Sport and National Identity

University of Vienna
Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology

Affective Globalisation: On the politics and economies of emotions in the global era
Winter term 2013/14
Dr. Herta Nbauer
Sport and National Identity

A German Example
Johanna Hohaus
Matrikelnummer: 1347009
MA Global Studies, 1st semester
johanna.hohaus@googlemail.com
Laxenburgerstr. 85/17, 1100 Wien
Content
1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.
Definition of terms ............................................................................................................................ 2

2.1.
Nation ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2.
Identity ..................................................................................................................................... 4
3.
Factors influencing national identity ................................................................................................ 6
4.
Sport and national identity ............................................................................................................... 7

4.1.
The Olympics ........................................................................................................................... 9
4.2.
FIFA World Cup ..................................................................................................................... 10
4.2.1.
Historical development in Germany............................................................................... 11
4.2.2.
Current situation in Germany ......................................................................................... 12
4.2.3.
Media and Football ........................................................................................................ 12
5.
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 13
6.
Annex ............................................................................................................................................. 15
7.
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 18
8.
Internet Sources ............................................................................................................................ 18
1. Introduction
It is the year 2014 and it is the year of a new world cup. Every four years football fans in the whole
world come together to celebrate the sport and their teams. The time before the tournament is a period
full of excitement. The main part in this game play the various national media programs be it radio,
broadcast or print offering their spectators/readers the broadest information possible. As it comes
with human nature, people compete with each other for the victory. Therefore, national teams
represent the best players of each country, coaches develop their strategies with a large number of
experts, weaknesses of the others are analyzed and tried to be used as advantages for the own team.
While the coaches act behind the curtains, the media try to do this analysis for the public. That is
where national clichs and national identities come into the game. An international tournament allows
experiencing playfully prejudices and concepts of enemies among fans and professionals and is a sort
of a modern international understanding. It can be taken for granted that there is a certain connection
of sport and identity, especially all forms of collective identity. But how and to what extent does football
contribute to the formation of national identity?
Before getting deeper into the topic of sport and its effect on collective identity it should be assured
that writer and reader refer to the same definitions. Hence, the prevalent terms, such as nation and
(national) identity and the different perspectives on them are going to be outlined in a first place. This
will be followed by a general discussion of the influences national identity is exposed to, leading to the
last and most interesting point of the actual linkage of sport and national identity. All this will be done
on the basis of the development in/of Germany. I have chosen this country not only because the
German people are enthusiastic football fans but also because the German history offers some very
interesting points for such a topic. Besides the football, also the Olympics are integrated into this paper
because they represent the oldest tradition of mass sport events and unite all sorts of sport.
2. Definition of terms
2.1.
Nation
The Merriam-Webster dictionary leads nation back to the Latin word nation making a detour over
Middle English (nacioun) and Anglo-French (naciun). The Latin original means birth and race.
1
Todays meaning is a large area of land that is controlled by its own government .
The term nation is largely discussed among scientists. It is a belonging together for various reasons:
It can be based on culture/cultural rituals, religion, language, collective memory or symbols and it
Merriam-Webster Online (2014).
results in nation-specific symbols like the flag, the anthem or a national currency. According to the
choice of the criteria different communities, meaning also different kinds of nation can emerge.
Anthony Smith, a British ethnographer and Professor Emeritus of Nationalism and Ethnicity at the
3
London School of Economics introduces the ethno-nationalism. This ethnic concept focuses on the
origins of a community (Abstammungsgemeinschaft)
A nation can therefore be defined as a named human population sharing an historic
territory, common myths and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common
4
economy and common legal rights and duties for all members.
Similar to Smith, the French historian Ernest Renan bases the term nation on a collectively
experienced history. So, he sees the key to a nation within an already existing group of people. This
5
common history creates the wish to uphold the common human and cultural heritage in the future. He
declares nation as a flexible construct which is subject to changing emotions and memories of its
members. Therefore, it is based on the free will of the latter. He, himself explains it as following:
A nation is a soul, a spiritual principle. Two things, which in truth are but one, constitute
this soul or spiritual principle. One lies in the past, one in the present. One is the
possession in common of a rich legacy of memories; the other is present-day consent,
the desire to live together, the will to perpetuate the value of the heritage that one has
received in an undivided form. Man, Gentlemen, does not improvise. The nation, like the
individual, is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice, and devotion
Furthermore, there is a constructivist perspective with its well-known representatives Benedict

Anderson and Eric Hobsbawm. Anderson speaks of imagined community, whereas Hobsbawm sets
7
up the term invented tradition focusing the historical elements. In order to create a community
through imagination the nation has to become imaginable through pictures and texts. Consequently,
8
(print) media have an important role to communicate the basis for such an imagined community.
Hobsbawm and Anderson have a common approach which is the integration of a nations members
who had been complete strangers before and whose lives are very heterogeneous. Moreover, both of
them put the formation of a nation down to external interests and drives. Friedrich Meinecke, a
German historian differentiates between the cultural nation and the nation as a state. The cultural
9
nation is independent from the political form. As an example he names the situation after the collapse
of the Soviet Union. The new nation-states felt the community before creating the actual political and
sovereign form of a nation in the post-Soviet time. The territorial borders had been chosen (to a certain
extent) according to the cultural communities. The topic this paper is going to discuss has nothing (or
Kolpatzik, Andrea (2009: 29).

Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 22).
4
Smith, Anthony D. (1991: 14).
5
Cp. Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 23).
6
Renan, Ernest.
7
Kolpatzik, Andrea (2009: 29).
8
Cp. Ibid.: 30.
9
Cp. Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 23f).
3
only little) to do with political issues. Therefore, it will be based on Meineckes idea of a cultural nation
as well as on Andersonss imagined community. Both terms correspond very well to the topic of sport
and national identity.
Whenever the term nation comes up in a societal discourse the word nationalism is not far. Having
a rather negative connotation, the latter needs a clear separation from actual racism. In a nutshell,
racism is an ideology defending the superiority of the own race for biological reasons.
10
This leads to a
discriminating behavior towards other ethnic groups. Contrary to this, nationalism is an ideology based
on the history and values of the own state. The precondition for nationalism is the identification with
the national community. It can be expressed through emancipation efforts as it can be observed in
countries of the 3
rd
world in the post-colonial period. For such countries, it can be the opportunity
after a long period of foreign domination to form a proper state. Nationalism in its pure sense means
acceptance of and support for the own constitution and the political system by the population of each
nation-state.
11
Also, nationalism can be divided into an exclusive and an inclusive form of nationalism. The exclusive
nationalism is perhaps closer to racism supporting the idea of superiority. The political system is
regarded as superior to others. The goal of this form of nationalism is the exclusion of other political,
ethnic or religious groups from the homogenous national community.
12
An extreme example would be
the German National Socialism. In sports represent hooligans the exaggerated form of support for a
team just as nationalists overestimate their own nation-state.
13
A moderate form of national
consciousness and patriotism is the inclusive nationalism. This ideology accepts different cultural
groups within the nation. Also, it does not regard itself as superior but as an equal partner in the
international state system.
14
The inclusive nationalism offers the political system an integrating and
legitimizing effect.
2.2.
Identity
Since the Enlightenment, popular individualism was promoted and thus the peoples awareness of
their humans need for a proper identity was continuously activated.
15
On an individual level identity attests the belonging or not-belonging to a community. As soon as

several people come together and experience common grounds through communication/language,
sport, interests or job it can be called collective identity. Identity then describes the selfcomprehension of this group. But where can collective identity appear? It can be found in all kind of
groups from rather small ones, like family, to bigger ones like companies, cities or whole regions.
Since there are several levels of identity the literature speaks of multiple identities.
10

Cp. Ibid.
12
Cp. Ibid.: 26.
13
Cp. Ibid.: 93.
14
Cp. Ibid.: 26.
15
Cp. Roche, Maurice (2000: 218).
16
Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 26).
11
16
Normally, the
cultural identity is the strongest one. It consists of certain values, traditions, rituals, symbols, stories
and tales, art, different kinds of everyday life
paper.
18
17
and also sport what is going to be focused on in this
Especially the politics of symbols is important for the development of a cultural identity. The
capital of a country with the most important government buildings represents the political order and
most often national history. It is a symbolic combination of political and cultural identity. Through birth,
people are automatically part of a political community the state. This special identity, the nationality
can be helpful when the cultural identity is not strong enough to build up a collective spirit. Both
identities political and cultural are part of the national identity.
A consequence of a collective identity is the creation of a certain collective spirit. The existence of
such a collective spirit means on a national level not only legitimacy but also support for and
acceptance of the political system. At the same time such an identity cannot be imposed but has to
grow in a long process of social communication and interaction (inner homogenization). Collective
identity means also the acceptance of the own and the exclusion of the other. It is important to keep in
mind the negative part of the identity phenomenon: It can lead to abuse by persecuting the other in the
name of the own identity. Again, the most extreme example would be the Holocaust where identity
was transformed into political ideology and used as an excuse to extinguish other groups.
19
Still, to
experience the nation-state emotionally, it is essential to have political symbols like a national anthem,
flag and the capital. These symbols are the visual part of an important integration of the national
population in democratic states.
Stefan Laetsch describes collective identity based on three dimensions: 1) The past in form of a
collective memory. 2) The present as a frame for orientation. 3) The future as a projection of possible
political development and actions.
20
The national collective memory is based on national success
stories and defeats, won and lost battles. Equally important are the days of independence or
foundation of the state. Monarchies have additional celebrations like the monarchs jubilee and their
birthdays. Even sport mass events like world cups or the Olympics can be integrated in the collective
memory. It depends on how the society incorporates these events in their present and how it
transforms them in important points in history by promoting them in museums, by building monuments
or by creating official holidays.
Geographical borders are often also language borders because language is one main reason for
people to feel connected. Also a threat can make people get closer together by fighting it together. It is
often said that identity is a pure construction. Therefore, intellectuals of a country are important for this
theoretical construction of identity.
21
Nation and identity can barely be analyzed separately. Important elements of the term nation
inclusion/exclusion, symbols, collective memory etc. are at the same point essential for the
development of national identity. On the other hand, a nation cannot persist without any kind of
17
Cp. Stefan, Laetsch (2008: 31).

19
20
Cp. Ibid.: 28.
21
18
collective identity. They are a condition for the existence and perception of each other.
22
Furthermore,
the collective spirit is essential for the stability and integrity of a political system. As already said
before, these positive aspects should not make forget the importance of the perception and
acceptance of the other. With regard to the understanding of nation it is not about the exclusion of
other groups but about their acceptance and integration into the community. Hence, the basis for a
peaceful living together is the inclusive nationalism explained in chapter 2.1.
3. Factors influencing national identity

Various forces of globalization increasingly challenge the contemporary international order to develop
more explicitly trans-national forms of governance at regional and global level. This leads to an
institutionalization of global citizenship or cosmopolitan democratic citizenship
23
as it is called in
Roches book about global culture. The modern habit of following the job from city to city and even
moving back and forth from one country to another changes the meaning of home. Nevertheless (or
maybe due to this development?), the home region or country has still a certain importance for the
people.
Germany or rather the Germans themselves had a long time problems with their national identity and
st
especially with displaying it in public. The 21 century brings with it some changes in the mentality. It
is a new generation of politicians who did not experience the times of National Socialism but which is
nevertheless aware of its historical responsibility.
24
They show a new self-confidence in handling and
presenting their nationality. Part of this new generation is also Angela Merkel. Angela Merkel,
German chancellor has always a formal distance to too deep emotions. This allows her to address
th
also critical issues. In her government statement from November 30 2005, shortly after her election
as chancellor, she speaks of Germany as a European cultural nation and remembers the importance
of care for the own national cultures and tradition.
25
By speaking of culture in the plural form, she
accepts and integrates the several cultures imported by the many migrants. She represents a selfconfident behavior and relaxed relationship to the own country. Another important factor is her very
own person. Especially the East German population has a new figure to identify with as Merkel is a
protestant Christian democrat from former East Germany which corresponds with many of these
people.
26
The side-effect of this new self-confidence among politicians was taken over by the media.
22
Cp. Ibid.
Roche, Maurice (2000: 200).
24
25
Cp. Ibid.: 87.
26
23
In 2006, Germany was host of the FIFA

World Cup. This was seen as a big
opportunity to foster the national identity.
Already in the pre-world cup-period several
groups tried to promote the collective spirit
and
to
prepare
the
Germans
for
an
emotional tournament. One of the projects

was the social-marketing-campaign Du bist
Deutschland (You are Germany). It was a
cooperation
of
more
than
20
media
companies, Public Relation agencies and

several
VIPs
initiating
politically
independent project. The aim was to create

the consciousness for more self-confidence
and motivation regarding the own nationality.
The result was a two minute TV spot and a
print campaign bringing together famous
German
personalities
and
the
normal
German citizen. The two pictures on this

page are exemplary for the whole campaign.
They refer not only to historic figures like
Albrecht Drer (painter) but also to modern personalities known to the whole of Germany like Gnther
Jauch (TV presenter and journalist). It is about the collective memory and putting the achievements of
German ancestor back in the mind. There was a controversial discussion about this campaign
because the slogan was already used for a NS announcement during Hitler times. Nevertheless, the
goal was a more natural identification with the home country and it was a reminder that every
individual belongs to the collective, to the nation. The participation of many prominent figures with
different origins shows that the formation of a collective spirit doesnt require an exclusion from a
homogenous group but it means an identity comprising different groups of people and has a positive
identification with the own nation-state.
4. Sport and national identity

Whenever an international sport event takes place national identity is widely discussed. National
success in sport has a large impact on the strength of national identity, especially in Western societies.
Representatives dont stop highlighting the essentially peaceable character of this cultural competition.
John MacAloon states in his article about mega events like the Olympics and Expos that the
7
participation itself was worthy of recognition and respect and [] losing would be tolerated and not
lead to exit or war.
27
This is an important factor for the global community after having suffered two
world wars and several regionally limited armed conflicts. It is true that the concept of national teams
fighting against each other contributes to the strengthening of nationalist groups. But it would be a
mistake to reduce multi-national sport events to nationalism only in a negative way.
28
Sports have a
powerful potential for popularizing intra-national communication and national identity.

Lets go back to the connection of national identity to sport and especially to sport tournaments.
People of a country can identify themselves with the national team. There is a deep connection
between the team, meaning the several sportsmen and the fan community. They share the same
nationality. Modern sport, especially team sport on an international level is unimaginable without the
accompanying fans. They are not only a possibility for many companies to make money but they
support the sportsmen on an emotional level. When it comes to the World Cup, they participate in the
whole journey from qualification phase to group stage and the final knock-out stage with the closing
final. They endure the teams defeats as well as they cheer its success. Social and political differences
among fans of a specific national team are ignored for the period of the tournament and the supporters
become one imagined community.
29
This only can happen because they share the enjoyment of
football and the ultimate wish to see their team win. For the time of a tournament social divisions are
not important.
30
There are two major parts within this procedure of a sport competition. First, there are the
participants the teams or single sportsmen. The second and not less important part are the
spectators. They are split between the spectators directly at the pitch and then the large group of
people participating through the different channels be it TV, internet, newspapers Sitting in front of
the television sets at home give us the sense of belonging to the already mentioned imagined
community.
31
The technological development in the past years (which is still ongoing) challenges this
opportunity. The extent to which sporting events can still make us feel part of the nation changes. The
different channels enable a much larger audience to take part in the competition. At the same time
loses the coverage its simultaneity. The people are no longer bound to their television set at home but
they have mobile internet and can follow the match from wherever they are and whenever they want.
This might lead or has already led to a different feeling.
Nevertheless, media discourse constructs a sense of national identity by placing different nations in
direct opposition to each other. They use references to national characters, culture and past, national
dress, language and food to differentiate the teams. With their references to past wars they emphasize
nations rivalries and past military relationships. An example are the headlines of the British press on
the occasion of games between Great Britain and Germany saying: war minus shooting (Orwellian
formulation) or Achtung Surrender! (tabloid press).
27

Cp. Ibid.
29
30
Cp. Inthorn, Sanna (2006: 156).
31
32
Ibid.
28
32
Journalists use the nations past glories
associating them with the battlefield and transplanting them into the sports sphere and the football
pitch. By doing so, they appeal the whole nation and construct the image of a homogenous group.
Another part of the public celebration during sport tournaments are the official songs going along with
every event. In the following I picked out three songs from past sporting mass events. (The complete
lyrics of the songs can be found in the annex of this paper.) Do these songs cheer or at least contain
references to national identity? The first example is the song Go for gold by Andreas Gabalier who
wrote it for the FIS Alpine Skiing World Championship in Schladming. The chorus go for gold makes
the possible victory subject of discussion. Striving for victory is the ultimate goal in a tournament.
Nevertheless, the team spirit during a tournament (steht dein Land hinter dir) is essential and
regardless to win or lose. The Austrian songwriter speaks repeatedly of the will to win (Du stehst da
oben im Siegessinn/reach for the number one). The actual national identity is mentioned when he
sings fight for the nation you belong. This shows that the sportsmen are not only fighting for their own
good but that they are representatives of a whole country. Furthermore, he refers to the collective
memory of a nation recalling the possibility for the sportsmen to become part of this memory by
making the nation proud (fr ewige Zeiten Nationsidol/unsterblich sein). The last thing I want to
highlight is the classification into the different nations which is basis of international tournaments. The
most common symbol is the national flag that Andreas Gabalier incorporates as well (Fahnen
schwingen) and which brings me directly to the next song Waving flag by Knaan. This was one of
the main songs for the FIFA World Cup in 2010 in South Africa. His song focuses on the flags and the
celebration of all nations (every nation, all around us). But even this song refers to national identity
saying you define us, make us feel proud. So, there must be a connection between the sporting
performance and the image a society has of itself. Success on such an occasion has a major
importance for the identity of a nation. Just as a defeat would make the nation feel ashamed for the
bad performance or maybe for not having been able to choose a better representative for the nation.
The last example is the latest official song for a FIFA World Cup, namely the song We are one by
Pitbull for the championship in 2014. Like the other two songs, does this song also mention the role of
national flags repeatedly. Put your flags up in the sky is an invitation to present and show if not even
uphold the own nation. He underlines this wish with the line show the world where youre from. Again
is the origin of the participants and the differentiation between the different national groups important.
Still, these songs always remember to celebrate not only the own nation but also the one-ness which
is built on the belonging to this special sport football (show the world we are one). He reminds that
international sport tournaments can assist international understanding apart from political and
economic negotiations. Finally, he also asks the audience to connect the competition to emotions (do
what you feel) which also contributes to an emotionalization of the tournament and also of identity.
4.1.
The Olympics
The Olympic Games are an ancient tradition and one of the oldest ways of competing peacefully
against each other. The modern form was (re-) introduced in 1896. Elements like the five rings flag or
the flame of the contemporary Olympics were developed particularly in the inter-war period. The ban
9
of advertising and commercial imagery allows focusing only on the sport. One of the most
representative parts is the opening and respectively the closing ceremony. They are the embodiment
of international competition. On the one hand, all nations are celebrating together the come-together.
On the other side, the nations are represented separately. They enter the stadium in the national
groups, are dressed in specially designed national outfits and carry their nations flag. Especially the
selection of the standard-bearer is very important for the sportsmen and felt to be an honor. The
opening of the games is done by the head of state hosting the Olmpics which shows also the political
importance of hosting such an event in the own country.
The specificity of the Olympic Games is the Olympism. According to the Charter The goal of
Olympism is to place everywhere sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a
view to encouraging the establishment of a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human
dignity.
33
It seems to have a special civilizing mission developing an own identity apart from or in
addition to national identities. Although the Olympic Games are no geographical entity (no nation), the
Olympic movement resembles the inclusive nationalism. Article 3.2. of the Olympic Charter says
membership of the movement is incompatible with any form of discrimination with regard to a country
or a person on grounds of race, religion, politics, sex or otherwise.
34
Differing to the general public
perception the International Olympic Committee defines the Olympic Games as competitions between
athletes [] and not between countries
35
The commercial players in this whole tournament and partly
also the media are working against this principle because they support the nationalization of the
Games.
The institutionalization of sports began with the Olympics and its International Olympic Committee. In
the course of time the Olympics gave birth to a series of specialist international sport mega-event
movements, including the footballs world cup.
4.2.
FIFA World Cup
The Fdration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) emerged from the Olympics and the
International Olympic Committee in 1928.
36
Sport itself becomes more and more international. The
British imperialism with its colonialism can be set as a starting point. The British exported their cultural
traditions and many of their (old) games, cricket, rugby and squash, around the world to their colonies.
It was meant for the expatriate British upper and middle class to help them feel at home, away from
the actual home country.
37
By doing this they reproduced the British society around the world. The
same thing happened to football. Today, football is played all over the world and the FIFA is the
worlds football global governing body counting 209 national associations.
33

Ibid.
35
Ibid.
36
Cp. Ibid. : 96.
37
38
Cp. FIFA (2014).
34
10
38
4.2.1.
Historical development in Germany
At the beginning football was disapproved by the German elites and people of influence. It then
became a parlour game
39
for the bourgeois middle class even though it was initially a working-class
mass spectacle. By translating the rules and terms into German they freed the game from the stigma
of Englishism and redefined it as a German game. In 1900 the Deutsche Fuballbund (German
Football Association) was founded and the parlor game became competitive.
40
Since then the football
developed into the most popular sport in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Specifically interesting is the connection of national identity and football during the existence of two
Germanys. The German literature focuses often on the footballs impact on the nation-building process
in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and on its reunification with West Germany. The GDR was
a rather artificially constructed state and had none of the features listed in the chapter about nation.
They sure had a common language, history etc. but none of that would distance them from West
Germany - except for the political system which was imposed by the authorities and not developed or
approved by the population. Therefore, the GDR needed sport as an identificational factor more than
other countries.
41
In the 1970s it seemed football would have become a major factor in shaping the
GDR national identity. The 1. FC Magdeburg won the UEFA Cup Winners Cup in 1974. In the same
year beat the GDR Auswahl (selection) the West Germanys Nationalelf (national eleven). Thomas
Brussig, an East German author says: It is always more fun to see the favourites stumble and the
underdog win.
42
This is also one reason why even critical East Germans took sides with the GDR
team who had, after all, beaten the European Champions and World Champions-to-be. East German
football clubs retain an important function in preserving East German identity. They do so even more
the further we move temporally from reunification. Nevertheless, due to mismanagement and lack of
financial support they disappear more and more from the Bundesliga and even the 2. Bundesliga (2
nd
league). Many East Germans seriously reclaimed what they thought of as their right to their own
biography which had, in their view, been taken away by a perceived West German take over. For
many of them football was an important part of this biography. That is one reason why a club like
Hansa Rostock which in GDR times had a rather regional appeal became important for the whole
of the former GDR population representing the East German identity.
43
The West German team won its first title in 1954. This success was very controversially presented. On
the one hand was it the first opportunity in the post-war times to celebrate collectively and a chance for
a positive identification with the fatherland. On the other hand was there a debate about a new rising
nationalism and parties and media tried equally to avoid national expressions. This joy about the
victory was of short duration and the country turned back to feelings of insecurity and separation. The
World Cup 1974 was a special event for Germany. Especially in the match between the two German
39
Horak, Roman (2006: 25).

Cp. Ibid.
41
Cp. Hesselmann, Markus and Ide, Robert (2006: 37).
42
Ibid.: 43.
43
Cp. Ibid.: 46f.
40
11
teams a certain suspicion was manifested from both sides. Players and supporters showed two
collective identities and demonstrated the political separation on a sports-level. Werner Schneider, a
West German TV reporter stated: The world national team should not be a taboo tonight, even
though we know that there cant be two national teams from one nation.
44
But back to the
reunification: It was a tough task to unite two national teams to one excellent team and also to unite
the population that was after ca. 40 years of separation used to differentiate one from another. But
the game of football is based on the essence of collective identity formation and the definition of
borders between in-groups and out-groups.
45
In 1990, the year of reunification only West German
players participated in the World Cup. They won their third title but due to the political events
(upcoming unification and break-down of the Soviet bloc) the victory was of minor importance.
4.2.2.
46
Current situation in Germany
As already mentioned before, the situation of feeling and displaying national identity changed in the
past years. Therefore, the FIFA World Cup in 2006 was of major importance to make this change
more public. Of course, there were other World Cups before but hosting such a big event in the own
country is very different and involves the rapt attention of the international media. Since the fall of the
Berlin wall there hasnt been any national celebration of that extent in Germany. It was the first
possibility to live feelings of national belonging within the own country. The World Cup functioned as a
sort of outlet and the support of the national team is the visualization of the development Germany
experienced to that time.
47
The sport has had a positive impact on this development and was
emotionalized by integrating national symbols. Even though they did not win the tournament, the
patriotic feelings set off by the World Cup are comparable to any other mega event in the past.
4.2.3.
Media and Football
Media emphasizes the discursive construction of national identity dividing national styles of play. The
long history of multi-national sport events has led to stereotypical images. The style of the different
national teams corresponds to this stereotypical image vested in tradition
48
that the national
community gives itself and wants to show to others. It also corresponds often to the fan behavior. So
are the Italians said to play fiery and volcanic, whereas the Germans have a less exciting but reliable
style.
49
During the European Cup in 2004 short clips introduced the host country Portugal and the
respective opponents. They showed culture, key moments in history and national cuisine contributing
in that way to a strengthening of different national characters. I already implied that the TV programs
have an important role. They provide the interpretation of the games and the classification of who is
doing a good or bad sport performance.
50
Here again, cultural and ethnic stereotypes are used to
44
Hesselmann, Markus and Ide, Robert (2006: 36).

Inthorn, Sanna (2006: 155).
46
Cp. Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 94f).
47
Cp. Ibid.: 101.
48
Inthorn, Sanna (2006: 156).
49
Cp. Ibid.: 155.
50
Cp.Ibid.: 157.
45
12
illustrate and explain their reports. Past success is omnipresent in the media be it to cheer it again
(because people supposedly identify with it) or to distract from recent defeats. Especially in TV shows
is past success present, namely through the co-commentators like in Germany Mehmet Scholl (former
midfielder) and Oliver Kahn (former goalkeeper) assisting the commentators in analyzing the matches.
Media companies do not only transmit and analyze the actual football matches but participate in
advertisement. Like any other economic sector is this part influenced by the globalization. Advertising
campaigns of global players like Coca Cola, Adidas, or McDonalds form transnational stars. Taking
again Germany as an example: Football stars like Mario Gomez (currently at ACF Fiorentina, Italy) or
Mesut zil (playing in Arsenal F.C., Great Britain) dont function only as a symbol of German national
identity anymore but rather as symbols of successful athletic performance. They become a symbol of
an international, global game in which football talent and star performance matter more than being
representative of national characteristics.
51
The fact of buying players from abroad and going to
foreign football clubs shows that the presence of home-grown talent is less important than success.
The traditional division between us (the nation) and them (the other nations) becomes less sharp.
There is a growing tension between the persisting representation of national identity during
international tournaments and the presentation of football as a global game. Hence, there is a
difference between old national football stars who are important for the story of the nation and the
concept of todays football superstars being marketed transnationally. To show real examples: Franz
Beckenbauer belongs to a different type of football star then the modern superstars Christiano
Ronaldo or David Beckham do.
5. Conclusion
Football has a unique position among other sporting disciplines and it has an impact on different
settings of identity formation. The previous chapters explained on the basis of the German history and
current habits where sport and especially football influences the formation of identity. To conclude it
can be said that football can be at the same time inclusive and exclusive. It functions as inclusion
when barriers of race, religion or class become at least temporarily invalid and it has exclusive
consequences by othering people. It concerns those people who dont belong to the same fan group
but could still be in the same social class. It became clear that sport and especially football had a
positive impact on the development of the Germans attitude to national identity and its portrayal.
Media is definitely a source for the discursive construction of national identity. As many other parts of
the life challenge the effects of globalization of football and the media industry also the way in which
this sport evokes images of national culture and identity. Sportsmen are built up into transnational
global citizens. They have a flexible celebrity status without limitation of one specific geographical
area. The purpose of this development lies in the possibility for all kind of national audiences to project
their own local meanings on these transnational stars.
52
This is of high value for global companies and
their marketing campaigns. Consequently, there are two discourses present in todays society. On the
51
52
Cp. Ibid.: 163.

13
one hand people fear that the future development, the further globalization of media sport, will replace
cultural diversity by a homogenous and global culture. On the other side people argue that it is
sufficiently financially lucrative to keep up the diversity and to address audiences as distinct national
communities.
53
I would like to end this paper with a quote by Sanna Inthorn. She says: The story of football today
became the story of popstars and not nations. But as long as people include these transnational pop
stars in their national team and consider them as a part of their nation the story of national teams and
its strong connection to identity can be maintained.
(total word count: 6100)
I, hereby confirm that I wrote the paper Sport and National Identity A German Example on my own
and that I did not use any other sources than indicated.
30.05.2014
53
Ibid.: 167.
14
6. Annex
Go for gold Andreas Gabalier
fight for the nation where you belong

go for gold
Du stehst da oben im Siegessinn
go for gold
pochende Venen Adrenalinmaschin

die Wadel beien hart wie Eisen
Die letzten Sekunden
Slalomstangen niederreien
vor dem unsterblich sein
die Zeiten rennen die Schenkel brennen
steht dein Land hinter dir
gewinnen und verlieren knnen
go and make it shine

die Wadel beien hart wie Eisen
Go, go, go
Slalomstangen niederreien
go for gold
die Zeiten rennen die Schenkel brennen
on a mountain high where the eagles fly
gewinnen und verlieren knnen
reach for the number one

Go, go, go
go for gold
go for gold
go for gold

Du stehst da oben wie ein Kraftsymbol
fr ewige Zeiten Nationsidol
go for gold
Tribhnen beben im Sportlerleben
go for gold
Adler die durch lfte fliegen
go for gold
Leistung bringen schanzenspringen

Fahnen schwingen und alle singen
Du stehst da oben
go for gold
Go, go, go
go for gold
<http://www.songtexte.com/songtext/andreas-
gabalier/go-for-gold-ba1712e.html>
15
Wavin flags Knaan
Every nation, all around us
Give me freedom, give me fire
Saying forever young
Give me reason, take me higher
Singing songs underneath the sun
See the champions take the field now
Let's rejoice in the beautiful game
You define us, make us feel proud
And together at the end of the day, we all say
In the streets our heads are liftin'
When I get older I will be stronger
As we lose our inhibition
They'll call me freedom just like a wavin' flag
Celebration, it surrounds us
Every nation, all around us
Staying forever young
So wave your flag, now wave your flag
Singing songs underneath the sun
Now wave your flag, now wave your flag
Let's rejoice in the beautiful game
And together at the end of the day, we all say
Now wave your flag
We all say, when I get older I will be stronger
Now wave your flag

Give you freedom, give you fire
Now wave your flag
Give you reason, take you higher

See the champions take the field now
And everybody will be singing it
You define us, make us feel proud
And we all will be singing it
In the streets our heads are liftin'
<http://artists.letssingit.com/knaan-lyrics-
As we lose our inhibition
wavin-flag-coca-cola-celebration-mix-
Celebration, it surrounds us
1v3b623#ixzz32x5D2Akq>
16
We are one Pitbull
Shoot, fall, the stars

Fists raised up towards the sky
Put your flags up in the sky
Tonight watch the world unite, world unite,
And wave them side to side
world unite
Show the world where you're from
For the fight, fight, fight, one night
Show the world we are one
Watch the world unite

Two sides, one fight and a million eyes
Ole ole ole ola

Hey, hey, hey, fora fora come on sing with
When the moment gets tough
me
You've got keep going
Hey, hey, hey, ole ola come shout it out with
One love, one life, one world
me
One fight, whole world, one night, one place
Hey, hey, hey, come on now
Brazil
Hey, hey, hey, come on now
Everybody put your flags in the sky and do
Hey, hey, hey, hey, hey!
what you feel

Cuz it's your world, my world, our world today
And we invite the whole world, whole world to
play
It's your world, my world, our world today

Ole ole ole ola
And we invite the whole world, whole world to

play
Cludia Leitte, obrigado:

Es mi mundo, tu mundo, el mundo, de
meu, seu
nosotros
Hoje tudo nosso
Invitamos, a todo el mundo, a jugar, con
Quando chega o mundo inteiro pra jogar pra
nosotros
mostrar que eu posso

Torcer, chorar, sorrir, gritar
No importa o resultado, vamos extravasar


Ole ole ole ola
Jenny, dale:
Ole ole ole ola
One night watch the world unite

Two sides, one fight and a million eyes
<http://www.songtexte.com/songtext/pitbull/we-
Full heart's gonna work so harsh
are-one-43588fff.html>
17
7. Bibliography
Hesselmann, Markus and Ide, Robert (2006). A tale of two Germanys Football culture and national
identity in the German Democratic Republic, in: Tomlinson, Alan and Young, Christopher
(ed.) German football history, culture, society. Oxon: Routledge.
Horak, Roman (2006). Germany versus Austria Football, urbanism and national identity. In:
Tomlinson, Alan and Young, Christopher (ed.). German Football history, culture, society.
Oxon: Routledge.
Inthorn, Sanna (2006). A game of nations? Football and national identities. In: Tomlinson, Alan and
Young, Christopher (ed.). German Football history, culture, society. Oxon: Routledge.
Kolpatzik, Andrea (2009). Die Waden der Nation Fuballweltmeisterschaft als deutsch-deutscher
Erinnerungsort. Mnster: Lit. Verlag.
Laetsch, Stefan (2008). Sind wir Deutschland? Eine politikwissenschaftliche Erklrung fr das
Fuballmrchen 2006. Hamburg: Diplomica Verlag.
Roche, Maurice (2000). Megaevents and Modernity Olympics and Expos in the growth of global
culture. London: Routledge.
Smith, Anthony D. (1991). National Identity. London.
8. Internet Sources
FIFA (2014): <http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/associations.html> (called up: 22.05.14)
Renan, Ernest (1882):
<http://web.archive.org/web/20110827065548/http://www.cooper.edu/humanities/core/hss3/e_
renan.html> (called up: 22.05.14)
Merriam-Webster Online (2014). <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nation> (called up:
05.05.14)
"Du bist Deutschland Campaign : Gnther Jauch
<http://www.hans-weishaeupl.com/uploads/pics/du_bist_deutschland02_04.jpg> (called up:
28.05.14)
"Du bist Deutschland Campaign : Albrecht Drer
<http://dubistdeutschland.amazink.de/illusion/du_bist_albrecht_duerer.jpg> (called up:
28.05.14)
18

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University of Vienna

Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology

Definition of terms ............................................................................................................................ 2

Factors influencing national identity ................................................................................................ 6

Sport and national identity ............................................................................................................... 7

The Olympics ........................................................................................................................... 9

FIFA World Cup ..................................................................................................................... 10

Historical development in Germany............................................................................... 11

Current situation in Germany ......................................................................................... 12

Media and Football ........................................................................................................ 12

Internet Sources ............................................................................................................................ 18

Merriam-Webster Online (2014).

Furthermore, there is a constructivist perspective with its well-known representatives Benedict

Kolpatzik, Andrea (2009: 29).

An extreme example would be

A moderate form of national

The inclusive nationalism offers the political system an integrating and

On an individual level identity attests the belonging or not-belonging to a community. As soon as

Cp. Laetsch, Stefan (2008: 25).

and also sport what is going to be focused on in this

The national collective memory is based on national success

Cp. Stefan, Laetsch (2008: 31).

3. Factors influencing national identity

They show a new self-confidence in handling and

By speaking of culture in the plural form, she

In 2006, Germany was host of the FIFA

emotional tournament. One of the projects

companies, Public Relation agencies and

independent project. The aim was to create

German citizen. The two pictures on this

4. Sport and national identity

powerful potential for popularizing intra-national communication and national identity.

This only can happen because they share the enjoyment of

Roche, Maurice (2000: 96).

Journalists use the nations past glories

Differing to the general public

The commercial players in this whole tournament and partly

FIFA World Cup

Sport itself becomes more and more international. The

Roche, Maurice (2000: 195).

Historical development in Germany

Since then the football

Horak, Roman (2006: 25).

But back to the

In 1990, the year of reunification only West German

Current situation in Germany

Media and Football

that the national

Here again, cultural and ethnic stereotypes are used to

Hesselmann, Markus and Ide, Robert (2006: 36).

The fact of buying players from abroad and going to

This is of high value for global companies and

Cp. Ibid.: 163.

Go for gold Andreas Gabalier

fight for the nation where you belong

Du stehst da oben im Siegessinn

pochende Venen Adrenalinmaschin

Die letzten Sekunden

vor dem unsterblich sein

die Zeiten rennen die Schenkel brennen

steht dein Land hinter dir

gewinnen und verlieren knnen

go and make it shine