, find

Using the table we see that
cos (ax)

2 sin(3x )dx .

sin(ax )dx

= (-1/a)

In this case a = 3 . Also it should be realised that

2 sin(3x )dx
So we have

2 sin(3x )dx

2 sin(3x )dx = 2(-1/3)cos(3x) + c

EXAMPLES FOR YOU TO DO

Work out the following integrals

1
2
3
4
5
6

3x3dx

(3x4+ 2x -1)dx

5xdx
sin(x/3)
4cos(3x)
e3xdx

e-2xdx
Note : The integral of several functions added or subracted is
obtained by integrating them separately then adding or subtracting
the results. Try these:

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(2e4x- 2sin(3x) + 4)dx

APPLICATION QUESTIONS
The definition of the velocity of an object is its rate of change of
distance with time.
If s stands for the distance travelled in t seconds, then the velocity is
ds
given by
. If we have the equation connecting s with t then we can
dt
obtain an expression for the velocity by differentiation.

Problem 1
If the distance travelled, s = 3t3 4t2 + 2t -2
Find the velocity when t = 2 seconds.
If we have already been given the velocity and we wish to work out the
distance travelled then we must integrate the equation for the velocity.
In order to find the value of the constant c we will need to be given some
extra information.
Problem 2
If the velocity of an object is given by
t = 0,

ds
= 3t + 4 and s = 2 when
dt

Find an expression for the distance travelled, s. ( Use the extra

information to find c)
Find the distance travelled when t = 2

back to contents

FURTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

BIRD,JO and MAY,AJC (1978) TECHNICIAN MATHEMATICS.
Longman Group Ltd.

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YATES,JC (1993) NATIONAL ENGINEERING

MATHEMATICS.The Macmillan Press Ltd.
GREER,A and TAYLOR, G.W. (1983) MATHEMATICS FOR
TECHNICIANS. Stanley Thornes Ltd.

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