Table of Contents

A. Preliminaries
Title page
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Dedication
Table of Contents
B. Chapter 1
Introduction
Statement of the problem & Specific Questions
Significance of the Study
Delimitation of the Study
Definition of terms
C. Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
a) Local
b) Foreign
c) Other Readings
D. Chapter 3
Research design
Respondents/Content of the study
Sampling techniques
Experimental Procedures
E. Chapter 4
Analysis & Interpretation
F. Chapter 5
Conclusion
G. Chapter 6
Bibliographies
Others :
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae
Questionnaire / Interviewer Guide

Readings & other Document

Saltwater
Power
Proponents :
Hazel C. Trabajo

Ronald Pellano
Jeanessa May Catito
ABSTRACT

Although not completely researched upon, saltwater has a low voltage reading,
which indicates that it has some electric potential. The main goal of this Investigatory
Project is to make that potential known and put it to good use through research and
experimentation. As saltwater may be a new environmentally-friendly, cheap source of
energy, its usage will definitely help our future generations and contribute to the welfare
of the Earth.
People are already noticing the effects of their never-ending usage of the natural
resources of the world, and they also know the current energy shortages that the world
is facing. Now, with the introduction of this new kind of renewable energy, the worlds
supply of energy will finally be met if this proposal will push through. Since saltwater is
renewable, there are already some technologies that can harness it and convert it to
electricity for the world to use. With this in mind, we hope to answer and find a solution
to worlds energy crisis through this project.
The results of the experimentation were obtained by setting up a saltwater
mixture and connecting this to a voltmeter through copper wires, alligator clips, and iron
& magnesium electrodes. A reading is seen in the voltmeter to confirm the theory that
saltwater has electrical conductive/generating properties.

In conclusion, as saltwater was found to have electrical readings. It is possible

that electricity may one day come not from fossil fuels, coil, oil, but rather, from
saltwater, a renewable, green, and plentiful source of power.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researcher duly acknowledges the magnanimity of various editors and

authors in permitting this writer to use excerpts of their published materials with due
acknowledgements.
Thanks are also due to our friends, classmates, Einstein Piyok for lending us
some help for the success of our study. And especially for our neighbour who doesnt
know how to put password for his Wi-Fi which makes the researcher share with it and to
be able to search further research related to our study. Thanks are also due to our
parents who fully supported us financially.

Especially, to our Almighty Father who guides us from the very start of this study
until success comes over it.

DEDICATION
This study is dedicate to the Almighty God ,
to the beloved families and friends of the researcher ,
without whose caring support it would not have been possible.

INTRODUCTION

The world we live in is abundant with food, life and resources, but we
continue to use up non-renewable resources in massive amounts. As a result, the many
nations and countries of the world will have to deal with water, food, and energy
shortages, as an effect of overpopulation. This Project presents a new, derived energy
source. It will also discuss the methods and ways we can utilize this environmentallyfriendly resource to produce an efficient yet clean source of energy. The researcher
were inspired to investigate the alternative energy source because the worlds main
energy resources , like coal and oil are rapidly depleting. More and more people can
look into this study in the future to ensure reliable energy supplies to their homes. This
would help reduce damaging emissions being added to our atmosphere.
Saltwater, or salt water , is a geological term that refers to naturally occurring
solutions containing large concentrations of dissolved, inorganic ions. In addition, this
term is often used as an adjective in biology, usually to refer to marine organisms, as in
saltwater fish.
Saltwater most commonly refers to oceanic waters, in which the total concentration of
ionic solutes is typically about 35 grams per liter (also expressed as 3.5%, or 35 parts

per thousand). As a result of these large concentrations of dissolved ions, the density of
saltwater (1.028 g/L at 4 C) is slightly greater than that of freshwater (1.00 g/L).
Therefore, freshwater floats above saltwater in poorly mixed situations where the two
types meet, as in estuaries and some underground reservoirs.
The ions with the largest concentrations in marine waters are sodium, chloride,
sulfate, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and carbonate. In oceanic waters, sodium and
chloride are the most important ions, having concentrations of 10.8 g/L and 19.4 g/L,
respectively. Other important ions are sulfate (2.7 g/L), magnesium (1.3 g/L), and
calcium and potassium (both 0.4 g/L). However, in inland saline waters, the
concentrations and relative proportions of these and other ions can vary widely.
Other natural waters can also be salty, sometimes containing much larger
concentrations of salt than the oceans . Some lakes and ponds, known as salt or brine
surface waters, can have very large concentrations of dissolved, ionic solutes. These
water bodies typically occur in a closed basin, with inflows of water but no outflow
except by evaporation , which leaves salts behind. Consequently, the salt concentration
of their contained water increases progressively over time. For example, the Great Salt
Lake of Utah and the Dead Sea in Israel have salt concentrations exceeding 20%, as do
smaller, saline ponds in Westphalia, Germany, and elsewhere in the world.
Underground waters can also be extremely salty. Underground saltwaters are
commonly encountered in petroleum and gas well-fields, especially after the
hydrocarbon resource has been exhausted by mining.

Both surface and underground salt waters are sometimes "mined" for their contents of
economically useful minerals .
Saltwater intrusions can be an important environmental problem, which can
degrade water supplies required for drinking or irrigation. Saltwater intrusions are
caused in places near the ocean where there are excessive withdrawals of underground
supplies of fresh waters. This allows underground salt waters to migrate inland, and
spoil the quality of the aquifer for most uses. Saltwater intrusions are usually caused by
excessive usage of ground water for irrigation in agriculture, or by excessive demands
on freshwaters to supply drinking water to large cities.
People are already noticing the effects of their never-ending usage of the natural
resources of the world, and they also know the current energy shortages that the world
is facing. Now, with the introduction of this new kind of renewable energy, the worlds
supply of energy will finally be met if this proposal will push through. Since saltwater is
renewable, there are already some technologies that can harness it and convert it to
electricity for the world to use. With this in mind, we hope to answer and find a solution
to worlds energy crisis through this project.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

-

What particular chemicals do saltwater contain to be a good source of electricity?

OBJECTIVE:

Statement of the objective:

As all other countries in the world do, the Philippines is also faced with the
problem of the rapid depletion of natural resources. Fossil fuel, especially coal, is
burned in tremendous amounts. Although this is what the general population of the
world also depend on, we now know that they cause the release of excessive amounts
of greenhouse gases and other harmful pollutants when energy is environment by
conserving our natural resources. A good example is to utilize the long coastlines to
achieve development without too much damage to the environment.

General Objectives:
After experimenting on the probability of saltwater as an alternate source of
energy, hopefully, it can be seen as beneficial to the world because of its high potential
of being used to make electricity.

Specific Objectives:
The purpose of the experiment is so that a competent individual will be able to recreate the experiment, and so that if there will be discoveries made, it can be used by
the world to help them benefit more on relaying on renewable energy sources like
saltwater.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study can greatly benefit the society in terms of environmental conservation
and energy sufficiency because this may drastically reduce the consumption of nonrenewable energy resources. In addition, the usage of saltwater as an alternative
source can answer many of the worlds energy demands since seawater is readily
available and renewable. As a direct result, less crude oils and coal-burning will take
place, resulting in a cleaner and more hospitable environment.

DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study was conducted to investigate how real the saltwater can be a
source of electricity. The aspects looked into were the saltwater power, how it gives
benefits in the society , and the performance of the product and the problems and
proposed solution of our product.
The study was conducted in Pea Plata, IGaCoS , 28 th of January. The
main purpose of the study is to know the potential of saltwater as a good source of
electricity.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Saline water (also called salt water, salt-water or saltwater) is water with salt
in it. It often means the water from the seas (sea water) and oceans. Salt water used
for making or preserving food, is usually saltier than sea water and is called brine.
When scientists measure salt in water, they usually say they are testing
the salinity of the water: salinity is measured in parts per thousand or ppt. Most sea
water is about 35 ppt salt. Salt lakes can be up to ten times as salty. Above that level
precipitation creates a salt plain. Brackish water, in contrast, is less salty than seawater.
Salt water is denser than fresh water. This means that it has more matter per its volume.
Fresh water has a density of 1 g/ml, while salty seawater has an average density of
about 1.025 g/ml.

Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a

chemical belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as
a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities
in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent; the open ocean has about 35
grams (1.2 oz) of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for animal life, and
saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger

quantities of salt than do plant tissues; therefore the typical diets of nomads who subsist
on their flocks and herds require little or no added salt, whereas cereal-based diets
require supplementation. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous of food
seasonings,and salting is an important method of food preservation.
Electrolyte Solution. An electrolyte solution is a solution that generally contains ions,
atoms or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. For
this reason they are often called ionic solutions, however there are some cases where
the electrolytes are not ions.
Electrolysis. In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that
uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical
reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the
separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using
an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called
the decomposition potential.
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and
flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as
lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and electric current.
Water (chemical formula: H2O) is a transparent fluid which forms the world's
streams, lakes, oceans and rain, and is the major constituent of the fluids of organisms.
As a chemical compound, a water molecule contains one oxygen and
two hydrogen atoms that are connected by covalent bonds.

Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often co-exists
on Earth with its solid state, ice; and gaseous state, steam (water vapour).

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There have been several breakthroughs in this research of saltwater being

converted into electricity. The first one presented is an accidental discovery made in the
Erie, Pennsylvania, 2007. John Kanzius set on fire a vial with saltwater using a radio
frequency generator. Kanzius was experimenting with desalinate seawater. While doing
so, he found he could keep the water burning as long as it was exposed to the proper
frequencies from his machine. Rustum Roy, a professor at Penn State University, tried
this experiment in the lab at the university, and, to his surprise, it actually worked. He
explained that the salt water wasnt actually burning. It was, in fact, the radio frequency
that helped weaken the bonds holding together the salt waters constituents. Roy says
that he will continue to investigate on this, and he can see the potential applications of
this process of burning saltwater as a source of alternative energy.
Another recent breakthrough in relation to this topic is the topic on Power
Generation. A team of researchers from the US and China have discovered a new

desalination process that could produce electricity and clean water. They did this by
modifying a microbial fuel cell, which is used to desalinate saltwater into drinkable
water. Bruce Logan from Pennsylvania State University says that desalination of
saltwater uses a lot of electricity, but by using the microbial desalination cells, one can
desalinate saltwater and produce electricity while removing the organic material from
the saltwater. Previously, most desalination plants need electricity and high pressure to
desalinate saltwater, but with this new technique uses organic matter to remove most of
salt from brackish water or seawater.
The older process uses 2 chambers in the microbial fuel cell, but the new process uses
3 chambers one containing saltwater, the other water, and the last one containing
seawater in between the other chambers, which are separated by ion-specific
membranes. The process goes like this: When the bacteria consume the wastewater,
the ions become charged, which are separated by the membranes. Some are
consumed at the electrodes desalinating the water in the central chamber and
generating a current. They say that it still isnt practical to use a process like this, but
their main goal was only to see whether bacteria can do this or not.
Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl),
a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as
a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities
in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent; the open ocean has about 35
grams (1.2 oz) of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for animal life, and
saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger
quantities of salt than do plant tissues; therefore the typical diets of nomads who subsist

on their flocks and herds require little or no added salt, whereas cereal-based diets
require supplementation. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous of food
seasonings and salting is an important method of food preservation.
Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8,000 years
ago, when people living in Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts; a saltworks in China has been found which dates to approximately the same period. Salt was
prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites
and the Egyptians.
Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the
Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara in camel
caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over salt
and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is also used in religious ceremonies and has other
cultural significance.
Every function in your body depends on an efficient flow and distribution of
water. This includes the process your cells use to produce energy, and the elimination of
toxins. In order to maintain life, the water in the fluid surrounding your cells remains at
an almost constant level, so the blood and lymph can continue to flow without becoming
excessively thick. When these fluids do not have enough water, various body conditions
develop as a response, including high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, asthma
and other allergies, diabetes, stress and depression. These are simply our bodies telling
us they need more water. So we can see that dehydration is one of the basic causes of
bad health, and hydration is essential to good health. When there is not enough water in

the body, the water level inside the cells drops because all available water is needed in
the fluid surrounding the cell. This is known as dehydration--not enough water inside the
cells. When water levels in the cells get really low, they start screaming for water, and
we feel this as pain.
Getting enough water into your body is one requirement, but to utilize that water,
our cells also need salt. Have you ever wondered how water gets inside a cell? It moves
through the process of osmosis, and osmosis is managed by the salt concentration
present in the cells. Water is always moving from a cell with lower salt concentration to
a cell with higher salt concentration--essentially, water follows salt.
For a cell to "attractor "pull" water inside, it needs salt. The broad spectrum of minerals
found in The Original Himalayan Crystal Salt is ideal nutrients to aid the cells in
attracting water. This in turns helps to absorb all other nutrients given to the body with
food or supplements. Natural salt is ESSENTIAL for food and nutrient absorption!
Salt (sodium chloride) is essential for life. The tight regulation of the body's sodium and
chloride concentrations is so important that multiple mechanisms work in concert to
control them. Although scientists agree that a minimal amount of salt is required for
survival, the health implications of excess salt intake represent an area of continued
investigation among scientists, clinicians, and public health experts (1).
Function

Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) are the principal ions in the fluid outside of cells
(extracellular fluid), which includes blood plasma. As such, they play critical roles in a
number of life-sustaining processes (2).
Maintenance of membrane potential

Sodium and chloride are electrolytes that contribute to the maintenance of

concentration and charge differences across cell membranes. Potassium is the principal
positively charged ion (cation) inside of cells, while sodium is the principal cation in
extracellular fluid. Potassium concentrations are about 30 times higher inside than
outside cells, while sodium concentrations are more than ten times lower inside than
outside cells. The concentration differences between potassium and sodium across cell
membranes create an electrochemical gradient known as the membrane potential. A
cell's membrane potential is maintained by ion pumps in the cell membrane,
especially the sodium, potassium-ATPase pumps. These pumps use ATP (energy) to
pump sodium out of the cell in exchange for potassium (Figure 1). Their activity has
been estimated to account for 20%-40% of the resting energy expenditure in a typical
adult. The large proportion of energy dedicated to maintaining sodium/potassium
concentration gradients emphasizes the importance of this function in sustaining life.
Tight control of cell membrane potential is critical for nerve impulse transmission,
muscle contraction, and cardiac function

Nutrient absorption and transport

Absorption of sodium in the small intestine plays an important role in the

absorption of chloride, amino acids, glucose, and water. Similar mechanisms are
involved in the reabsorption of these nutrients after they have been filtered from the
blood by the kidneys. Chloride, in the form of hydrochloric acid (HCl), is also an
important component of gastric juice, which aids the digestion and absorption of many
nutrients (2, 5).
Maintenance of blood volume and blood pressure

Because sodium is the primary determinant of extracellular fluid volume,

including blood volume, a number of physiological mechanisms that regulate blood
volume and blood pressure work by adjusting the body's sodium content. In the
circulatory system, pressure receptors (baroreceptors) sense changes in blood pressure
and send excitatory or inhibitory signals to the nervous system and/or endocrine
glands to affect sodium regulation by the kidneys.
In general, sodium retention results in water retention and sodium loss results in water
loss (4, 5). Below are descriptions of two of the many systems that affect blood volume
and blood pressure through sodium regulation.
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

In response to a significant decrease in blood volume or pressure (e.g., serious

blood loss or dehydration), the kidneys release renin into the circulation. Renin is
an enzyme that splits a small peptide (Angiotensin I) from a
larger protein (angiotensinogen) produced by the liver. Angiotensin I is split into a

smaller peptide (angiotensin II) by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), an enzyme

present on the inner surface of blood vessels and in the lungs, liver, and kidneys.
Angiotensin II stimulates the constriction of small arteries, resulting in increased blood
pressure. Angiotensin II is also a potent stimulator of aldosterone synthesis by
the adrenal glands. Aldosterone is a steroid hormone that acts on the kidneys to
increase the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of potassium. Retention of
sodium by the kidneys increases the retention of water, resulting in increased blood
volume and blood pressure (4).
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Secretion of ADH by the posterior pituitary gland is stimulated by a significant

decrease in blood volume or pressure. ADH acts on the kidneys to increase the
reabsorption of water (4).

Deficiency
Sodium (and chloride) deficiency does not generally result from inadequate
dietary intake, even in those on very low-salt diets(5).
Hypernatremia

Hypernatremia defined as a serum sodium concentration of less than 136

mmol/liter, may result from increased fluid retention (dilutionalhyponatremia) or
increased sodium loss. Dilutional hypernatremia may be due to inappropriate anti-

diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion, which is associated with disorders affecting

the central nervous system and with use of certain drugs (see Drug interactions). In
some cases, excessive water intake may also lead to dilutional hypernatremia.
Conditions that increase the loss of sodium and chloride include severe or prolonged
vomiting or diarrheal, excessive and persistent sweating, the use of some diuretics, and
some forms of kidney disease. Symptoms of hypernatremia include headache, nausea,
vomiting, muscle cramps, fatigue, disorientation, and fainting. Complications of severe
and rapidly developing hypernatremia may include cerebral oedema (swelling of the
brain), seizures, coma, and brain damage. Acute or severe hypernatremia may be fatal
without prompt and appropriate medical treatment (6).
Prolonged endurance exercise and hypernatremia

Hypernatremia has recently been recognized as a potential problem in

individuals competing in very long endurance exercise events, such as marathons,
ultramarathons, and Ironman triathlons. In 1997, 25 out of 650 participants in an
Ironman triathlon (almost 4%) received medical attention for hyponatremia (7).
Participants who developed hyponatremia during an Ironman triathlon had evidence of
fluid overload despite relatively modest fluid intakes, suggesting that fluid excretion was
inadequate and/or the fluid needs of these ultra-distance athletes may be less than
currently recommended (8). It has been speculated that the use of non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may increase the risk of exercise-related hyponatremia by
impairing water excretion (9), but firm evidence is presently lacking

For thousands of years it has been known that domestic and wild animals need
salt just as man does, and not just for flavour. The virtues of salt for animals were
extolled by the ancient Greeks. Early explorers in Africa, Asia and North America
recorded observations of grazing animals traveling to salt springs or deposits to satisfy
ravenous appetites for salt. Animals deprived of salt will risk grave danger or resort to
unusual behaviour to obtain it. Considerable evidence exists that early nomads and
hunters took advantage of this fact to lure and capture animals by locating areas with
salt and waiting for animals to come there periodically.
Salt is unique in that animals have a much greater appetite for the sodium and
chloride in salt than for other minerals. Because most plants provide insufficient sodium
for animal feeding and may lack adequate chloride content, salt supplementation is a
critical part of a nutritionally balanced diet for animals. In addition, because animals
have a definite appetite for salt, it can be used as a delivery mechanism to ensure
adequate intake of less palatable nutrients and as a feed limiter.

Even though the body only contains about 0.2% sodium, it is essential for life and
is highly regulated. About half of the sodium in the body is in the soft tissues of the
body; the other half in bones. Sodium makes up about 93% of the basic mineral
elements in the blood serum and is the chief cation regulating blood pH. The ability of
muscles to contract is dependent on proper sodium concentrations. Sodium plays major
roles in nerve impulse transmission and the rhythmic maintenance of heart action.

Efficient absorption of amino acids and monosaccharides from the small intestine
requires adequate sodium.
The other nutrient in salt, chloride is also essential for life. Chloride is the
primary anion in blood, and represents about two thirds of its acidic ions. The chloride
shift, movement of chloride in and out of the red blood cells, is essential in maintaining
the acid-base balance of the blood. Chloride is also a necessary part of the hydrochloric
acid produced by the stomach which is required to digest most foods.
Unfortunately, it is often assumed that if the sodium requirement is met, the
chloride requirement will automatically be met also. However, recent evidence indicates
this may not always be the case. For example, Belgian studies showed a close
correlation between potassium and chloride in the urine of cows. They concluded that
the necessity for the ruminant to eliminate high amounts of dietary potassium (as
potassium chloride) can dramatically increase the chloride requirement. Therefore,
since many ruminant feedstuffs are quite high in potassium, the potassium-to-chloride
ratio in the diet is important.
In monogastrics, a chloride deficiency can also develop when low levels of salt
are fed. Leach and Nesheim, reported that a chloride deficiency in chicks results in
extremely poor growth rate, high mortality, nervous symptoms, dehydration and reduced
blood chloride.
Animals have a more well defined appetite for sodium chloride than any other
compound in nature except water. Ruminants have such a strong appetite for sodium

that the exact location of salt source is permanently imprinted into their memory which
they can then return to when they become deficient. Bell showed that when steers were
trained to receive their sodium in response to pressing a panel, maximum effort to
receive the sodium occurred at eight days and after, on a sodium deficient diet. Cattle
also have a keen sense of smell for sodium. Sodium deficient steers were offered a
cafeteria of 12 buckets of water with only one containing moderate levels of sodium
salts. Steers would quickly choose the water containing sodium salts without having to
taste the water sources.
Horses have been shown to have a specific appetite for salt if the diet is deficient
in sodium. This is not true for the other nutrients. For example, horses do not develop a
preference for calcium supplements when fed a calcium deficient diet. This natural
appetite for salt is what makes salt such an excellent delivery mechanism for other
nutrients that need to be consumed regularly, but where a natural appetite is lacking.
The 1984 NRC Beef Cattle committee recognized this fact in stating that minerals
lacking in the diet can be provided by "self-feeding" common salt-mineral mixtures when
the mixture is consumed in amounts to satisfy the animals' appetite for salt.
Salt draws water out of cells via the process of osmosis. Essentially, water
moves across a cell membrane to try to equalize the salinity or concentration of salt on
both sides of the membrane. If you add enough salt, too much water will be removed
from a cell for it to stay alive or reproduce. Organisms that decay food and cause
disease are killed by a high concentration of salt. A concentration of 20% salt will kill
bacteria. Lower concentrations inhibit microbial growth, until you get down to the salinity

of the cells, which may have the opposite and undesirable effect of providing ideal
growing conditions!
Historically, the main reason for the addition of salt to food was for preservation.
Because of the emergence of refrigeration and other methods of food preservation, the
need for salt as a preservative has decreased (He and MacGregor, 2007), but sodium
levels, especially in processed foods, remain high. As discussed in Chapter 3, the tastes
and flavors associated with historical salt use have come to be expected, and the
relatively low cost of enhancing the palatability of processed foods has become a key
rationale for the use of salt in food (Van der Veer, 1985). However, taste is not the only
reason for the continued use of high levels of sodium in foods. For some foods, sodium
still plays a role in reducing the growth of pathogens and organisms that spoil products
and reduce their shelf life. In other applications, sodium levels remain high because salt
plays additional functional roles, such as improving texture. A number of other sodiumcontaining compounds are also used for increasing the safety and shelf life of foods or
creating physical properties.
This chapter begins with a review of the non-taste or flavor-related roles of salt and
other sodium-containing compounds in food. The second part of the chapter briefly
discusses the role that sodium plays in various food categories and provides examples
of the sodium content of various foods.

FOOD SAFETY AND PRESERVATION

As mentioned previously, the first major addition of sodium to foods was as salt,
which acted to prevent spoilage. Prior to refrigeration, salt was one of the best methods
for inhibiting the growth and survival of undesirable microorganisms. Although modernday advances in food storage and packaging techniques and the speed of
transportation have largely diminished this role, salt does remain in widespread use for
preventing rapid spoilage (and thus extending product shelf life), creating an
inhospitable environment for pathogens, and promoting the growth of desirable microorganisms in various fermented foods and other products. Other sodium-containing
compounds with preservative effects are also used in the food supply.
Salts Role in the Prevention of Microbial Growth
Salt is effective as a preservative because it reduces the water activity of foods.
The water activity of a food is the amount of unbound water available for microbial
growth and chemical reactions. Salts ability to decrease water activity is thought to be
due to the ability of sodium and chloride ions to associate with water molecules
(Fennema, 1996; Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995).

Adding salt to foods can also cause microbial cells to undergo osmotic shock,
resulting in the loss of water from the cell and thereby causing cell death or retarded
growth (Davidson, 2001). It has also been suggested that for some microorganisms, salt
may limit oxygen solubility, interfere with cellular enzymes, or force cells to expend

energy to exclude sodium ions from the cell, all of which can reduce the rate of growth
(Shelef and Seiter, 2005).
Today, few foods are preserved solely by the addition of salt. However, salt
remains a commonly used component for creating an environment resistant to spoilage
and inhospitable for the survival of pathogenic organisms in foods. Products in the
modern food supply are often preserved by multiple hurdles that control microbial
growth (Leistner, 2000), increase food safety, and extend product shelf life. Salt, high- or
low-temperature processing and storage, pH, redox potential, and other additives are
examples of hurdles that can be used for preservation. As shown in Figure 4-1, no
single preservation method alone would create a stable product; when combined,
however, these methods result in a desirable, stable, and safe product. For example, a
food might be protected by a combination of salt, refrigeration, pH, and a chemical
preservative.
For many foods, reducing the sodium content of the product should not create
food safety or spoilage concerns. Such foods include frozen products, products that are
sufficiently thermally processed to kill pathogenic organisms (e.g., canned foods), acidic
foods (pH < 3.8), and foods in which water activity remains low when sodium is
removed (e.g., foods with low water activity due to high sugar content) (Reddy and
Marth, 1991; Stringer and Pin, 2005).
For other foods, reducing sodium content has the potential to increase food
spoilage rates and the presence of pathogens. For these foods, product reformulation,
changes in processing, and changes in handling may be required to ensure that the

product has an adequate shelf life and to prevent pathogen growth. Such efforts do
incur additional costs and require careful attention to ensure that new formulations and
processes are sufficient to ensure product safety. These issues are discussed further
in Chapters 6 and 8.
Foods using sodium as a hurdle to retard microbial growth and survival
present a reformulation challenge, since changing the sodium content alters the impact
(or height) of the water activity hurdle. Changing this single hurdle may impact the
safety and quality of the food because other hurdles that are present (pH, temperature,
etc.) may work only in combination with the original sodium level. To maintain a safe,
good-quality product, reformulation may have to include the introduction of additional
hurdles or an increase in the impact of existing hurdles. If such additional measures are
not taken during sodium reduction efforts, the remaining products may not be stable.
For example, in cured meats, reducing the sodium content (by removing both salt and
sodium nitrite) could allow for rapid growth of lactic acid bacteria and action by
proteolytic microorganisms, resulting in a product that spoils more rapidly (Roberts and
McClure, 1990;Stringer and Pin, 2005). In some foods, pathogen growth, rather than
spoilage, may become a concern.
There is speculation that some past salt reduction efforts may not have
adequately accounted for the need to adjust additional hurdles to microbial growth.
In the United Kingdom, salt reduction efforts in chilled, ready-to-eat foods were
cited as one factor that may have contributed to an increase in the incidence of
listeriosis from 2001 to 2005 (Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of

Food, 2008). Listeriosis is caused by Listeria monocytogenes, which has a high thermal
stability and is able to grow and survive at refrigeration temperatures and elevated salt
levels (Zaika and Fanelli, 2003). To decrease the risk of listeriosis, a draft report of the
United Kingdoms Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food called on
the Food Standards Agency to work closely with food manufacturers to ensure that the
microbial safety of food products would not decrease with changes in formulation to
reduce salt (Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food, 2008).
There is also evidence suggesting that reductions in salt might result in greater
risk of toxin formation by Clostridium botulinum (the organism responsible for botulism)
in certain foods if additional hurdles are not incorporated. This is particularly the case for
foods that have not been heated sufficiently to inactivate C. botulinum spores and have
little oxygen present. Processed cheese (Glass and Doyle, 2005; Karahadian et al.,
1985), meat products (Barbut et al., 1986), and sous vide products (products that are
prepared in vacuum-sealed plastic pouches and heated at low temperatures for long
times1) have been recognized as having potential for C. botulinum control problems
when sodium is reduced (Simpson et al., 1995). For example, decreases in salt content
from 1.5 to 1.0 percent by weight greatly reduced the time needed for C. botulinum type
A and B spores to produce toxins in sous vide spaghetti and meat sauce products when
stored at typical refrigeration temperatures.
At salt concentrations at or above 1.5 percent, no toxin production was
detected from the inoculated products during the 42-day storage period, while at 1.0
percent salt addition, toxins were produced within 21 days (Simpson et al., 1995).

Similarly, turkey frankfurters inoculated with C. botulinum and held at 27C showed
more rapid toxin production when salt content was 2.5 percent than when it was 4.0
percent (Barbut et al., 1986).
In addition to C. botulinum and L. monocytogenes, the growth of other
foodborne pathogens may be more rapid in foods with reduced contents of salt and
other sodium-containing preservatives. These pathogens include Bacillus
cereus,Staphylococcusaureus, Yersiniaenterocolitica, Aeromonashydrophila, Clostridiu
m perfringens, and Arcobacter (DSa and Harrison, 2005; Reddy and Marth,
1991; Stringer and Pin, 2005).
While the pathogens described above must be taken into account, product
developers and researchers have been able to accomplish sodium reductions even in
products such as processed cheese and processed meats (Reddy and Marth, 1991). A
number of hurdles can be added or increased when sodium is reduced to ensure that a
products safety is maintained. Examples of additional hurdles are listed in Table 4-2.
This list includes a number of emerging technologies (e.g., high-pressure processing,
electron beam irradiation) that may have wider applications in the future.
Salt defines us as a species. We are hard wired not just to want salt, but to
need it, to adore it, to view it with something akin to lust.
Just as we developed cattle and crops to advance from caves and savannas to
villages and cities, salt is entwined with our evolution. Salt's diversity is a crystalline
reflection of the world's geography, culture, and technology. Virtually every society in

human history that could make salt, did. It is essential as a seasoning, a preservative
and a nutrient. Those without the resources or skill to make salt needed to trade for it.
And it might not be that bad for us, after all. A new major study of 3,681
peoplepublished last week in the Journal of the American Medical Association has again
seriously undermined the prevailing attitude among media and public health officials. It
found no correlation between moderate salt intake and hypertension.
As the most potent flavour enhancer, salt is also among the weirdest and most
unpredictable of all the world's foods. Salt can be blue, green, grey, silver, white, rose,
red, orange or purple. It can be monolithic or fractured. Salt crystals come in huge
blocks and in microscopic fronds. Shapes range from pyramids to flakes to clumps to
cubes; in the instance of a rare African salt from Lake Assal called Djibouti Boule, they
even form naturally into near-perfect spheres the size of golf balls. Salt crystallisation
seems intent on going rogue, bent on disproving the laws of physics and human
expectations.
Salting, the simple act of adding salt to food, is so ancient, varied and essential
that we have been lulled into believing we know how to do it, but most often, we don't.
Salting is an opportunity. What do you want salt to do for your dish? Do you want the
salt to spark and vanish or persist and penetrate? Do you want to build a crescendo or
diminuendo of flavour?
What textures do you want: a quick snap, a voluptuous crackle, a barely
perceptible crunch? How prominent a role do you want to allot to it: do you wish to hear

only the voices of the other ingredients, or can salt chime in as a chorus, or even grab
the microphone for a verse?
It is right and proper to use as much salt as you want so long as you are the
one salting your food. There are thousands of salts in the world, and there is no reason
not to explore as many as inspire you. On the other hand, salting effectively can be
achieved with the simplest of resources: A fleur de sel for finishing fine foods, a flake
salt for snappy contrast on fresh vegetables, and a selgris for everything else. Finishing
with salt rather than salting your food during cooking is one of the most effective ways
we have of playing sensually with what we eat. It brings food, salt and your palate into
the most intimate possible contact. When salt is allowed to play a finishing role in the
dish, the relationship of salt and food evolves with every bite. As you eat, food and salt
combine first a flash of salt ... then the food ... a flicker of salt ... now fuller food
flavours ... then a faint spark of salt catching at the complex afterglow of the food. The
rewards: increased intensity and complexity of flavour, surprising textures, unexpected
aromas and a heightened awareness of the process of tasting food.
I believe salt awakens us to our senses and our instincts like no other edible
substance. It also connects us to our environment and our traditions. Appreciating salt
and using it well begins with a glimpse at the cultural and economic centrality of this
essential mineral.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The researcher made use an experimental quantitative research utilizing

descriptive correlation techniques and use a standard format, with a few minor
interdisciplinary differences of generating a hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This
hypothesis must be provable by mathematical and statistical means, and is basis
around which the whole experiment is designed.
Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of
qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a tightening down of possible
directions for follow up research to take. This design was appropriate in this
investigatory project.

Respondents/Contents of the Study

Name

Questions:
(Mark Check if yes and x if no)
Can salt electricity
is better than
hydroelectricity?

Y
E
S
1.Gloria V. Pellano

2.Elsa V. Mahipus

4.Jhecyll P. Culverwell

Y
E
S

X
X

X
X

8.Dina H. Uyangguren
9.Demetria P. Hermoso

10.Jessica T. Bejod

11.Nestor A. Villamor

12.Edgar A. Villamor

13. Ezequiel A. Villamor

14.Cyrene M. Bastasa

15.Lanie M. Favia

16. Elma M. Regato

N
O

6. Bonifacio P. Villamor Jr.

7.Gina P. Madayag

N
O

X
X

3.Delia V. Navaja

5. Juliet P. Tapia

Can salt electricity

have better power
than electricity from
plant?

17.Reynaldo Cal

18.Lilybeth P. Patula

In the table above, the first question, about 67% answer yes while about 33%
answer no. In second questions, 60% answer yes while 40% answer no.

Experimental Procedures
Prepare the materials needed. Then, prepare the electrical materials, connect
them correctly. Connect the other another wirings that are connected to the saltwater.

After that, if the connections are securely and correctly connected finally, you can screw
the light bulb on the miniature base.

Materials:

Water

Small glass jar

Salt

Measuring spoons

Zinc-coated nail

Tape

Copper-coated wire

2 insulated wires with alligator clips on both ends.

Voltmeter (borrowed)

Graph paper, optional

Experimental Procedure:
1 Make a saltwater solution by mixing a small jar of water with a teaspoon of salt.
2 Place a zinc-coated nail into the solution, and tape it to one side of the cup securely.
This will be the negative electrode.
3 Place a copper-coated wire into the solution, and tape it to the other side of the cup
securely. This will be the positive electrode.
4 Open the alligator clip on one wire by squeezing it, and attach it to the end of the zinccoated wire sticking out of the solution.
5 Open the alligator clip on the other end of the wire, and attach it to the negative pole of
the voltmeter.
6 Repeat Steps 4 and 5 to connect the copper-coated nail to the positive pole of the
voltmeter.

Statistical Treatment

We used Karl Pearsons formula in order to find the Mean Value, we must find
the middle value of each Age Range. Karl Pearsons formula is n/e. N stands for the
total rates while e stands for number of respondents. The data collected were tabulated
and analyzed. Analyses of data were guided by mean. This will produce the average
value of them.

Analysis & Interpretation

Data Analysis :

When the volume of saltwater, the power of the electricity in the saltwater also
increases a notch, so a tremendous amount of saltwater is needed to produce
sustainable power. Stirring the saltwater will increase its potential electrical energy,
which may be caused by the activation and pronunciation of the seawaters molecules.
Therefore, stirring the saltwater will increase its potential electric energy. Finally, through
this experiment, it was observed that the electrolysis method was used to produce the
electricity from saltwater. Water is comprised of two elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Distilled water is pure and free of salts; thus it is a very poor conductor of electricity. By
adding ordinary table salt to distilled water, it becomes an electrolyte solution that can
conduct electricity.

Interpretation
The gathered was seriously interpreted:
a. The present study is not harmful in the environment for it is natural and ecofriendly. The present study was found to be a good source of electricity , can

performed the said its potential to conduct electricity.

b. The present study can help reduce damaging emmisions being added to our
atmosphere.
c. Ensures reliable energy source.

Materials and Equipment

Below are the listed materials and equipment needed in this study to obtain
saltwater power experiment.
Table 1.

The name of the materials and amount used to conduct this study.

10
1000

teaspoon
Ml

Salt
Water

Table 2
The equipment and their function used in conducting the study.
Small glass jar
teaspoon
tape
voltmeter

Storage of water
Used in measuring the salt being added
Used to taped the copper-coated wire
Used in voltage readings produced by the
saltwater.

Conclusion

The main goal was to find an alternative source of energy and to be able to see
if saltwater can be used as the alternative source of energy.
Based on experimentation, we found out that saltwater has potential electrical
energy, which can be used as an alternative source of power.

Arriving at the results and outputs , the researcher conclude after the hard
investigation produce on how to prove that saltwater can be a good conductor of
electricity. The researcher found out that the present product can truly, effectively,
and so affordable that can be an alternative energy in conducting electricity and
since the main material is in our sorroundings.

Moreover, it is proven that it is not harmful to any respondents who test the
present product. It is safe as well as in the environment for it is natural and no
harmful substances.

Bibliographies

Alexey. How Saltwater Can Be turned Into Energy. Mach 8, 2009. 3 September 2009.
<http://www.5min.com/Video/How-Saltwater-Can-Be-turned-Into-Energy-11495570&gt;

Elle, Jeanne. Green Cleaner: Electrolyzed Salt Water. 14 March 2009. . 3 September
2009. <http://green-jeanne.blogspot.com/2009/03/green-cleaner-electrolyzed-saltwater.html&gt;

Jacquot, Jeremy Elton. Fuel from Salt Water? September, 11, 2007. 3 September
2009. <http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/09/fuel_from_salt.php&gt;

MiniScience Inc. Air Battery. 2009. 3 September 2009.

<http://www.miniscience.com/projects/airbattery/&gt;

Power Generation. Energy Efficiency News 10 August 2009

Chapter 2
Review of Related
Literature

Chapter 3

Chapter 6

Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusion
& Interpretation

Chapter 4
Analysis & Interpretation

Chapte

r1