Laboratory Investigation On Foamed Bitumen Bound Mixtures Made With Steel Slag, Foundry Sand

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Laboratory investigation on foamed

bitumen bound mixtures made with
steel slag, foundry sand, bottom ash
and reclaimed asphalt pavement
a
Marco Pasetto & Nicola Baldo
Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural

Engineering, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, Padova 35131,
Italy
b
Department of Chemistry, Physics and Environment, University of

Udine, Via del Cotonificio, 114, Udine 33100, Italy
Version of record first published: 27 Nov 2012.
To cite this article: Marco Pasetto & Nicola Baldo (2012): Laboratory investigation on foamed
bitumen bound mixtures made with steel slag, foundry sand, bottom ash and reclaimed asphalt
pavement, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 13:4, 691-712
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2012.742629
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Vol. 13, No. 4, December 2012, 691712
Laboratory investigation on foamed bitumen bound mixtures made with

steel slag, foundry sand, bottom ash and reclaimed asphalt pavement
Marco Pasettoa * and Nicola Baldob
Downloaded by [Laurentian University] at 12:46 18 February 2013
a Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9,
Padova 35131, Italy; b Department of Chemistry, Physics and Environment, University of Udine, Via del
Cotonicio, 114, Udine 33100, Italy
The paper describes an experimental investigation on foamed bitumen bound mixtures for
road pavements, with the aggregate matrix entirely composed of industrial by-products, such
as steel slags, foundry sand, bottom ash and reclaimed asphalt pavement. The study consisted
of a laboratory analysis of the physical and leaching properties of the single recycled granular
materials considered, followed by mechanical characterisation of the foamed bitumen bound
mixtures, in terms of indirect tensile strength, stiness modulus and permanent deformation
tests. The mechanical tests were also performed in wet conditions, in order to investigate the
moisture sensitivity of the mixes.
Keywords: steel slag; bottom ash; foundry sand; reclaimed asphalt pavement; foamed bitumen
mixtures
1. Introduction
The recycling of industrial wastes in road infrastructures represents a possible solution to two
important and delicate questions: the growing problem of disposing of these industrial by-products
and the need to nd alternative sources to the traditional quarried stone materials used for road
construction. In the last 10 years, the use of recycled materials in the Northeastern Italian area, for
the building of both strategic and ordinary roads, has noticeably grown (the 36 km Mestre-Venice
motorway by-pass is one of the most recent and relevant examples of this trend). Nowadays
there is a strong demand for succedaneum materials to be used in the road construction eld,
by private companies, highway agencies and public administrations. Therefore, more research
is needed in order to provide solutions to this growing demand, which have to be technically
feasible as well as economically and environmentally sustainable. In this sense, a cold recycling
of marginal materials, based on the use of cement and foamed bitumen, provides some advantages:
the binder can be used when the aggregates are cold and damp; the foamed bitumen is applicable
to a wider variety of aggregates; the optimal binder content is generally lower than that for the
other types of mix. Furthermore, emissions into the atmosphere are almost absent and the use
of solvents is unnecessary (a health hazard to the workers) to reduce the viscosity of the mixes.
Lastly, it is possible to quickly reopen the road to trac after compaction, thanks to the adequate
resistance oered by the mixture, and there is no insurgence of phenomena of water inltration
if it should rain immediately after the recycled layer is applied (a problem when emulsions are
used instead). The main disadvantages of foamed mixes are the following: the need for trained
*Corresponding author. Email: marco.pasetto@unipd.it
ISSN 1468-0629 print/ISSN 2164-7402 online
2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2012.742629
http://www.tandfonline.com
692
M. Pasetto and N. Baldo
technical personnel, both during the mix formation and mixing stage during the laying; a correct
cost-benet analysis of the pavements produced using this technique; specic equipment, usually
integrated in the foam generator, required to heat the bituminous binder to the required foaming
temperature. Moreover, the moisture resistance of foamed mixes is usually poor, as compared to
other materials, such as cold mixes with emulsion (Cazacliu et al., 2008); the temporal evolution
of mechanical properties (curing) makes it dicult to estimate the in-situ behaviour (Eckmann,
Delfosse, Chevalier, & Pouteau, 2008); nally, the low cohesion of foamed mixes makes it
dicult to evaluate the laboratory fatigue resistance, even if the eld behaviour could be excellent
(Eckmann et al., 2008). The absence of a reliable fatigue law for these materials makes it dicult
to attain a safe pavement design.
The present study was aimed at investigating cold recycled mixtures, made with nonconventional aggregates, cement and foamed bitumen. Leaching and physical-mechanical testing
was performed on some waste materials in order to evaluate their technical suitability as a recycled
aggregate in foamed mixtures, for road pavements. Mixtures of this type are typically used in
road foundation layers and, from the technological point of view, can be slotted within the ambits
of stabilisation.
The granular materials considered were what are known as marginal aggregates (Pasetto
& Baldo, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2010a, 2010b, 2011, 2012); more specically, they are bottom
ash from municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration, waste foundry sand, electric arc furnace
(EAF) steel slag and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). The analysis investigated the marginal
materials individually, plus mixtures of these components in dierent proportions.
2. Materials and methods

The study was divided into three main phases. The rst was relative to the toxicological and
physicomechanical characterisation of the aggregates. The second was regarding the mix design
of the foamed mixtures: two characterised by a predominant steel slag content and two with equal
percentages of steel slag and RAP. The performance of the foamed mixtures was studied during
the third phase.
2.1. Materials used
Exclusively manufactured and recycled aggregates (EN 13242 and 13043) were used for the
composition of the foamed mixtures: EAF slag, bottom ash, foundry sand and RAP.
Slag from the steel industry comes from the rapid cooling of the oxidised and supercial
liquid phase present in EAFs, from circa 1300 C, to ambient temperature (Jones, Bowman, &
Lefrank, 1998; Preston, 1991). The blocks are solidied in the open air, sometimes accelerating
the process by jets of water. In this way, a quantity of free calcium oxide may remain inside
the blocks, potentially subject to hydration or carbonation. These alterations can be the cause of
uneven expansion and disintegration of the material. For this reason, slag from electric furnaces is
seasoned, exposing the material to the weather for a period of at least 2 months, during which the
unbound fraction of calcium oxide is stabilised naturally. It is also reported that another reaction
related to volumetric expansion involves the dicalcium silicate (C2 S) phase. The C2 S phase is
commonly present in all types of steel slags, even if it is typically abundant as the main phase in
ladle slags. C2 S exists in four well-dened polymorphs: , , and . At temperatures below
500 C, -C2 S starts transforming into -C2 S. This transformation produces volumetric expansion
up to 10%. If the steel slag cooling process is slow, crystals break, resulting in a signicant amount
of dust. This phase conversion and the associated dusting are typical for ladle slags (Shi, 2004;
Yildirim & Prezzi, 2011), dierent from those used in the research described here.
693
At the end of seasoning process, the material may still contain some metal, represented by steel
inclusions, which must be extracted, usually by a magnet and/or by crushing. Lastly, the raw slag
is crushed, generally done rst with a jaw breaker and then nished o with a cone crusher in
order to obtain the desired grading fractions.
The US steelmaking industries produce 1015 million tons of steel slag, every year. In
2006, about 5070% of the total steel slag generated in the USA was recycled as aggregate
for road constructions. About 1540% of the steel slag that was not reutilised was stockpiled in the steel plants and, eventually, sent to slag disposal sites (Yildirim & Prezzi, 2009).
Nearly 12 million tons of steel slag are produced annually in Europe and about 65% is used in
dierent applications, mainly as aggregate in road constructions (Mladenovic, Kokot, Cotic,
Bianco, & Said, 2009). In Italy, the production of steel slags in 2009 was estimated about
three million tons (Sorlini, Sanzeni, & Rondi, 2012), the largest amount of which has been
dumped.
The incineration of MSWs provides by-products that can mainly be classied as bottom ash and
y ash (Fortezza, Far, Segu, & Cerd, 2004). The former, corresponding to 25% on the weight of
the wastes to be incinerated, therefore the principal product of the process, is mainly composed
of silica (Si), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) oxides,
so presenting a composition similar to that of dierent natural materials. Its metallic fraction can
be recovered; the remainder is usually stocked in dumps or, less frequently, recycled. Bottom
ash can be re-utilised in the construction of new infrastructure, especially in bitumen and cement
bound mixtures, because of the inert properties of the binder that covers the grains with a thin
lm, which prevents the release of heavy metals. Fly ash is not usually used in road construction
because of the high content of heavy metals.
The Italian production of bottom ash was equal to 755,000 tons in 2003 (Crillensen & Skaarup,
2006), with a recycling rate of 20%; the largest amount was therefore dumped. In France
and in Germany, the production amounted to 2,995,000 and 3,140,000 tons respectively; the
corresponding recycling rates in road and civil construction were 79 and 65%.
Waste foundry sands are a by-product of the permanent smelting process (Guney, Aydilel,
& Demirkan, 2006; Javed & Lovell, 1995; Pasetto & Bortolini, 2007; Siddique, Kaur, & Rajor,
2010). This process involves the use of consumable sand moulds, formed by reusable models and
hardened by compaction and the addition of binders. The molten metal is poured into the moulds,
which determine the external shape, while internal cavities are obtained by positioning nuclei
of sand, prior to pouring the metal. As the sand-covered binder is exposed to high temperatures
when the metal is poured, its physical and chemical properties deteriorate over time. New natural
sands are usually added in foundries, on a daily basis, to renew the exhausted sand. The sands
pass through many reuse cycles, before being nally dismissed. Many foundries (especially in
Europe and Japan) practice the recovery and recycling of the sand as a way to limit costs, thus
reducing the volume of both new and exhausted sands. In the above processes, the molten metal
is poured into a mould made of sand that has been modelled and hardened to resist the pressure
and heat of the metal. After the metal has been cast, the sand is separated and recycled. Although
foundries tend to recycle as much sand as possible, some sands must be eliminated at each
cycle, because of the physical and chemical collapse of the aggregate, as well as the need to
use virgin sand for every part of the mould. In the metallurgical industry, exhausted foundry
sand is dened as a sand that has completely lost its usefulness in the foundry process as it has
already been recycled many times and must therefore eventually be removed to maintain the
conditions for high-quality smelting. Many types of virgin sand are used for smelting moulds;
they can be divided into four groups (silica, olivine, chromite and zircon). The most commonly
used one is silica. Each group has many sub-groups based on the dierent characteristics of the
aggregate.
694
Figure 1.
EAF steel slags.
The annual production of foundry sand is approximately equal to 9 million and 12 million tons
in Europe and the USA, respectively; this sand is mainly disposed in waste containment facilities
(Guney et al., 2006), while only the 3032% is currently reused in construction.
The RAP material comes from the recycling of degraded bituminous pavements. The use of
recycling in the construction of road pavements in Italy goes back to the end of the 1970s when,
due to the rst big oil crisis, it became necessary to nd new working methods that could limit the
use of oil and its derivatives (bitumen). Under those circumstances, the rst changes were made
to o-site plants for the production of bituminous concrete and the technique of in-situ recycling
was set up. Since then, two techniques of recycling have become established, named hot (with
material heated to above 150 C) and cold (without heating), in both o-site plants and in-situ.
The amount of milled material, namely RAP material, that can be re-utilised in the production of
new mixtures varies depending on technique: for hot recycling, between 10% and 50% is usually
reused, even if some Authors have investigated very high recycling rates (up to 90%) in hot mix
and warm mix asphalts (Alvarez, Bonneau, Dupriet, Le Noan, & Olard, 2008); for cold recycling,
it can potentially reach the 100% (Pasetto, Bortolini, Scabbio, & Carta, 2004).
The Italian production of RAP was equal to 11 million tons in the 2010 (Ravaioli, 2011); a 20%
recycling rate was stated for new asphalt concretes, while the remaining amount was dumped.
In the same period, production in France and Germany was about 7 million and 14 million tons,
respectively, but with recycling rates of 40 and 82%. In the USA, where a production of about 66
million tons and a recycling rate of 84% are reported, the situation appears very dierent.
Concerning the research described here, all the materials have been supplied by an Italian private
company, located in the province of Padua (Northeastern area of Italy, Veneto Region), specialised
in the recovery and valorisation of industrial by-products, for road construction. Figures 14
represent samples of EAF steel slags, RAP, bottom ash and foundry sand, investigated in the
present study.
The recycling feasibility of waste materials in road infrastructures is strongly dependent on
the evaluation of toxic compounds in the non-conventional aggregates, because of the potential heavy metals leaching phenomenon. Table 1 summarises the toxicological characteristics of
Figure 2.
Reclaimed asphalt pavement.
Figure 3.
Bottom ash.
695
the industrial wastes used, in terms of the release of heavy metals by leaching, measured with
the toxic characteristic leachability procedure (TCLP) standard. This is a commonly used test
aimed at evaluating the leaching characteristics of hazardous waste materials, performed on the
aggregates investigated, before any other physical-mechanical testing, in order to establish their
environmental compatibility.
The TCLP requires end-over-end agitation, a 20:1 liquid-to-solid ratio and an equilibrium time
equal to 18 hours. A sample of at least 100 g is extracted with a proper leaching solution. After
agitating it for 18 h, the extracts are separated from the solids using a glass ber lter (Siddique
et al., 2010). The extracts are subsequently analysed in a laboratory, in our case by inductively
coupled plasmaatomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES) methodology.
696
Figure 4.
Foundry sand.
Table 1.
wastes.
Major heavy metal leaching concentration of the aggregates used from industrial
TCLP leaching concentration
Element
Copper (Cu)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Zinc (Zn)
Chromium (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
Mercury (Hg)
Selenium (Se)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
EAF slag
Foundry sand
Bottom ash
Legal thresholds
0.004 mg/l
<1g/l
19.5 g/l
<0.001 mg/l
32.7 g/l
<3 g/l
<1 g/l
<5 g/l
<5 g/l
0.2 mg/l
<1 g/l
<0.4 g/l
<1 g/l
<0.01 mg/l
<1 g/l
<1 g/l
<0.1 g/l
<1 g/l
1.14 g/l
0.0039 mg/l
<0.001 mg/l
<0.0002 g/l
22.8 g/l
<0.1 mg/l
8.9 g/l
<0.5 g/l
<0.1 g/l
<4 g/l
<1.3 g/l
0.8
<0.05 mg/l
<5 g/l
<50 g/l
<3.0 mg/l
<50 g/l
<10 g/l
<1 g/l
<10 g/l
<50 g/l
<1 mg/l
Grading analysis of the marginal materials, conducted using the dry process (Italian CNR
23/71 Standard), provided the grading curves reported in Table 2. It can be noted that the EAF
slags were made available in two particle sizes: 0/20 and 20/60 mm.
Table 3 reports the physico-mechanical properties of the aggregates, plus the test protocols
adopted. RAP materials have been further investigated in terms of bitumen content, as well as
penetration and softening point of the extracted binder.
Foamed bitumen is obtained by injecting small amounts of nebulised water (24% of the
bitumen weight) on hot bitumen (at a temperature of 160180 C) inside an expansion chamber.
In this transitory state of low viscosity, the foamed bitumen can be added and mixed with the
aggregate at ambient temperature and with the in-situ moisture content. In general, air is injected
with the water, which favours the rapid expansion of the bubbles of bitumen. The phenomenon
of foaming is characterised in terms of expansion ratio (ER) and half-life (HL) (Ebels & Jenkins,
2007b; He & Wong, 2007, 2008; Hodgkinson & Visser, 2004; Jenkins, Molenaar, de Groot, & de
Ven, 2000; Kim & Lee, 2006, 2007; Sunarjono, 2007; Wirtgen GmbH, 2004). The ER represents
the ratio between the maximum volume of foamed bitumen and the initial volume of bitumen. The
HL is dened as the time (in seconds) until the maximum volume of foamed bitumen is halved.
The ER represents a measurement of the foam expansion; the HL takes its stability into account
697
Table 2. Marginal materials grading curves.

Passing percentage (%)
Sieve size (mm)
EAF 0/20
EAF 20/60
Bottom ash
Foundry sand
RAP
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
98.16
95.85
84.49
54.17
27.24
4.78
2.24
0.61
100.0
98.41
96.61
90.36
74.00
51.99
30.26
2.25
1.42
1.31
1.28
0.80
0.36
0.15
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
96.35
76.55
58.79
28.06
11.48
4.18
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
94.37
94.37
91.39
87.56
82.27
69.83
57.72
21.03
2.33
0.46
100.00
96.38
96.38
92.75
87.74
82.70
76.02
67.41
53.13
29.11
14.24
1.33
0.26
0.04
71
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
5
2
0.40
0.18
0.075
Table 3.
Physical and mechanical characteristics of the aggregates.
Property
Los Angeles coecient (%)
Equivalent in sand (%)
Shape index (%)
Flakiness index (%)
Grain bulk density (g/cm3 )
Grain dry density (g/cm3 )
Porosity of the grains (%)
Particle voids content (%)
Standard
CNR 34/73
CNR 27/72
CNR 95/84
CNR 95/84
CNR 64/78
CNR 63/78
CNR 65/78
CNR 65/78
EAF 0/20 EAF 20/60 Bottom ash Foundry sand RAP

15
83
10
12
4.14
3.92
5.31
48.72
14
9
19
4.14
3.88
6.28
58.51
50
2.59
2.53
2.32
65.22
27
15
5
2.76
2.64
4.35
49.24
27
82
10
7
2.53
2.36
(ER is usually inversely proportional to HL: if the HL is too short the bitumen tends to return to a
liquid state, with irregular-sized lumps dispersed in the mass; if the HL is too long, there is a net
reduction in the expansion and a consequent unsuccessful covering of the grains of aggregate).
The bituminous binder used was a soft bitumen, 80/100 penetration grade, because, as has
often been veried, softer bitumen should maximise the foam properties, i.e. the ER and the HL.
Portland cement CEM II/B LL 32.5R was used as active ller, for all the mixtures tested in
the trial. The added water was transparent and without harmful concentrations of acids, alkalis,
salts, glucose or other chemical or organic substances, as required by the regulations.
2.2. Mix design principles
The key steps in the mix design of foamed bitumen stabilised granular materials (FBSGMs), once
the type of material for the lithic skeleton has been established, are the grading curve denition,
followed by the mixing moisture and foamed bitumen content (FBC) evaluation. When lime
or cement is added to the mixture, its dosage must also be optimised. The investigation of the
foaming properties of the binder and optimum content of foaming water is also necessary.
In our case, the lithic matrix was exclusively composed of the marginal aggregates analysed
in the study, in order to satisfy the specic demand of the producer, for a full recycled aggregate
skeleton, in view of some relevant road construction works for the highway network in the
698
Table 4.
Mixture
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Figure 5.
Aggregate type and composition of the mixtures.

EAF 0/20 (%)
EAF 20/60 (%)
RAP (%)
Foundry sand (%)
Bottom ash (%)
30
30
10
10
20
20
20
20
10
10
30
30
10
30
10
30
30
10
30
10
Foamed bitumen mixtures: grading curves and reference envelope.
Northeastern Italian area (motorways and highways between Padua and Trieste). Having decided
to rework the material coming from the production plant as little as possible, the design grading
curves assumed were those from the combination, in dierent proportions, of the raw materials,
limited to the fraction of interest, i.e. 0/25 mm. The composition of the mixtures is reported in
Table 4 and the corresponding grading curves are presented in Figure 5.
The proportions of mixtures components represent the possible aggregate combinations during
construction, with respect to the real available amount of each one, in the producer factory, and in
relation to the company production plan, for the current and the intermediate future necessities.
Higher percentages have been xed for the materials, which also give higher economic prot
for the producer in consequence of recycling, any penalisation being avoided in technical terms.
Currently, from the producers economical point of view, the more advantageous materials are
the bottom ash and the foundry sand, followed by the steel slags and RAP.
The use at the mixing stage of the basic materials in their original conditions (each with its
specic grading assortment, without screening for the single particle-sizes) being fundamental
for the practicability of the foamed mixtures, the study of the design grading curves was conducted through tests of compatibility of the curves resulting from the integration of the marginal
aggregates with the ANAS (Italian National Road Authority) reference envelope (Figure 5).
699
Optimisation of the binding phase, which obviously regards the FBC, does not always involve
the cement that, being the active ller, is most frequently used at a constant rate for all the mixtures
investigated (Ebels & Jenkins, 2007a).
For the optimisation of the percentage of foamed bitumen, Jenkins suggests a two-step approach
(Ebels & Jenkins, 2007b). The rst is based on tests of compressive strength and indirect tensile
strength (ITS), for the initial identication of the grading curve and FBC. The mix design is then
rened in the second phase, involving triaxial tests (monotonic or cyclic), for the verication of
the performance of the mixtures in terms of shear strength (cohesion and friction angle) (Ebels
& Jenkins, 2006) and stiness (resilient modulus, tangent modulus, secant modulus) (Ebels &
Jenkins, 2007a). The studies conducted by Jenkins and his collaborators (Twagira, Jenkins, &
Ebels, 2006) revealed a more critical aspect of the mechanical performance of the mixtures
stabilised with foamed bitumen (at least for the ones they analysed) in terms of the accumulation
of permanent deformations, rather than cracking (investigated with the four-point bending test).
Jenkins therefore suggests paying more attention to permanent deformations, to be investigated
with cyclic triaxial tests (Ebels & Jenkins, 2007b).
Kim and Lee emphasise the advisability of adopting mix design procedures based on the
standard equipment available in road laboratories (Kim & Lee, 2006). They thus considered both
the indirect tensile strength (ITS) test and the Marshall test, verifying the better sensitivity of the
former in the identication of the optimal content of foamed bitumen. Kim and Lee therefore
propose an optimisation based on the verication of the ITS in dry and wet conditions (Kim &
Lee, 2007), and a successive performance analysis in terms of dynamic modulus and repeated
load axial test (RLAT) (Kim & Lee, 2009).
He and Wong (2007) consider the optimal percentage of foamed bitumen to be that at which the
ITS of specimens immersed for 24 hours in water at 25 C is highest. He and Wong (2008) then
focused on the performance of the optimised mixtures, with regard to permanent deformations
(also in soaked conditions), by means of dynamic creep tests.
The cited examples, while not being exhaustive of the many studies reported in the literature
(Hodgkinson & Visser, 2004; Mallick & Hendrix, 2004; Muthen, 1998; Nataatmadja, 2001;
Sunarjono, 2007; Zulakmal, Nasah, Yazip, & Zin, 2009), introduce the basic concepts of the
mix design procedure followed in the present research. From the previous cited references, the key
laboratory test for the evaluation of the FBC, used in all the previous international investigations,
appears to be the ITS test, in dry and wet conditions; therefore it has been assumed as a primary
optimisation test in the present study.
2.3. Mix design procedure

The investigation regarded four dierent lithic skeletons (Mix 1, Mix 2, Mix 3, Mix 4) combined
with three percentages of cement (1%, 2%, 3%) and three of foamed bitumen (2%, 3%, 4%). It
was not considered advisable to consider contents of more than 3% of cement to avoid potential
problems of fragility of the mixtures, while with more than 4% of bitumen the stabilisation would
no longer be economical.
Prior to the mix design, the compactability of the granular mixtures without foamed bitumen
was investigated by means of Proctor compaction tests (EN 13286-2), in order to determine the
maximum dry density and corresponding optimum moisture content (OMC); this value can be
used to determine the mixing moisture content, according to the following equation recommended
by Wirtgen GmbH (2004):
Wadd = 1 + (0.5WOMC Wmoist ),
(1)
700
where Wadd is the water content to be added to the specimen (% by mass), WOMC is the optimum moisture content (% by mass), Wmoist is the moisture content in the specimen dried in air
(% by mass). The mixing moisture content values, computed using Equation (1), result as basically within the range between 65% and 85% of the OMC, as suggested in previous investigations
(Bissada, 1987; Lee, 1981).
For each of the 36 dierent mixtures studied, a batch size of 10 kg of marginal aggregates
(previously dried in an oven at 105 C and then allowed to cool at a room temperature) was
prepared, with respect to the proportions reported in Table 4. After the proper percentage of
cement was added to the dried and cooled aggregates, each batch was pre-mixed with the specic
respective OMC, by means of a Hobart mixer with a spiral dough hook agitator, at a room
temperature, for 1 min. The foamed bitumen, produced using Wirtgen foaming equipment WLB
S10, was subsequently directly mixed with the pre-wet aggregates for 1 min, using the Hobart
mixer. The foamed materials were then immediately compacted using the Marshall hammer,
following the specications in Standard EN 12697-34, with the exception of the number of blows
of the Marshall standard tamper utilised for the compaction of the bituminous mixtures, which
was chosen, as sometimes suggested, as 75 for each side of the specimen (Wirtgen GmbH, 2004),
instead of the 50 given in the Standard; the value adopted is also in line with those referred to in
the principal investigations performed on the foamed bitumen mixtures (Kim & Lee, 2006, 2007;
Sunarjono, 2007). As outlined by some authors, the timing of adding and mixing components
and subsequent compaction should be similar in the laboratory and eld procedures (Mallick &
Hendrix, 2004).
All compacted samples were allowed to cure for 1 day in the mould, at room temperature, before
being demoulded by means of an extrusion jack (He & Wong, 2008; Hodgkinson & Visser, 2004;
Sunarjono, Zoorob, & Thom, 2007). The specimens were subsequently aged for 3 days at 40 C,
in a forced draft controlled temperature oven (He & Wong, 2007, 2008; Kim & Lee, 2006, 2007;
Sunarjono et al., 2007).
The water content necessary in order to optimise the above-mentioned foaming properties of
the bitumen, was determined by means of foaming tests under dierent conditions, using Wirtgen
GmbH (2004) foaming equipment WLB S10 and following the laboratory procedures suggested
in the Wirtgen Cold Recycling Manual. Since a variation of the foaming water content (FWC)
produces opposite eects on the ER and HL (an increase of the FWC causes an increase of the ER
accompanied by a reduction of the HL), the optimal value has to be a compromise. The Wirtgen
methodology is still widely used (He & Wong, 2007, 2008; Sunarjono, 2007), despite renements
having been proposed based on the foam index concept (Jenkins et al., 2000), which put into play
the area subtended by the curve of decline of the ER over time. However, more recent research has
demonstrated some limits of the optimisation based on the foam index (He & Wong, 2005; Saleh,
2006; Sunarjono et al., 2007), in particular, for bitumens that present a substantially constant
HL below a certain value of the FWC, rendering the identication of the optimal water content
almost impossible. It was therefore decided to maintain the original Wirtgen protocol, in which
the optimal value of foaming water is dened as the average value among those associated to the
lowest ER and HL.
2.4. Mix design testing methods

It was decided to test the ITS of a series of cylindrical specimens for each of the 36 mixtures
considered, in order to identify the optimal binder contents. After the specimens had been cured
and subsequently conditioned at the required test temperature, in an environmental conditioning
cabinet, their ITS was determined at 25 C, following the specications in Standard EN 12697-23.
701
The ITS was determined using the well-known equation:
ITS =
2Pmax
,
dh
(2)
where Pmax represents the rupture load [N] of the specimens under diametral compression, d and
h are average values of the diameter [mm] and height [m] of the Marshall specimens, respectively.
In order to render the mix design procedure more robust and reliable, indirect tensile stiness
modulus (ITSM) tests (EN 12697-26, Annex C) were also performed on Marshall specimens,
produced in the same way as those tested for ITS. The stiness was evaluated at 25 C, with a rise
time of 125 ms. According to Annex C of the European Standard, calculation of the Modulus is
based on the average of ve load pulses, for each of which the Modulus is determined with the
equation:
F( + 0.27)
ITSM =
,
(3)
zh
where ITSM is the stiness modulus [MPa], F represents the peak value of the applied vertical
load [N], z the amplitude of the horizontal deformation obtained during the load cycle [mm], h the
mean thickness of the cylindrical specimen [mm] and the Poissons ratio [].
Moreover, the ITSM, as well as the ITS, were determined on both dry and soaked specimens,
in order to evaluate the moisture susceptibility of the foamed mixtures. The soaked specimens
were immersed in water at 25 C for 24 hours before testing (He & Wong, 2007; Hodgkinson &
Visser, 2004; Kim & Lee, 2006; Mallick & Hendrix, 2004; Sunarjono, 2007).
The optimal FBC and the design cement content (CC) for each mixture were determined in
correspondence to the maximum ITS and maximum ITSM, at both dry and soaked conditions.
2.5. Performance test programme
The resistance to permanent deformation has been investigated by means of the RLAT with free
lateral expansion, following the specications of BS DD 226 Standard. The British Standard
prescribes 1800 pulses of a 100 kPa stress, with loading and unloading times xed at 1 s, at
a temperature of 30 C. This temperature is acceptable in the present study, given the climatic
conditions in Northern Italy and the depth of the foundation layers (for which a higher temperature
would not be appropriate). With respect to the Standard protocol, which provides for determination
of the cumulative axial strain after 1800 loading cycles, the RLAT data were elaborated to compute
the creep rate (CR) and corresponding secant creep modulus (SCM) in the linear portion of the
creep curves. In fact, it is possible to identify an initial stretch in the cyclic creep curves at a
decreasing CR (Phase 1) and a successive stretch at constant CR (Phase 2). Phase 1 corresponds
to the initial densication of the mixtures, and is notably inuenced by the compaction method,
while Phase 2, denable between 600 and 1800 cycles, reects the real tendency of the mixtures to
develop permanent deformations under repeated loads. This approach, also followed recently by
He and Wong (2007, 2008), therefore deducts the contribution given by the initial densication,
not exclusively correlated with the intrinsic properties of the mixtures, from the analysis on the
resistance to permanent deformations.
Therefore, the SCM, calculated as the ratio between the constant stress applied and the cumulative axial strain of the specimen between 600 and 1800 cycles, and the CR, i.e. the ratio between
the cumulative axial strain in the above-dened interval of load applications and the width of that
interval, were both computed.
The RLAT investigation was performed on both dry and soaked Marshall specimens in order
to further investigate the moisture sensitivity of the mixes and to validate the mix design phase.
702
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Materials characterisation
By Italian Law, the recycled aggregates considered are non-hazardous, special non-toxic and
non-noxious refuse. They are solid material and odour-free. The EAF slags and bottom ash are
greyish in colour, whereas the foundry sand as well as the RAP appear basically black. The pH is
12.6 for the bottom ash, 11.1 for the EAF slags and 8.6 for the foundry sand.
Table 5 summarises the toxicological characteristics of the EAF slag and foundry sand, in terms
of initial concentrations of heavy metals, measured with the ICP-AES methodology. The initial
concentration of heavy metals in the two metallurgical wastes diers, with that of the foundry
sand being higher in terms of copper and nickel. The EAF slag contains more zinc and chromium,
with the content of the latter being highest, but anyhow less than 0.4% of the total volume.
The results of Table 1 demonstrate that, for the marginal materials analysed, the release of
heavy metals by leaching is within the limits of the environmental regulations in force in Italy
(Legislative Decree no. 152/2006). Therefore, given that the constituents of the mixtures do not
present toxicological problems, it was considered unnecessary to proceed with leaching tests on
specimens with foamed bitumen and cement added.
The EAF slags, in terms of oxides (analysed with X-ray uorescence), contain a prevalence of
FeO (30.4%) and CaO (27.7%), as well as SiO2 (17.5%), MgO (6.6%) and Al2 O3 (4.8%). The
SiO2 /CaO ratio characterises the EAF slags as substantially alkaline aggregates and therefore
suitable to guarantee the necessary adhesion with the weakly acid bitumen.
The marginal materials resulted as practically unaected by the action of water, presenting nondeterminable Atterberg Limits (Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit according to CNR-UNI 10014/64),
and this, in relation to the values for passing through sieves of 2, 0.4, 0.075 mm (Table 2), has led
to the wastes being classied, based on the HRB AASHTO methodology, as A1 soils, which
can be used in road construction (foundry sand and bottom ash can be assimilated to an A1-b soil,
while steel slags and RAP to an A1-a soil).
According to the data in Table 3, the steel slag, as well as the bottom ash and RAP, are
characterised by a cleaning level (equivalent in sand) above the minimum acceptance requisite
for materials to be used in foamed mixtures for road foundations, set at 30% in the ANAS
specication. Instead, for the foundry sand, the equivalent in sand is below the threshold (10%).
Table 5. Major heavy metal content of the EAF slag

and the foundry sand.
Initial concentration (mg/kg)
Element
Copper (Cu)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
Zinc (Zn)
Chromium total (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
Mercury (Hg)
Selenium (Se)
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Antimony (Sb)
Thallium (TI)
EAF slags
Foundry sand
221
<0.5
37.7
589
3534
37.6
<0.5
17.4
5.5
<0.5
33.6
40.7
580
<1
27
35
485
368
<0.5
<1
19.2
<1
<2
<1

Table 6.
OMC and dry densities of the mixtures.
Propriety
OMC (%)
Dry density (g/cm3 )
703
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
6.00
2.50
5.50
2.55
6.50
2.32
6.00
2.36
The cubical shape of the EAF slags grains, as well as that of the foundry sand particles and
RAP (Shape and Flakening Indexes characterised by low values), enable a strong interlocking
eect within the foamed mixtures.
The Los Angeles test displayed a good resistance of both fractions of EAF slags to abrasion and
friction, with a Los Angeles coecient lower than the acceptance requisite of 30% in the ANAS
specication. A borderline value, with respect to the ANAS acceptance requisite, was recorded
for the RAP.
The bulk and dry density of both the bottom ash and foundry sand, as well as that of the RAP, are
decidedly lower than that of the steel slags. The volumetric properties of the grains (particle voids
and porosity) resulted in being quite similar for the metallurgical wastes; the data recorded for the
bottom ash were consistently dierent. It has to be noticed that the relatively high porosity of the
steel slags could require a high amount of binder for conventional hot bituminous mixtures, but
the dierence is often really low (Pasetto & Baldo, 2010a, 2011, 2012). For the foamed bitumen
mixtures, since the binder does not cover the larger aggregate particles, an anomalous absorption
of bitumen by the steel slags grains is not expected.
Cold extraction (by centrifugation) of the bitumen of the RAP revealed a binder percentage of
4.9% (CNR 38/73) on the weight of the aggregate. The extracted bitumen showed a penetration
of 9 dmm at 25 C (CNR 24/71) and a softening point, with the Ring and Ball Method, of 75 C
(CNR 35/73); it is therefore a decidedly aged and particularly hard binder.
The foamed bitumen used showed a penetration value of 82 dmm at 25 C (CNR 24/71); in
relation to the optimal water content of 3% and a foaming temperature of 180 C, the ER and
the HL resulted in 18 and 87 s, respectively. These are much higher than the minimum values
usually indicated of 8 s for ER and 16 s for HL (Wirtgen GmbH, 2004). The high value of HL
was particularly advantageous in allowing an adequate amount of time for the mixing operations
with the aggregates.
The OMC was determined through the study of the compaction of the granular mixtures, with
the modied Proctor test, conducted according to the operative procedures reported in the EN
13286-2 Standard, which provided the results reported in Table 6. As expected, the granular
mixtures with higher steel slag and foundry sand contents, were characterised by the higher dry
densities.
3.2. Grading and composition of the mixes

The grading curves reported in Table 2 show that both the nest fractions, namely the foundry sand
and the bottom ash, have basically a continuous grading. The steel slags are instead characterised
by a discontinuous and a continuous grading for the 20/60 and 0/20 mm fractions, respectively.
For the RAP, Table 2 reports the black curve, i.e. the grading curve of the RAP material, which
is substantially continuous and similar to that of the EAF 0/20. With the exception of the bottom
ash, all the materials have an extremely low percentage that passes through a sieve of 0.075 mm,
being always less than 1%; it is therefore clearly impossible to achieve a grading assortment with
sucient ller.
704
Table 4 reports the composition of the foamed mixtures, while the corresponding grading curves
are presented in Figure 5. The EAF 20/60 mm fraction was xed at a constant contribution (20%),
while dierent amounts of EAF 0/20 mm, RAP materials, bottom ash and foundry sand were
integrated in the skeleton. This was done to guarantee a minimum percentage of coarse aggregate
in all the mixes, constituted by the EAF 20/60, to then alternately combine the RAP and EAF 0/20
at a ratio of 3:1, as with the foundry sand and bottom ash, i.e. the pairs of materials characterised
by a relatively similar grading assortment. This was in order to verify the feasibility of using the
various materials in dierent proportions, in relation to their availability in the production factory,
as explicitly requested by the producer. A key point for a successful reuse of these materials in
the transport infrastructures eld is represented by the possibility of guaranteeing, during the full
road construction period, the necessary amount of the mixture, even in the case of a relatively
unexpected reduced availability of some components. In this sense Mix 1 and Mix 2 present a
greater amount of EAF 0/20 than RAP, because slag availability is currently higher than RAP
one. Mix 3 and Mix 4 represent the alternatives, in view of a possible inversion in the trend, as
considered by the company in its production plan scenarios, where an increased RAP availability
balances a hypothetical lower quantity of EAF 0/20. Similar considerations have been assumed
with respect to the foundry sand and the bottom ash proportions in the mixes, the former currently
being more available than the latter.
With respect to ANAS envelope (Figure 5), the grading curves of the four mixes present a
critical low content of nes. This grading characteristic, even if not surprising in consequence
of the particular wastes analysed, cannot be ignored, since the need of a minimum ne content
(approximately 5%) is well known for an ecacious dispersion of the foamed bitumen in the mix
and therefore for adequate mechanical properties of the product. In similar cases, the integration
of natural ller could be hypothesised (Sunarjono, 2007), but in this research the aim was to verify
the possibility of using exclusively marginal materials in their original conditions, using cement
as active ller, up to a maximum of 3% on the weight of the aggregate, and studying the best mix
design of the binding phase later.
3.3. Optimisation of the mixtures
Tables 7 and 8 present the results of the ITS tests for the mixtures. For each combination of bitumen
and cement, the top line represents the ITS in dry conditions (dry ITS [MPa]) and the middle one
the resistance after immersion in water (soaked ITS [MPa]). Each ITS value is calculated as the
average of the values recorded on three specimens. The bottom line reports the tensile strength
ratio (TSR). The TSR is computed as the ratio between the ITS of the specimens treated in water
(soaked) and untreated (dry).
For all the mixtures the ITS had an increasing trend with the CC, for each of the percentages of
foamed bitumen, in both dry and soaked conditions, conrming what has been widely reported
in the literature regarding the benecial eect of the active ller on the increase of resistance in
foamed mixtures (Ebels & Jenkins, 2007b; Hodgkinson & Visser, 2004; Khweir, 2007; Wirtgen
GmbH, 2004; Zulakmal et al., 2009), due to the formation of pozzolanic bonds. Considering
instead each single percentage of active ller, for all four lithic skeletons, with the varying of the
FBC, there was a peak of resistance at 3% in dry conditions, while after the treatment in water the
ITS increased as the percentage of bituminous binder rose. The peaks of ITS in dry and soaked
conditions therefore do not coincide. In the analysis of mix design it is thus considered useful and
necessary to integrate the ITS data with those of ITSM, prior to formulating a nal judgment.
With reference to the acceptance requisites of the Italian specications, expressed only in terms
of ITS in dry conditions, all the mixtures, with any combination of cement and foamed bitumen,
exceeded the minimum value of 0.32 MPa. Also the minimum requisites suggested by Bowering

Table 7.
Indirect tensile test results: Mix 1 and Mix 2.

Mix 1 CC (%)
FBC (%)
2
3
705
Mix 2 CC (%)
0.44
0.15
34
0.60
0.22
37
0.47
0.25
54
0.54
0.33
61
0.60
0.38
64
0.55
0.41
75
0.66
0.42
64
0.73
0.47
65
0.60
0.49
82
0.40
0.11
28
0.53
0.18
34
0.44
0.21
48
0.50
0.29
58
0.56
0.32
57
0.51
0.35
69
0.63
0.39
62
0.69
0.44
64
0.59
0.41
70
Note: For each FBC, dry ITS (MPa), soaked ITS (MPa) and TSR (%)
are respectively quoted.
Table 8.
Indirect tensile test results: Mix 3 and Mix 4.

Mix 3 CC (%)
FBC (%)
2
3
4
Mix 4 CC (%)
0.39
0.1
26
0.47
0.15
32
0.36
0.17
47
0.45
0.24
53
0.54
0.29
54
0.5
0.33
66
0.51
0.31
61
0.55
0.34
62
0.52
0.35
68
0.37
0.08
22
0.44
0.11
25
0.36
0.13
37
0.43
0.2
47
0.51
0.26
51
0.41
0.27
65
0.44
0.24
55
0.52
0.31
60
0.48
0.32
67
Note: For each FBC, dry ITS (MPa), soaked ITS (MPa) and TSR (%)
are respectively quoted.
and Martin (1976), of 0.2 MPa and 0.1 MPa, in dry and soaked conditions, respectively, were
amply met. Vice versa, not all the mixtures reach the Bowering and Martin requisite minimum
TSR value of 50%. Mixes 1, 2 and 3 meet this requisite with 2% of cement, independently of
the bitumen content, while Mix 4 needs 3% of cement. With 4% of bitumen, Mix 1 satises the
minimum requisite of TSR with just 1% of cement and, for the higher percentages of active ller
and bituminous binder, it reaches 82% of ITS.
Comparing the mixtures with the same percentages of bitumen and cement, a reduction in
resistance with the increase in the percentage of RAP can be noted. Mix 1, with 50% of EAF slags
and 30% of foundry sand, gave the highest values of ITS, in both dry and soaked conditions, as
well as the highest value of TSR.
The EAF slags have high surface roughness, which favours a rm adhesion of the bitumen
on the grains (Pasetto & Baldo, 2010a, 2011, 2012), while the bottom ash, in comparison to the
foundry sand, as well as having almost double the equivalent in sand, has a grading assortment
with more ller, which favours more homogeneous dispersion of the bubbles of foamed bitumen
in the mixing phase, benetting the cohesion of the mix.
For all the mixes investigated, there were no problems, during the making, compaction or
seasoning of the specimens, caused by uneven expansion or phenomena of disgregation, ascribable
706

Table 9.
Stiness modulus test results: Mix 1 and Mix 2.

Mix 1 CC (%)
FBC (%)
2
3
Mix 2 CC (%)
3804
2548
67
4735
3362
71
4603
3544
77
4066
3050
75
5172
4086
79
5070
4259
84
4833
3915
81
5217
4538
87
5196
4728
91
3676
2242
61
4483
2914
65
4479
3225
72
3793
2542
67
4908
3533
72
4542
3633
80
4367
3362
77
5056
4247
84
5010
4409
88
Note: For each FBC, dry ITSM (MPa), soaked ITSM (MPa) and SMR
(%) are respectively quoted.
Table 10.
Stiness modulus test results: Mix 3 and Mix 4.

Mix 3 CC (%)
FBC (%)
2
3
4
Mix 4 CC (%)
3053
1679
55
3599
2123
59
3332
2199
66
3454
2176
63
3843
2613
68
3354
2482
74
3544
2587
73
3973
3258
82
3720
3162
85
2923
1491
51
3297
1813
55
3095
1857
60
3443
2066
60
3548
2235
63
3348
2343
70
3540
2478
70
3783
2913
77
3382
2706
80
Note: For each FBC, dry ITSM (MPa), soaked ITSM (MPa) and SMR
(%) are respectively quoted.
to the presence of free lime potentially subject to hydration or carbonation in the EAF slags
particles, as has instead been reported (Pasetto & Baldo, 2010a, 2011, 2012) for some types of
steel slags not or insuciently seasoned.
Tables 9 and 10 report the results of the ITSM tests conducted on all the mixes analysed in the
phase of mix design. For each combination of bitumen and cement, the top line represents the
stiness in dry conditions (dry ITSM [MPa]) and the middle one the modulus after immersion
in water (soaked ITSM [MPa]). Each modulus value represents the average calculated on the
values of three dierent specimens. The bottom line reports the stiness modulus ratio (SMR
[%]). Similarly to the TSR, the SMR is evaluated as the ratio between the Stiness Modulus of
the specimens treated in water (soaked) and untreated (dry).
The stiness recorded in dry conditions ranges between 2900 and 5200 MPa, in relation to the
type of lithic skeleton and combination of bitumen and cement. The moduli are therefore of great
signicance, especially given the particularity of the studied mixtures, and comparable with those
of hot mix asphalts investigated by the authors in the same working conditions (Pasetto & Baldo,
2010a, 2011, 2012).
There is also an analogy with the behaviour observed in the ITS test, with the varying of the
percentages of cement and foamed bitumen. Higher CCs always correspond to higher modulus
Figure 6.
707
ITSM vs. ITS (at 25 C).
values in both dry and soaked conditions. Vice versa, with the same active ller content, the
mixes show greater stiness at 3% of bituminous binder, but only in dry conditions, because after
immersion in water, a higher percentage of foamed bitumen leads to a further increase in the
modulus values.
As mentioned in the introduction, in foamed mixtures the bituminous binder only partially
covers the large grains, while it closely adheres to the ne grains; the cohesion of the mix is
guaranteed by the spot welding of the bitumen-ller mastic, which provides the necessary intergranular adhesion. Therefore, in dry conditions, a lower bitumen content (2%) produces a mastic
with too little bituminous binder to guarantee a sucient inter-granular adhesion, which leads to
a lower stiness of the mixtures. The increase of bitumen, due to its lubricant eect, favours the
reciprocal convergence of the grains and a better densication condition to be reached, from which
a better interlocking eect derives. In addition, the higher bitumen content, increasing the welding
spots available in the mix, leads to a further increase of the inter-granular adhesion. The double
eect translates into an increase in stiness of the mixtures, with a peak at 3% (of binder) in dry
conditions. A further increase of bitumen to 4%, if on the one hand it increases the inter-granular
adhesion, on the other it produces a more deformable mastic. The results of the ITSM tests lead
to the conclusion that in dry conditions, at 4% of bitumen, the deformability of the bituminous
mastic has a greater eect than the inter-granular adhesion, with a consequent reduction in stiness
of the mixtures. In soaked conditions, vice versa, the inter-granular adhesion has a predominant
role and therefore a progressive increase of bitumen translates into a corresponding increase in
stiness of the mixtures, which reaches the maximum (modulus) value at 4% of bitumen.
The study of the stiness thus conrms the ITS tests; the correlation between the ITSM and
ITS data in dry conditions, represented in Figure 6, is reasonably satisfactory. The ratio between
the two parameters was expressed with a power function, characterised by an appreciable value
of the coecient of determination R2 (0.66). The outlined correlation is very important in order to
develop a reliable relationship on the fundamental and engineering properties of foamed bitumen
mixtures (Sunarjono, 2007).
In comparative terms, a higher concentration of EAF slags and bottom ash is always preferable.
708

Table 11.
CR results.
Mix 1 CC (%)
FBC (%)
3
4
Mix 2 CC (%)
Mix 3 CC (%)
Mix 4 CC (%)
0.2017
0.2658
1.3182
0.3450
0.5217
1.5121
0.1525
0.1692
1.1093
0.2983
0.3942
1.3212
0.2125
0.2975
1.4000
0.5258
0.8475
1.6117
0.2058
0.2483
1.2065
0.4192
0.5775
1.3777
0.3208
0.4817
1.5013
0.6508
1.1267
1.7311
0.2592
0.3650
1.4084
0.5158
0.7933
1.5380
0.3650
0.6317
1.7306
0.6742
1.2467
1.8492
0.3200
0.4733
1.4792
0.6208
1.0183
1.6403
Note: For each FBC, dry CR (microstrain/cycle), soaked CR (microstrain/cycle) and retained CR (%) are
respectively quoted.
Table 12.
SCM results.
Mix 1 CC (%)
FBC (%)
3
4
Mix 2 CC (%)
Mix 3 CC (%)
Mix 4 CC (%)
413
313
76
242
160
66
546
493
90
279
211
76
392
280
71
158
98
62
405
336
83
199
144
73
260
173
67
128
74
58
322
228
71
162
105
65
228
132
58
124
67
54
260
176
68
132
82
62
Note: For each FBC, dry SCM (MPa), soaked SCM (MPa) and retained SCM (%) are respectively
quoted.
The results from the mix design allow all four lithic skeletons to be considered favourably, and
the contents of 2% and 3% for cement and 3% and 4% for foamed bitumen to be identied as
preferable. Nevertheless, the denition of a precise percentage of bitumen and cement for each of
the four mixtures requires further study, based on the resistance to the accumulation of permanent
deformations.
In terms of SMR, even if in the literature there is as yet no well-established reference threshold,
it is possible to conrm the best performance of the mixes with 3% of cement and 4% of foamed
bitumen and, in absolute terms, the superiority of Mix 1. It can nally be observed that the SMR
always assumes higher values than the corresponding values of TSR. The greater severity of the
ITS test, already observed for hot mix asphalts (Pasetto & Baldo, 2010a, 2011, 2012), would
therefore seem to be conrmed also for foamed mixtures in the study of moisture sensitivity.
3.4. Permanent deformation test
Tables 11 and 12 report, in terms of CR and SCM, the results of the RLATs conducted on the
mixtures identied as potentially optimal in the phase of mix design, i.e. on a reduced number
of cement-foamed bitumen combinations. For each combination of bitumen and cement, the top
line represents the CR [microstrain/cycle] and the SCM [MPa] in dry conditions and the middle
line the CR and SCM after immersion in water. Each value of the RLATs is calculated as the
average of the values obtained with three specimens. The bottom line reports the retained CR
(Table 11) and retained SCM (Table 12). Both the parameters are computed as the ratio between
the CR/SCM of the specimens treated in water (soaked) and untreated (dry).
Figure 7.
709
Retained SCM vs. retained CR (at 30 C).
The results, in terms of both CR and SCM, in dry conditions are congruent with those recorded in
the ITS and stiness modulus tests. A higher percentage of cement always limits the deformability
of the mixtures and translates into a reduction of the CR and an increase of the SCM. With the same
hydraulic binder content, a diminution of stiness is recorded, already observed in the ITSM tests,
which is indicated by a net reduction of the SCM passing from 3% to 4% of bitumen; in parallel,
the CR increases markedly. The results from the CR and SCM appear therefore congruent and
represent a useful tool for the interpretation of the deformation behaviour of the foamed mixtures.
Figure 7 shows the excellent correlation between the data of retained SCM and retained CR,
computed as the ratio between the values of SCM and CR respectively after and before the immersion of the specimens in water. The interpolation of the data, expressed with a power function,
gives a high value of the coecient of determination R2 (approximately 1) and demonstrates the
full congruence between SCM and CR data. From the experimental results, it can be deduced that
CR decreases with an increase of SCM. Therefore if the SCM of a foamed bitumen mixture is
being improved, its susceptibility to permanent deformation will be consequently reduced.
Regarding the moisture sensitivity of the mixtures, the results from the RLATs in soaked
conditions dier from those observed in the ITS tests after treatment in water. The accumulation
of permanent deformations in soaked conditions is higher with 4% of bitumen, although the
welding spots are more numerous, because the deformation behaviour in the RLATs is dierent
from the resistance mechanism in the ITS tests. In the ITS, the greater interlocking leads to a
higher rupture load, while in the RLAT a mastic with more bitumen favours viscous creep; this
eect, amplied by the treatment in water, appears with a higher accumulation of permanent
deformations.
The RLATs provide information on the mechanical behaviour of the foamed mixtures that is
fundamental for a correct mix design. The study of permanent deformations, in both dry and
soaked conditions, is therefore more than a mere performance check of the mixtures optimised
with ITS and ITSM tests, and should be considered an integral part of the mix design process. In
this study, for example, if on the one hand the RLATs conrm 3% of cement as preferable, on the
other they suggest 3% as optimal bitumen percentage, not 4% as evinced from the ITS and ITSM
710
tests. Indeed, for 3% of cement and bitumen, the TSR ranges between 60% and 65%, in relation
to the type of lithic skeleton, and is therefore above the minimum threshold of 50% given as the
requisite of ITS by Bowering and Martin.
As regards the lithic composition of the mixtures, the RLATs support the results of the ITS
and ITSM tests, evidencing a greater resistance to permanent deformations of the mixtures
with more EAF slags (Mix 1 and Mix 2). Both the high density and mechanical strength, as
well as the polyhedron shape, high angularity and rough texture of the steel slags, are fundamental characteristics in order to ensure resistance to permanent deformations under repeated
loading.
4. Conclusions
The marginal materials studied, namely EAF steel slags, foundry sand, bottom ash and RAP,
possess physical and mechanical properties that are comparable to the characteristics of natural
aggregate usually used in transportation infrastructure, complete chemical suitability with the
bitumen used for the foamed mixtures and full environmental compatibility.
The mix design procedure, based on ITS and stiness modulus tests, completed by RLATs,
has identied mixtures made exclusively with marginal materials, in variable proportions, thus
being interesting in terms of both the environment and economics, which satisfy the requisites
for acceptance in the road technical standards for cold mixtures; the best-suited binder contents
resulted as being equal to 3%, for both cement and foamed bitumen.
The experimental results are satisfactory, especially in the case of foamed bitumen mixtures
with the higher EAF slag content (50%), with good values of dry ITS, up to 0.73 MPa (mixture
integrated with 30% of bottom ash and 10% of RAP) and 0.69 MPa (mixture combined with 30%
of foundry sand and 10% of RAP), depending on the binder dosages.
The foamed mixtures made with EAF slags, foundry sand, bottom ash and RAP, are characterised by low moisture damage in terms of tensile strength and SMR, as well as retained CR and
SCM, so demonstrating a satisfactory durability.
After a comparison between foundry sand and bottom ash, we can conclude that the latter
gives higher strength, stiness and resistance to permanent deformation to the foamed bitumen
mixtures, irrespective of the binder contents.
In the investigation on the permanent deformation resistance of the foamed mixtures, the CR
and the SCM resulted as consistent parameters, which provide a reliable analysis of the creep
behavior of the mixes under repeated loading.
In conclusion, for the mix design and testing procedure, according to the results obtained in the
present research, it is strongly recommended to complete the classic ITS test-based mix design,
with subsequent RLATs, in order to identify the optimal binder percentages. The stiness modulus,
even if useful in order to conrm the ITS results, does not allow the optimisation process to be
properly concluded, without the RLAT investigation.
Finally, we remark, on the basis of experimental considerations, that the missing fullment
of conventional grading requirements does not necessarily imply the impossibility of designing
mixtures satisfying the acceptance requisites related to mechanical behaviour and to durability
performance.
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