Marine Geology of Indonesia

Berita Sedimentologi
MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2
Indonesian Marine
Geology Research
Vessels: Their
Capacity and
Activity
page 5
Tertiary Uplift and the

Miocene Evolution of
the NW Borneo Shelf
Margin
page 21
Benthic Foraminifera in Marine Sediment

Related to Environmental Changes off
Bangka Island, Indonesia
page 47
Published by
The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)
The Sedimentology Commission - The Indonesian Association of Geologists (IAGI)

Number 33 August 2015
Page 1 of 57
Editorial Board
Advisory Board
Minarwan
Prof. Yahdi Zaim
Chief Editor
Bangkok, Thailand
E-mail: minarwanx@gmail.com
Quaternary Geology
Institute of Technology, Bandung
Prof. R. P. Koesoemadinata
Herman Darman
Deputy Chief Editor
Shell International EP
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail: herman.darman@shell.com
Fatrial Bahesti
PT. Pertamina E&P
NAD-North Sumatra Assets
Standard Chartered Building 23rd Floor
Jl Prof Dr Satrio No 164, Jakarta 12950 - Indonesia
E-mail: fatrial.bahesti@pertamina.com
Mohamad Amin Ahlun Nazar

University Link Coordinator
PT. Pertamina E&P, Asset 5
Jakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: m.amin.an@gmail.com
Visitasi Femant
Treasurer
Pertamina Hulu Energi
Kwarnas Building 6th Floor
Jl. Medan Merdeka Timur No.6, Jakarta 10110
E-mail: fvisitasi@yahoo.com
Rahmat Utomo
Bangkok, Thailand
E-mail: tomi_geologi04@yahoo.com
Farid Ferdian
Saka Energi Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: faridferdian@yahoo.com
Emeritus Professor
Institute of Technology, Bandung
Wartono Rahardjo
University of Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Ukat Sukanta
ENI Indonesia
Mohammad Syaiful
Exploration Think Tank Indonesia
F. Hasan Sidi
Woodside, Perth, Australia
Prof. Dr. Harry Doust

Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit
De Boelelaan 1085
1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
E-mails: harry.doust@falw.vu.nl;
harrydoust@gmail.com
Dr. J.T. (Han) van Gorsel

6516 Minola St., HOUSTON, TX 77007, USA
www.vangorselslist.com
E-mail: jtvangorsel@gmail.com
Dr. T.J.A. Reijers

Geo-Training & Travel
Gevelakkers 11, 9465TV Anderen, The Netherlands
E-mail: tjareijers@hetnet.nl
Dr. Andy Wight

formerly IIAPCO-Maxus-Repsol, latterly consultant
for Mitra Energy Ltd, KL
E-mail: yah1wight@yahoo.co.uk
Cover Photograph:
The Baruna Jaya I research vessel.
Photo courtesy of BPPT Agency for the

Assessment and Application of
Technology, Indonesia.
(http://barunajaya.bppt.go.id/index.php/
id/armada/item/12-k-r-baruna-jayai.html)
Published 3 times a year by the Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (Forum Sedimentologiwan Indonesia, FOSI), a commission of the
Indonesian Association of Geologists (Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, IAGI).
Cover topics related to sedimentary geology, includes their depositional processes, deformation, minerals, basin fill, etc.
Page 2 of 57
A sedimentological Journal of the Indonesia Sedimentologists Forum
(FOSI), a commission of the Indonesian Association of Geologist (IAGI)
From the Editor

Dear Readers,
Jurassic Shallow Marine Sand

Units in Papua New Guinea and
Australasia, written by Mike
Bidgood et al.
- Tertiary Uplift and the Miocene
Evolution of the NW Borneo Shelf
Margin, written by Franz Kessler
and John Jong; and
- Benthic Foraminifera in Marine
Sediment
related
to
Environmental
Changes
of
Bangka Island, Indonesia, written
by Kresna Dewi et al.
We're pleased to deliver another

edition of Berita Sedimentologi
into your hands. This volume is
Berita Sedimentologi No. 33 with
the main theme on Marine
Geology of Indonesia.
We included four articles in this
publication, which consist of:
- Indonesian Marine Geology
Research Vessels: Their Capacity
and Activity, written by Ai
Yuningsih et al.
Making
the
Most
of
Biostratigraphic Data; Examples
from Early Cretaceous to Late
On organizational change, we
would like to announce that M.
Amin Ahlun Nazzar has teamed
up with us as our University Link
Coordinator, replacing Wayan

Heru Young. Amin will help FOSI
to create a stronger link with
students whose research interests
are in sedimentology/sedimentary
geology. We also thank Wayan
Heru for all his contribution to
FOSI.
We hope youll get benefit of
articles
published in
Berita
Sedimentologi and if youd like to
contribute by submitting your
articles, please do not hesitate to
contact us.
Warm regards,
Minarwan
Chief Editor
INSIDE THIS ISSUE

Indonesian Marine Geology Research
Vessels: Their Capacity and Activity A.
Yuningsih et al.
Making the Most of Biostratigraphic Data;
Examples from Early Cretaceous to Late
Jurassic Shallow Marine Sand Units in
Papua New Guinea and Australasia M.
Bidgood et al.
Book Review : The SE Asian Getway:

History and Tectonic of the AustralianAsia Collision, editor: Robert Hall et J.A.
Reijers
11
Book Review - Biodiversity,

Biogeography and Nature Conservation
in Wallacea and New Guinea (Volume 1),
Edited by D. Telnov, Ph.D. H. Darman
Tertiary Uplift and the Miocene Evolution

of the NW Borneo Shelf Margin F. L.
Kessler and J. Jong
21
Benthic Foraminifera in Marine Sediment

Related to Environmental Changes off
Bangka Island, Indonesia K.T. Dewi et al.
47
56
58
Call for paper BS #34

to be published in December
2015
Page 3 of 57
About FOSI
he forum was founded in

1995 as the Indonesian
Sedimentologists
Forum
(FOSI). This organization is a
commu-nication and discussion
forum for geologists, especially for
those dealing with sedimentology
and sedimentary geology in
Indonesia.
The forum was accepted as the
sedimentological commission of
the Indonesian Association of
Geologists (IAGI) in 1996. About
300 members were registered in
1999, including industrial and
academic fellows, as well as
students.
FOSI has close international

relations with the Society of
Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) and
the International Association of
Sedimentologists (IAS).
Fellowship is open to those
holding a recognized degree in
geology or a cognate subject and
non-graduates who have at least
two years relevant experience.
FOSI
has
organized
2
international conferences in 1999
and 2001, attended by more than
150 inter-national participants.
team. IAGI office in Jakarta will

help if necessary.
The official website of FOSI is:

http://www.iagi.or.id/fosi/
Most of FOSI administrative work

will be handled by the editorial
FOSI Membership
Any person who has a background in geoscience and/or is engaged in the practising or teaching of geoscience
or its related business may apply for general membership. As the organization has just been restarted, we use
LinkedIn (www.linkedin.com) as the main data base platform. We realize that it is not the ideal solution,
and we may look for other alternative in the near future. Having said that, for the current situation, LinkedIn
is fit for purpose. International members and students are welcome to join the organization.
FOSI Group Member

as of AUGUST 2015:
961 members
Page 4 of 57
Indonesian Marine Geology Research Vessels: Their

Capacity and Activity
Ai Yuningsih1, Wahyu Pandoe2 and Herman Darman2
1
Marine Geological Institute (P3GL), Bandung, Indonesia.
2
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology , Indonesia (BPPT).
3
Shell International EP, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Corresponding author: herman.darman@shell.com
INTRODUCTION
About two thirds of Indonesian territory is covered
by sea, below which there is little-documented and
fascinating geological features which require study.
Observing and understanding this geology is
obviously technically more difficult than for the
onshore. Thus, knowledge of the submarine
geology relies on research and commercial ships.
The marine geology of Indonesia has been studied
since the 18th century. Two French ships called
Boudeuse and Etoile, and led by De Bougainville
sailed to collect data in 1768. Since then many
other research vessels came and were run by
researchers from the UK, Austria, the Netherlands,
USA, Germany and Japan. In late 1980s Indonesia
bought its own research vessel, Baruna Jaya 1,
and since then has built its own fleet of research
vessels.
The four institutions which run research vessels in
Indonesia are:
1. BPPT Badan Pengkasijan dan Penerapan
Teknologi or the Agency for the Assessment and
Application of Technology. It is a nondepartmental government agency under the
coordination of the Ministry of Research and
Technology, which has the tasks of carrying out
government duties in the field of assessment
and application of technology. BPPT operates 4
Baruna Jaya vessels. BPPT named their
research vessels as Baruna Jaya I, Baruna Jaya
II, Baruna Jaya III and Baruna Jaya IV
2. P3GL Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Geologi Kelautan or Marine Geological Institute,
under the ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources. This organization has been tasked to
carry out research, development, surveys and
conduct systematic mapping of the marine
geology of Indonesia. P3GL has one Geomarin
III research vessel.
3. LIPI Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia or
Indonesian Institute of Sciences. LIPI manages
two research vessels: Baruna Jaya VII and
Baruna Jaya VIII. The Baruna Jaya VII is a

fishery patrol vessel and the Baruna Jaya VIII is
one of the most modern research vessels in
Indonesia, equipped for biological, geological
and oceanographic surveys.
4. Balitbang KP Badan Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Kelautan dan Perikanan or
Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research and
Development of the Ministry of Marine Affairs
and Fisheries. This agency operates several
research vessels including KR. Madidihang and
the newest vessel Bawal Putih III.
THE RESEARCH VESSELS

BPPT Baruna Jaya (BJ) research fleet comprises
the four ships named above (Figure 1). All built by
CMN in Cherbourg, France, the first three were
constructed in 1989-1990 while the latest was
built in 1995. Each of them can carry 11-17 crew
and 28 scientists. These ships are about the same
in dimension with 60.4 meters in length and 11.6
m in width. The gross weights of BJ I, II and III
weigh 1184 tonnes and BJ IV is slightly heavier
with gross weight of 1219 tonnes. Their cruising
speeds range from 8 to 10 knots (Table 1).
Each ship has different functions. BJ II, for
example has 2D seismic acquisition facility, BJ III
has oceanographic/geological research facility. The
seismic processing unit has industrial standard
equipment, using Linux-based software such as
ProMAXTM.
BJ I has deep sea multipurpose
research facility and BJ IV has hydrographic,
oceanographic and fishing research instruments.
BPPT has research instruments which can be
added,
such
as
side
scan
sonar
unit,
magnetometer, marine resistivity, sample grabber,
dredging tool and coring tool.
BJ VII is fishery patrol vessel and BJ VIII is a high
end research vessel that can conduct geological
and geophysical surveys. Both vessels were
operated by LIPI. BJ VIII was built by PT. PAL in
Surabaya, Indonesia.
Page 5 of 57
Function
Operator
Launch
Origin
Crew
Scientist
Length (m)
Width (m)
Gross weight
(ton)
Speed (knot)
Deep sea
research
France
BPPT
10
10
Seismic 2D
1184
1184
1989
11
28
60.4
11.6
France
BPPT
1184
17
28
60.4
11.6
1989
France
BPPT
1219
Oceanographic Fishery
Oceanographic
+ fisheries
research
+ geological
research
vessel
France
BPPT
641
Baruna Jaya
VII
LIPI
1989
1998
Indonesia
17
28
60.4
53
11.6
12
Baruna Jaya II Baruna Jaya III Baruna Jaya IV
17
28
60.4
11.6
1989
Baruna Jaya I
Wide range
biological,
geological and
oceanographic
survey
10
1273
Shallow water
geological and Coast and
geophysical
river survey
survey
179
723
13.5
11
Seismic 2D,
gravityFishery
magnetic, sea training,
bottom
oceanographic
imaging
1300
Fishery,
geology,
geophysics,
oceanographic
16
395
Baruna Jaya
Geomarin I
Geomarine II Geomarin III Madidihang
Bawal Putih-3
VIII
LIPI
P3GL
P3GL
P3GL
Balitbang KP Balitbang KP
1998
1990
2008
2010
2013
Norway
Japan
Indonesia
Japan
Spain
Indonesia
23
12
2
22
27
30
9
4
29
50
15
48.8
31
5
61.7
50
42
12.5
6.8
12
9.8
8.7
Page 6 of 57
Figure 1.
Indonesian research
vessels under BPPT management
are: (a) Baruna Jaya I, (b) Baruna
Jaya II, (c) Baruna Jaya III and (d)
Baruna Jaya IV. LIPI manage (e)
Baruna Jaya VII and (f) Baruna
Jaya
VIII.
Geomarin
I
(g),
Geomarine II (h) and Geomarine III
(i) are run by P3GL. Madidihang (j)
and the newest Bawal Putih III (k)
belong to Balitbang KP.
P3GL manages 3 vessels called Geomarin I,
Geomarin II and Geomarin III (Figure 1). Geomarin I
has been used to complete shallow water mapping
in western Indonesia. Geomarin II is a small boat
which is useful for coastal and river mapping.
Recently it was used for river survey on the impact
of Sidoarjo mud in Porong River, East Java. P3GLs
Geomarin III is a modern research vessel, which
was completed in Japan and operated in 2008. It
replaced previous Geomarin I and II vessels.

Compared to the Baruna Jayas, Geomarin III is
slightly bigger. It is 61.7 m long, 12 m wide and its
gross weight is 1300 tonnes (Table 1). Geomarin III
is equipped with modern facilities such as 2D
seismic acquisition equipment with 480 channels,
onboard seismic processing unit, also multibeam,
side scan sonar, and magneto-gravity meter
Page 7 of 57
instrument. It also has sediment coring system

and onboard laboratory.
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Baruna Jaya vessels were involved in many
research activities. The following are examples of
their marine geology related projects in the last 5
years:
- Seram: Geological and geophysical 1:500.000
scale mapping in Seram Sea.
- Ternate and Kapuas: Sea bottom profile /
bathymetric mapping.
- Makassar Strait: marine resistivity survey.
- Mahakam Delta: abrasion survey for Total EP
Indonesi.
- Bangka Island: submarine mineral deposit
mapping around the island.
- Natuna Sea: Geophysical and geotechnical
survey.
- Tsunami buoy placement, replacement and
maintenance.
The research vessels managed by BPPT are up to

industrial standards; therefore they were also used
in a number of industrial activities. Total
Indonesi, ExxonMobil, Elnusa, EMP Kangean and
Fugro are examples of petroleum related
companies which used the Baruna Jaya vessels.
The Seismic data acquired by Baruna Jaya in
frontier areas of Indonesia provide initial regional
understanding (Figure 2). Although their coverages
are sparse, they gave preliminary view on the
geology. Some surveys with potential will be
followed by denser seismic with better resolution.
P3GLs Geomarin III has also completed a number
of significant research projects related to
Indonesian marine geology. Figure 3A shows the
marine geological map of Indonesia based on
Geomarine surveys. The western part of Indonesia
has been covered but there are still significant
areas to be covered in Eastern Indonesia. Figure
3B shows the map quadrants completed by P3GL
so far. The current project aims to complete
significant areas in eastern Indonesia by 2019.
Figure 2. The cover of Samples of Seismic Profile on Baruna Jaya Seismic Atlas, prepared in 1990s by
BPPT. The cover also shows the coverage of Baruna Jaya vessel (source H. Darman).
Page 8 of 57
Figure 3. A) Sea bottom sediment compiled from 1 : 250.000 systematic mapping result of P3GL from 1984
to 2012. The units are defined based on the distribution of sediment texture and composition (Usman, E.,
2014).B) Geological and geophysical map quadrant of 1:250.000 scale. Yellow boxes indicated completed
quadrant. The area indicated with black outline is the 2013-2019 mapping project area (Arifin, L., 2013).
Page 9 of 57
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The vast area of Indonesia needs to be explored.

There are still areas with very limited geological
understanding, especially remote offshore areas
but the five research vessels of Indonesia are
insufficient to cover them. Until funds are available
to increase the size of this hard-worked fleet,
proper and detailed planning in conducting
surveys becomes critical for efficient, cost-effective
surveying.
Arifin, L., 2013. Pemetaan Geologi dan Geofisika di

Perairan Indonesia. Majalah Mineral dan
Energi, Vol. 11, No. 4 December.
BPPT Baruna Jaya website:
http://barunajaya.bppt.go.id/index.php/id.
html
Geomarin I-III website:
http://www.litbang.esdm.go.id/index.php?o
ption=com_content&view=category&layout=b
log&id=83&Itemid=94
Usman, E., 2014. Data Dasar untuk Penyusunan
Peta dan Kebijakan Pengelolaan Sumber
Daya Mineral Kelautan Indonesia. Majalah
Mineral dan Energi, Vol. 12, No. 2 - June
P3GL website: http://www.mgi.esdm.go.id/
Page 10 of 57
Making the Most of Biostratigraphic Data; Examples from

Early Cretaceous to Late Jurassic Shallow Marine Sand
Units in Papua New Guinea and Australasia
Mike Bidgood1, Monika Dlubak2 and Mike Simmons2
GSS International, 2 Meadows Drive, Oldmedrum, Aberdeenshire, AB51 0GA, UK.
2
Neftex Petroleum Consultants Ltd., 97 Jubilee Avenue, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RW,
UK.
1
Corresponding author: mike@gssinternational.co.uk ; monika.dlubak@halliburton.com ;

mike.simmons@halliburton.com
ABSTRACT
A fundamental task in the exploration workflow is the mapping of reservoir sand units within a
broader paleogeography. Such maps help, for example, to predict reservoir extent and link sands
back to likely sediments sources thereby helping to improve reservoir quality predictions. If these
sand units are multiple bodies within a relatively narrow time-stratigraphic interval, mapping of
individual sands can be difficult if we rely on simple lithostratigraphic differentiation, or
chronostratigraphic terminology (ages) for correlation.
An example of this is shown from the Early Cretaceous to Late Jurassic shallow marine sands of
southeast Papua New Guinea and Australasia. Previously correlated only on a broad timescale
and often with overlapping age-range for individual lithostratigraphic units, it can be difficult to
determine the precise stratigraphic position of each of these sands (e.g. the important Toro
Sandstone reservoir) which in turn can affect interpretations regarding their exploration and
production characteristics.
The evaluation of large, public-domain, biostratigraphic datasets has allowed for the construction
of a detailed synthesis biozonation for the area which permits more reliable identification and
stratigraphic placement of individual sand units and which further allows for improved
correlation at local and regional scale and improved mapping.
INTRODUCTION
The Toro Sandstone is an important hydrocarbon
reservoir rock in southeast Papua New Guinea (the
Papuan Basin Shelf Platform USGS basin)
Figure 1 and is generally considered to be of Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in age. Related sand
bodies of similar general age include units labelled
variously as Alene, which occurs stratigraphically
above the Toro Formation, and the Digimu,
Pnyang, Hedinia and Iagifu units together with an
informal unit known as X all of which occur
stratigraphically below the Toro. The literature
shows
much
disagreement
as
to
the
lithostratigraphic definitions and relationships
between many of these units (see Davey, 1999 and
below for a brief discussion), particularly the
status of the Toro unit itself and its internal
subunits.
Discussions
as
to
the
correct
lithostratigraphic assignment of bed, member or
formation status to these units is beyond the scope
of this work and notwithstanding such
assignments given in the general descriptions

below they are treated here as separate informal
units.
The main Toro unit has been subdivided into three
subunits; in descending order Toro A, Toro B and
Toro C (Madu, 1996; De Vries et al., 1996 and
Azizi-Yarand and Livingstone, 1996) with the B
unit being somewhat shaleier than those above
and below it. The status of the C unit is
particularly
debateable
with
Davey
(1999)
seemingly equating it with sands previously
assigned to the Digimu unit (upper Imburu
Formation) in the Toros type section. This has led
to the concept of a so-called Digimu lobe of the
Toro Formation and a degree of uncertainty as to
its status.
Overall, these various sand units are believed to be
shallow marine shelf sands as determined mainly
by their palynological content (organic-walled
microplankton, spores and pollen).
Page 11 of 57
Figure 1. Generalised stratigraphy of the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous of Papua New Guinea (based on
Hill et al., 2000) and location of the study area. Chronostratigraphic timescale is approximate, but based on
biozones from this study.
In a regional context, these sediments form part of
the Middle Jurassic Early Cretaceous Gondwana
Syn-Rift Megasequence and were deposited in a
passive margin setting on a relatively stable
marine shelf, which progressively deepened
towards the north-east. Across the more proximal
south-western portion of the basin, a series of
interbedded sandstones and shales comprising the
Koi-Lange
Formation
were
deposited
unconformably above the Barikewa Formation.
These sandstones represent potential hydrocarbon
reservoirs, whilst interbedded shales become
increasingly organic-rich towards the north-east
where they may have source potential with TOC of
1-1.5% (Burns & Bein, 1980). The Koi-Lange
Formation is overlain conformably by the Imburu
Formation which is typically divided into 4
members. The Lower Imburu Member comprises
mainly shales with some source potential, whilst
the younger Iagifu, Hedinia and Digimu members
comprise some important blocky coarsening
upward reservoir sandstone bodies.
Early Cretaceous sediments continued deposition
in a passive margin setting as the upper part of the
Gondwana Syn-Rift Megasequence. The Toro
Sandstone represents one of the most important
hydrocarbon reservoirs within the basin and is
capped by thick regionally extensive shales of the
Ieru Formation, which form the principle seal.
These formations are overlain by thick shales and
siltstones of the chronostratigraphically equivalent
deeper water Maril Shale across the distal northeastern part of the passive margin. The linear
distribution of productive hydrocarbon fields in the
frontal part of the Papuan Fold Belt marks the
distal limit of sandstone deposition within this
megasequence.
Distally, beyond this limit (the Darai Shelf Edge
of Hill et al., 2000), shales and mudstones of the
Maril Shale or Om Formations (Jurassic) and the
Chim Formation (Cretaceous) are deposited.
Using sequence stratigraphic principles, Hill et al.
proposes the existence of Toro equivalent lowstand
fans beyond the shelf edge derived from
cannibalised Toro shelf sands (Figure 1).
RELATIVE AGES OF THE SAND UNITS

Many authors, with or without biostratigraphic
data, have assigned various age or biozone labels
to the sand units forming this study (e.g. Davey,
1987, 1999; Denison and Anthony, 1990; Granath
and Hermeston, 1993; Hill et al., 2000; Hirst and
Price, 1996; Johnstone and Emmett, 2000; Madu,
1996; McConachie and Lanzilli, 2000; McConachie
et al., 2000; Morton et al., 2000; Phelps and
Denison, 1993; Powis, 1993; Varney and
Brayshaw, 1993; Welsh, 1990; Winn et al., 1993).
A summary of these composite age/zonal ranges is
shown in Figure 2.
Page 12 of 57
Figure 2. Summary of the range of maximum and minimum age assignments conferred on sand units by
various authors, shown against the Gradstein et al., 2012 time scale.
These composite age ranges are clearly unrealistic
and have no practical value for correlation
purposes. Therefore how do they come about? One
of the most likely sources is the over-reliance on
using interpreted ages as a basis for correlation.
Chronostratigraphic
(age)
interpretations
as
derived from calibration of biostratigraphic zones
and events can and do change, sometimes
frequently and often significantly. The reasons for
this are many-fold and include iterative redefinitions of stage boundaries and improved
techniques (biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic,
radio-isotopes, geochemical excursions, orbital
calibration etc.) for recognising them. Traditional
European-based stages, many of which were
defined in proximal settings and separated by
significant unconformities, are being replaced by
new subdivisions based on marine sections with
continuous deposition which allows easier global
correlation. The four chronostratigraphic stages
that are of interest to us here have lower boundary
ages which have varied between the following
values since the 1980s alone:
Valanginian
Berriasian
Tithonian
Kimmeridgian
128.0
133.0
140.0
145.0
140.7
145.6
152.1
157.3
This also means the duration of stages can vary

considerably. It is easy to see why a worker using
one timescale might regard a section as Berriasian,
while another worker using a different timescale
would attach a Tithonian label.
These chronostratigraphic changes can have two
significant adverse effects the first, by incorrectly
correlating separate strata given a similar
chronostratigraphic age by two separate workers
one of whom has made an incorrect interpretation
because definitions may have changed (see, for
example, the redefinition of the boundary between
the Campanian and Maastrichtian stages; Odin,
2001 and Ogg, Hinnov and Huang, 2012; pp. 806808). For example, a stratigraphic section of the
Phanerozoic of Papua New Guinea in McConachie
et al., 2000 shows the Toro unit placed
(incorrectly)
within
the
Valanginian
chronostratigraphic stage without any apparent
justification
for
that
age
interpretation.
Subsequent workers using this information may
miss-correlate the Toro with other local sand units
of a proven Valanginian age, or believe genuine
Toro sands are not, in fact, Toro due to them not
having a Valanginian age.
The second main source of error arises by not
correlating
separate
strata
given
different
chronostratigraphic ages by two workers who each
Page 13 of 57
has a different concept of the chronostratigraphy

but who are, in fact, talking about the same
stratigraphic section. An example of this concerns
the lack of formal definition of the Jurassic
Cretaceous system (Berriasian Tithonian stages)
boundary where there are no fewer than 14
separate candidate markers for the boundary
spread over a 3-4 million year time-span (see Ogg,
Hinnov and Huang, 2012; pp. 795-797). Therefore
it seems one persons concept of early Berriasian
may in fact be the same as anothers concept of
late Tithonian but the two sections would
normally never be correlated, or may be incorrectly
thought of as being diachronous. Such errors are
frequently perpetuated in the literature

further compounding the problem.
thus
Differences of opinion between paleontologists is

another factor, both by workers within the same
fossil group and workers between different fossil
groups. For example, four important biozonation
schemes based on palynology applicable to the
Papua New Guinea region which cover the Late
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous interval are those of
Davey, 1987 and 1999; Helby, Morgan and
Partridge, 1987 and Welsh, 1990. Each has
similarities with, and differences from, the other
(see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Synthesis Biozonation scheme for the Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous interval in the Papua New
Guinea region, including some of the important palynological schemes used in its construction. Standard
Chronostratigraphy is based on Gradstein et al., 2012. Chart constructed using TSCPro.
Page 14 of 57
Figure 4. Synthesis biozones applied to the Hedinia-1X well allowing the biostratigraphic fingerprinting
of sand units and the strata between them. Note that the synthesis biozone PNG 1K identified in the
lower part of the Toro unit beneath a clear biostratigraphic hiatus suggests this should be reinterpreted
as a Digimu equivalent. (Well data from Winn et al., 1993 and Denison and Anthony, 1990).
Further sources of error may include the incorrect
application of lithostratigraphy and possibly even
simple counting errors such as... This is the fourth
sandstone unit encountered, therefore it must be the
Pnyang unit without independent confirmation.
Ensuring that the various biozonation schemes are
correctly calibrated to global standards is a vital
step in being able to correlate the different
schemes together. This involves the screening of all
available palynological data throughout the region
to identify those fossil extinction and inception
horizons which are the most consistently and
confidently recorded. This only works as long as
the (in this case palynological) data itself has been
consistently recorded and calibrated against global
standard biozonation schemes and timescales.
This workflow applies equally to other fossil

groups.
Note that in some instances (as in Figure 3) it can
be seen that the same stratigraphic zonal interval
is given different species names by the different
authors and occasionally the boundaries between
the zones do not match up. This is, of course,
scientifically correct especially if different fossil
groups are used (i.e. spores & pollen versus
dinoflagellates) but is potentially very confusing for
a non paleontologist. Correlation of different
stratigraphic sections zoned by different workers
using different fossil groups is only possible if this
type of diagram a Rosetta Stone is properly
calibrated and available.
Page 15 of 57
Figure 5. Biozonal assignment of individual sand units from the PNG area. Standard Chronostratigraphy is
based on Gradstein et al., 2012.
The next logical step would be to further integrate
the (calibrated) zonation schemes and bioevents
from additional fossil groups and to construct a
full synthesis biozonation based on the most
reliable, widespread and confident bioevents.
Synthesis biozones allow correlation at local and
regional scales independent of current or past
timescales and avoiding the need to communicate
with potentially confusing and/or obsolete fossil
names.
Figure 3 shows the results of such a process for
the Kimmeridgian to Hauterivian stages of the
Papua New Guinea area and four of the more
important individual palynological schemes used
in the construction. The full data set which was
used comprises many more schemes from
palynology and many other fossil groups and is not
shown here.
The synthesis biozones are calibrated against a
series of standard, global biozones in this case
Tethyan ammonites.
Applying these synthesis biozones to well data we
can biostratigraphically fingerprint observed
lithological units such as these various sand
bodies (Figure 4).
By applying this technique to multiple wells, all of

which were previously zoned to a greater or lesser
degree by different workers using different local
schemes, it is possible to arrive at a clearer idea of
the exact stratigraphic levels upon which these
sand units lie (Figure 5). Compared to the initial
age assignments shown in Figure 2, this shows
considerable improvement in resolution which
enables much greater confidence in correlating
these sand bodies across the region.
The calibration of the synthesis biozonation
scheme to global standard schemes allows the
technique to be carried over into nearby regions
and possibly even further beyond. An example
from similar-age sand units in the Ichthys Field
(Northwest Shelf, Australia) shows how these too
can be biostratigraphically fingerprinted using
the same synthesis zone model as for Papua New
Guinea.
Berriasian sand units in Titanichthys-1 (Figure 6)
appear to be biostratigraphically equivalent to
sands identified as Digimu and Toro in Papua New
Guinea.
Page 16 of 57
Figure 6.
Biostratigraphic "fingerprinting" of sand units in Titanichthys-1 (Ichthys field, Australian
Northwest Shelf). Biozonal correlation with similar units in the PNG Hedinia-1X well show that many of these
sand units were deposited during the same sequence cycles. (Well data from WAPINS database, 2008).
Regional knowledge (Andrew Lavender, pers.
comm.) indicates that the Ichthys sands are more
likely to be deposited in a slope setting and
therefore may cautiously support a similar model
proposed by Hill et al., 2000, for the presence of
lowstand Toro sands in PNG, although such sands
have yet to be proved, and the thicker shelf sands
in PNG (compared with thinner shelf sands in NW
Australia) might indicate lesser degrees of
cannibalisation and shelf by-pass. Figure 7
presents a schematic paleogeography.
CONCLUSIONS
Much valuable local biostratigraphic data,
irrespective of publication date, is under-utilised
because of a lack of calibration to global
standards, reducing their utility for optimum
correlation, especially at regional scale. There is a
tendency among geoscientists to correlate using

chronostratigraphic (age) units rather than
biostratigraphic units this can be potentially
misleading if not applied very carefully. Ages are,
after all, an interpretation contemporary only to
the date of publication. It is the biostratigraphic
data that is the fundamental correlation tool.
Critical screening of large biostratigraphic data
sets across multiple fossil groups allows consistent
and reliable bioevents to be identified to construct
a synthesis biozonation scheme which permits
more confident correlation within a basin, and a
Rosetta Stone to allow workers to fit their local
data within a standard zonal framework for
regional studies, which is independent of an everchanging global timescale and undefined stage
boundaries.
Page 17 of 57
Figure 7. Generalised Berriasian paleogeography relating to the Toro Sandstone and related units from
Papua New Guinea and the Australian Northwest Shelf.
The technique has been applied in the Papua New
Guinea/NW Australia area and increases the
power to discriminate between reservoir sand units
and place them within the context of a global
sequence model.
In appropriate circumstances the technique and
zonation scheme may be applied regionally,
outside the basin within which it was constructed.
This
has
shown
that
biostratigraphically
equivalent sands have been recorded on the
Australian NW Shelf which may be lowstand
equivalents of highstand/transgressive sands in
Papua New Guinea and lends cautious support to
a possible lowstand Toro play model in that area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank their colleagues at
Neftex: James Barnett for valuable discussions on
PNG regional geology, Andy Lavender for
information on the Ichthys Field, Allie Nawell for
drafting and Ellen Foster for help with well
diagrams.
REFERENCES
Azizi-Yarand, S.A. and J.E. Livingston 1996. Iagifu
3X/8X Toro block reservoir performance
evaluation- case study. In P.G. Buchanan
(Eds.), Petroleum exploration, development
and production in Papua New Guinea.
Proceedings of the Third PNG Petroleum
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
9th-11th
September, 1996, p. 563-571.
Burns, B.J. and J. Bein 1980. Regional geology
and hydrocarbon potential of the Mesozoic of
the western Papuan Basin, Papua New
Guinea.
APPEA
Journal
(Australian
Petroleum Exploration Association Journal),
v. 20, no. 1, p. 1-15.
Davey, R.J. 1987. Palynological zonation of the
Lower Cretaceous, Upper, and Upper Most
Middle Jurassic in the Northwestern Papuan
Basin of Papua New Guinea. Memoir 13 of
the Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea
(Department
of
Mineral
Resources).
Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea, p.
1-77.
Davey, R.J. 1999. Revised palynological zonation
for the Late Cretaceous, Early Cretaceous
and Late Jurassic of Papua New Guinea.
Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea Page 18 of 57
Memoir no. 17, Geological Survey of Papua

New Guinea, 1-51 p.
Denison, C.N. and J.S. Anthony 1990. New Late
Jurassic subsurface lithostratigraphic units,
PPL-100, Papua New Guinea. In G.J.
Carman and Z. Carman (Eds.), Petroleum
exploration
in
Papua
New
Guinea:
Proceedings of the First PNG Petroleum
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
12-14th
February, 1990, p. 153-158.
DeVries, M.S., R.D. Parish and J.L. Ryan 1996.
Horizontal well drilling in the Kutubu
project, Papua New Guinea. In P.G.
Buchanan (Eds.), Petroleum Exploration,
Development and Production in Papua New
Guinea; proceedings of the 3rd PNG
Petroleum Convention, p. 551-561.
Francis, G. and G.E.G. Westermann 1993. The
Kimmeridgian problem in Papua New
Guinea and other parts of the IndoSouthwest Pacific. In G.J. Carman and Z.
Carman (Eds.), Petroleum exploration and
development in Papua New Guinea.
Proceedings of the Second PNG Petroleum
Convention, Port Moresby, 31st May-2nd
June, 1993, p. 75-93.
Gradstein, F.M., J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M.
Ogg 2012. The Geologic Time Scale 2012. 2
Volumes. Elsevier.
Granath, J.W. and S.A. Hermeston 1993.
Relationship
of
the
Toro
Sandstone
Formation and the Alene Sands of Papua to
the Woniwogi Formation of Irian Jaya. In
G.J. Carman and Z. Carman (Eds.),
Petroleum exploration and development in
Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the
Second PNG Petroleum Convention, Port
Moresby, 31st May-2nd June, 1993, p. 201206.
Hill, K.C., M.S. Norvick, J.T. Keetley and A. Adams
2000. Structural and stratigraphic shelfedge hydrocarbon plays in the Papuan fold
belt. In P.G. Buchanan, A.M. Grainge and
R.C.N. Thornton (Eds.), Papua New Guinea's
petroleum industry in the 21st century;
Proceedings of the Fourth PNG Petroleum
Convention, Port Moresby, p. 67-85.
Hirst, J.P.P. and C.A. Price 1996. Sequence
stratigraphy and sandstone geometry of the
Toro and Imburu formations within the
Papuan fold belt and foreland. In P.G.
Guinea; proceedings of the 3rd PNG
Petroleum Convention, p. 279-299.
Home, P.C., D.G. Dalton and J. Brannan 1990.
Geological Evolution of the Western Papuan
Basin. In G.J. Carman and Z. Carman
(Eds.), Petroleum exploration in Papua New
Guinea: Proceedings of the First PNG
Petroleum Convention, Port Moresby, 1214th February, 1990, p. 107-117.
Johnstone, D.C. and J.K. Emmett 2000. Petroleum
geology of the Hides Gas Field, Southern
Highlands, Papua New Guinea. In P.G.
Buchanan, A.M. Grainge and R.C.N.

Thornton (Eds.), Papua New Guinea's
petroleum industry in the 21st century
Proceedings of the 4th PNG Petroleum
Convention, Port Moresby, 29th-31st May
2000, p. 319-335.
Madu, S 1996. Correlation sections of the Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous succession in
the Papuan Fold Belt, Papuan Basin. In P.G.
Guinea: Proceedings of the Third PNG
Petroleum Convention, Port Moresby, 1996,
p. 259-277.
Marshall, N.G. and S.C. Lang 2013. A New
Sequence Stratigraphic Framework for the
North West Shelf, Australia. West Australian
Basins Symposium 2013. Expanding our
horizons, 18-21 August 2013, Perth Western
Australia. PESA, Petroleum Exploration
Society of Australia, p. 1-32.
Mason, H.D. And B.A. McConachie 2000. Cross
Catalina Anticline; an oil accumulation in
the New Guinea fold belt in Irian Jaya (west
Papua). In P.G. Buchanan, A.M. Grainge
and R.C.N. Thornton (Eds.), Papua New
Guinea's petroleum industry in the 21st
century Proceedings of the 4th PNG
Petroleum Convention, Port Moresby, 29th31st May 2000, p. 475-486.
McConachie, B.A. and E. Lanzilli 2000. Stanley gas
condensate field discovery and the oil
potential of the Western Papuan Basin. In
P.G. Buchanan, A.M. Grainge and R.C.N.
2000, p. 427-442.
McConachie, B., E. Lanzilli, D. Kendrick and C.
Burge 2000. Extensions of the Papuan
Basin Foreland geology into eastern Irian
Jaya (West Papua) and the New Guinea Fold
Belt in Papua New Guinea. In P.G.
Thornton (Eds.), Papua New Guineas
Petroleum Industry in the 21st Century:
Proceedings of the fourth PNG Petroleum
Convention, Port Moresby, p. 219-237.
Mollan, R.G. and G.J. Blackburn 1990. Petroleum
potential of the Fly-Bamu Deltas Region. In
G.J. Carman and Z. Carman (Eds.),
Petroleum exploration in Papua New Guinea:
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
12-14th
February, 1990, p. 215-226.
Morton, A.C., B. Humphreys, G. Manggal and C.M.
Fanning 2000. Provenance and correlation
of Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
reservoir sandstones in Papua New Guinea
using heavy mineral analysis. In P.G.
Page 19 of 57

2000, p. 187-203.
Odin, G.S. 2001. The Campanian-Maastrichtian
boundary: definition at Tercis (Landes, SW
France) principle, procedure, and proposal.
In G.S. Odin (Eds.), The CampanianMaastrichtian
stage
boundary;
characterisation at Tercis les Bains (France)
and correlation with Europe and other
continents. Developments in Palaeontology
and Stratigraphy no. 19, p. 820-833.
Ogg, J.G., L.A. Hinnov and C. Huang 2012.
Cretaceous. In F.M. Gradstein, J.G. Ogg,
M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The
Geologic Time Scale 2012. Volume 2, p. 793853.
Osborne, D.G. 1990. The hydrocarbon potential of
the western Papuan Basin foreland - with
reference to worldwide analogues. In G.J.
exploration
in
Papua
New
Guinea:
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
12-14th
February, 1990, p. 197-214.
Phelps, J.C. and C.N. Denison 1993. Stratigraphic
thickness
variations
and
depositional
systems of the Ieru Formation, Southern
Highlands and Western Provinces, Papua
New Guinea. In G.J. Carman and Z. Carman
(Eds.),
Petroleum
exploration
and
June, 1993, p. 169-190.
Powis, G.D. 1993. The Sequence Stratigraphy of
the Mesozoic reservoirs of the Gobe
Anticline, Papuan Thrust Belt. In Carman,
G.J. and Z. Carman (Eds.), Petroleum
exploration and development in Papua New
Guinea. Proceedings of the Second PNG

Petroleum Convention, Port Moresby, 31st
May-2nd June, 1993, p. 155-167.
Sari, J. 1990. Revised Stratigraphic Definition of
the Toro Formation: A Proposal. In G.J.
exploration
in
Papua
New
Guinea:
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
12-14th
February, 1990, p. 159-168.
Varney, T.D. and A.C. Brayshaw 1993. A revised
sequence stratigraphic and depositional
model for the Toro and Imburu Formations,
with implications for reservoir distribution
and prediction. In G.J. Carman and Z.
Carman (Eds.), Petroleum exploration and
June, 1993, p. 139-154.
Welsh, A. 1990. Applied Mesozoic Biostratigraphy
in the Western Papuan Basin. In G.J.
exploration
in
Papua
New
Guinea:
Convention,
Port
Moresby,
12-14th
February, 1990, p. 369-379.
Western Australian Department of Industry and
Resources
2008.
WAPIMS
Database:
Western Australia Digital Well Logs Various. In Basin Data Packages, Western
Australia. Geological Survey of Western
Australia (GSWA).
Winn, S., J. Wilmot, J. Noonan, J. Bradshaw, M.
Bradshaw, C. Foster, A. Murray, J. Vizy and
G. Zuccaro 1993. Australian Petroleum
Systems Papuan Basin Module, 3 Volumes,
Australian Geological Survey Organization
(AGSO).
Page 20 of 57
Tertiary Uplift and the Miocene Evolution of the NW Borneo

Shelf Margin
Franz L. Kessler1* and John Jong2
Independent Geosciences, Oil and Gas Consultant
2
JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration (Deepwater Sabah) Limited
1
*Corresponding author: franzlkessler32@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
NW Borneo, of which the shelfal margin extends from the West Baram Line in the southeast to
the Balabac Line in the northwest, encompasses an area of active hydrocarbon exploration since
the 1970s. A large number of the earlier oil and gas finds are located in shelfal reservoirs of
Neogene age. In this study, we portray the development of the Miocene shelf from the
standpoints of stratigraphy, sea-level fluctuations, hinterland uplift and sediment recycling;
mobile clay tectonics and, last but not least, the impact of the monsoon climate. Balancing the
different viewpoints, we believe the transition from a muddy Mid-Miocene shelf to an unusually
sandy one can be attributed to two independent factors, which are:
1.
2.
The rise of the Borneo part of Sundaland in the Middle to Late Miocene, caused by tectonic
compression, in combination with the influence of the monsoon climate, and
The availability, through erosion of the Rajang/Crocker system, of massive amounts of
sand delivered to the basin in geologically short time intervals.
The Early to Mid-Miocene Cycle III/Stage III Setap Shale and other sediments in the Baram
Delta appear characteristically lean in sand in most areas. The available data suggest that the
first massive regional sand pulse originated at the same time in the Baram Delta, Brunei and
Sabah, during Cycle IV/Stage IVA (Serravallian), post-MMU/DRU times. Continued sand supply
established a shelf edge that remained almost stationary throughout Mid Cycle V/Stage IVC. As
compression and uplift continued, the Middle to Late Miocene Cycles IV/V (Stages IVA-E) shelf
saw local modification by hydraulic clay injection. During Cycles V/VI, and also in the Stages
IVD-F, we see a further major expansion of the shelf. The question, as to which of these pulses
can be linked to sea-level fluctuations, remains open; though it appears that the Borneo uplift has
outrun rising sea-level at least since the Late Pleistocene.
Keywords: evolution, NW Borneo, Miocene, uplift.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to summarize the
results
of
studies,
both
published
and
unpublished, that help to explain the transition
from a mud-dominated, low-energy deeper water
shelf in Cycle III/Stage III and leading to the sandprone,
post-MMU/DRU
(Mid-Miocene
Unconformity/Deep Regional Unconformity) large
shelfal margins from Cycle IV/Stage IVA onwards.
However, there remains the question, which is yet
to be fully resolved, how shelfal sediments
underlying the Cycle IV/Stage IVA sand pulses are
related to each other in NW Borneo. These are:
1. The gray Setap Shale/Sibuti Formation in
Sarawak (Central Luconia, Balingian Province),
a sequence of marls, and fine silt to sandy
turbidite beds with carbonate shoals developed
in places.
2. The Setap Shale underlying the Baram Delta, a

clay-dominated sequence with the occasional
thin sandstone beds; at the top, just beneath
the unconformity to Cycle IV/Stage IVA, there
are glauconite-rich green sands with a rich
foraminifera fauna.
3. The Temburong Formation (Brunei, Limbang
and
Sabah),
clay-dominated
with
thin
sandstone beds.
4. The Kudat Formation, formed by clay and thin
sands in NW Sabah.
Mazlan (1994) investigated the relationship
between the Temburong Formation and the Setap
Shale on Labuan Island, and came to the
conclusion that the Temburong and Setap are defacto time-equivalent depositional sequences.
Based on different burial history, metamorphism
and uplift, it can be argued that the
Rajang/Crocker
Basin
is
tectonically
and
stratigraphically distinct from the NW Borneo
Page 21 of 57
(Baram-Balabac) Basin. The apparent lithological

similarity between the Temburong and the Crocker
commented in some studies might therefore be
coincidental.
Regionally, the South China Sea corresponds to a
former area of Cenozoic crustal extension, flanked
by the Asian continent (Vietnam, China), the
Philippines, and the Sundaland continent (areas of
Java, Borneo, and Peninsular Malaysia). The area
saw periods of compression, manifested in strikeslip (and occasionally thrust) movements along
major lineaments (Hutchison, 2014: Jong et al.,
2014 and 2015).
Underlying the different
sedimentary fills of variable thicknesses, the
basement is formed predominantly of strongly to
moderately attenuated continental crust.
Figure 1 shows a summary map of the study area
of the South China Sea bounded by the major
lineaments of West Baram Line in the southeast
and the Balabac Line in the northwest. An index
map of important outcrops and offshore locations
studied is shown in Figure 2.
An interesting (and economically important)
phenomenon observed in our study is the sudden
appearance of sandy shelves in Cycle IV/Stage
IVA, and related turbidite families in the
deepwater. In Sarawak / Brunei area, the early
development of the Baram Delta may be subdivided into three phases in Brunei and Limbang
(Sandal, 1996). The first, probably Lower to Middle
Miocene age, is called the Meligan Delta and was a
precursor pulse of sand which accumulated in a
foreland basin. Phase II is known in Brunei as the
Mid-Miocene Champion System. As in Phase I,
these sands are strictly localized in Brunei, and
cannot be found anywhere else. Phase III forms
the third and major sand pulse starting with Cycle
IV, which shaped the sandy shelfal margins in
Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah.
STRATIGRAPHY
AND
EXPRESSIONS OF SHELF EDGES
SEISMIC
Stratigraphic nomenclatures
The simplified stratigraphic scheme for NW Borneo
used in this study is presented in Table 1, with
detailed description of the Cycle and Stage
concepts in Sarawak and Sabah provided by Doust
(1981) and van Hoorn (1997), respectively. In
addition, Besems (1992) also gave a good
description of the Cycle concept with special
references to Cycles I, II and III. A brief summary
on the nomenclature evolution of the Tertiary
sediments in NW Borneo is given below, which
basically reflects increasing area knowledge and
the change in focus of the exploration activities.
Figure 1. Tectonic overview map of NW Borneo from Cullen, 2010. The exact course and significance of the
Balabac Line (BAL) and West Baram Line (WBL) remain controversial.
Page 22 of 57
Figure 2. Summary index map showing the location of outcrop locations and seismic offshore examples.
The stratigraphic subdivision of Tertiary rocks in
Sarawak and Sabah has evolved through various
phases of nomenclature. During the early stage of
exploration, a large number of local formation
names were used (e.g., Belait Formation; Liechti et
al., 1960), which proved to be of limited regional
application since this approach is impractical in
the offshore area, where different formations are
difficult to recognize on the basis of lithology. In
addition, the great thickness (up to 6s TWT or
approximately 7300 m) of the offshore sequences
does not allow proper definition for lithostratigraphical definition due to a lack of well
penetration. The proliferation of Tertiary formation
names in NW Borneo led to the introduction of a
regional subdivision into two major units; a
Palaeogene geosynclinal phase, followed by
a
Neogene regressive phase, the latter being
subdivided into six (later eight) regressive cycles.
The Cycle concept was first introduced for both
Sarawak and Sabah in the late 1960s (Geiger,
1964; Eckert, 1971). At the basis of this cycle
concept was the recognition of a number of rapid,
widespread transgressions within the regressive
sequence, which often coincided with periods of
tectonic unrest in the Baram Delta area. Each
transgression was considered to correspond to the
onset of a new cycle, which ideally is composed of
a shaly base grading upward in a sandy regressive

top. The cycle boundaries were considered to be
approximate time lines and isochronous. However,
subsequent drilling showed that the criteria, which
can be used in Sarawak for the recognition of the
cycle boundaries, could not be applied in Sabah
because of the presence there of apparently large,
diachronous transgressions and regressions.
Consequently, a mixture of units of different
meaning and magnitude was used, serving as a
correlation tool in rather limited areas (Cycleequivalent; M, N, O units; South Furious Sands;
St. Joseph Sands; West Emerald Sands, etc.).
These litho-stratigraphic units have been dated
using a fairly detailed palynological subdivision
into zones and subzones.
Whereas a detailed pollen zonation is acceptable as
a correlation tool within limited areas, it is felt that
its application for regional correlation is quite often
difficult. This is due to the definition of the pollen
zones in use, which is mainly based on statistical
determinations of the relative abundance of certain
types and not on top/bottom occurrences.
Furthermore, this relative abundance may be
influenced by the distance from the coastline.
However, recent work by Morley and Morley (2011)
has managed to identify the timing of arrival of
specific floras in Miocene SE Asia. Upland floras
Page 23 of 57
Page 24 of 57
thrived during sea level low stands, whilst

mangroves prospered during high stands in the
coastal areas. Obviously, the scale of sea-level
changes, being in the order of 20-30 m, must been
seen in the context of the much bigger Borneo
uplift.
The Stage concept, which recognizes four major
Stages (I to IV), separated by unconformities, was
introduced for Sabah in the early seventies, and
summarized by van Hoorn (1997). The early MidMiocene to Pliocene Stage IV sediments are further
subdivided into seven sub-Stages (IVA IVG), each
separated by unconformities or their correlatable
disconformities. These unconformities [BMU (Base
Miocene Unconformity), DRU (Deep Regional
Unconformity),
LIU
(Lower
Intermediate
Unconformity),
UIU
(Upper
Intermediate
Unconformity),
SRU
(Shallow
Regional
Unconformity), Hor III, Hor II and Hor I] are the
results of both local structural deformation and
regional tilting towards the northwest and/or
eustatic sea-level variations. In general, they are
represented by erosional surfaces in the southeast
of West Sabah passing into onlap surfaces or
disconformities towards the northwest. However,
in detail, the seismic correlation of these stage
boundaries between the shelf (Inboard) and the
basinal (Outboard) areas remains problematic.
Nevertheless, these unconformities remain the best
markers for regional seismic correlation in the
Inboard area of offshore West Sabah (Lee, 2000,
Figure 3).
Both the Cycle and Stage concepts have their
limitations. The Cycles are found generally defined
by diachronous transgressive surfaces and are not
easily recognizable, particularly in deepwater
areas. Therefore within the same cycle, distal
sedimentary packages may not be necessarily ageequivalent
to
their
shelfal
and
onshore
counterparts, and this hinders the reliable timestratigraphic correlation of sedimentary sequences
across different geological provinces. Furthermore,
the prograding/retrograding sedimentary packages
associated with second order sea-level fluctuations
within the same cycle have not been properly
described. The Stage concept on the other hand,
suffered from correlation difficulties from shelfal to
deepwater area, also in relation to the recognition
of the unconformities/disconformities there.
The above shortfalls in Cycle and Stage concepts
therefore, warranted a new approach to the
subdivision of Tertiary sediments with the
application of sequence stratigraphic principles.
Recently there is a move towards using the global
sequences of Haq et al. (1988) in the regional study
of the NW Borneo area (e.g., Morisson and Wong,
2003).
Nonetheless,
acknowledging
their
limitations, we believe that the application of the
Cycle and Stage concepts remain useful especially
for correlating across the shelfal area, where
tectonic uplift of the Inboard area plays a more
prominent role than eustacy in determining the
environments and thus facies of the sedimentary

sequences.
It is also worth mentioning that in 2007, a
monumental study entitled Chronostratigraphic
Chart of the Cenozoic and Mesozoic basins of
Malaysia was published by the Petroleum
Management Unit (PMU), PETRONAS (2007).
In
the chart, the problem of Sabah stages was also
highlighted. The stages as defined by Bol and
Thum (1981) have helped in decades of successful
exploration. But at present, due to expansion of
sections in deepwater exploration, Sabahs
stratigraphic
nomenclature
varies
among
companies and geoscientists.
This lack of
uniformity reflects the complexity of Sabahs
stratigraphy and the difficulty in taking lithostratigraphy from the Inboard area and projecting
it offshore. Sabah stages offshore are difficult to
define; the regressive stages typical of deltaic
sequences are not always present due to erosion
by time transgressive unconformities as mentioned
earlier. Also, similar lithofacies over long periods of
geologic time make it difficult to differentiate
stages. To help define stratigraphic traps, a more
detailed scheme based on biostratigraphy is
therefore warranted and timely produced by PMU
to facilitate better communications between
different companies and geoscientists.
Stratigraphic correlation
Stratigraphic correlation in Sabah offshore areas
was, and remains a daunting task. Essentially
three approaches have been applied throughout
the years, and by various operating companies,
with variable success:
Correlation by means of unconformities and
applying the concept of sedimentation cycles; this
stratigraphic approach has worked with some
success in the Baram Delta, and somewhat less so
in Sabah. Results, however, need to be taken with
the caveat that cyclicity is not always easy to
establish and that certain mapped reservoir units
may be of diachronous nature.
A slightly more recent approach spearheaded by
Shell attempted to apply sequence stratigraphy
based on global sea-level changes (e.g., Morrison
and Wong, 2003); however this approach faces the
difficulty of applying eustacy in an area which is
known both for rapid changes in subsidence, and
tectonic uplift, respectively. For this and other
reasons such as difficulties in seismic correlation
from mini-basin to mini-basin over structural
highs, the sea-level curve-based stratigraphy failed
to produce reliable results. It turned out to be
almost impossible to map sequence boundaries
(SB) and third order sequences (TB sequences) of
Haq et al. (1988) regionally, with the consequence
they were often mis-applied as seismic horizons on
interpretations
instead
of
true
sequence
boundaries. By doing so the information that is
vested in seismic data was discounted.
In a
nutshell, sea-level changes might have only played
a minor role in shaping
Page 25 of 57
Page 26 of 57
stratigraphy in the offshore Sabah shelf margin,

and should be treated accordingly.
Another approach was to develop local
stratigraphy in a given theater, such as the Sabah
shelf or the Sabah deepwater. Although such
approaches lead to practical solutions, it did not
resolve correlation of sediment bodies over large
distances. Looking back on some 50 years of
stratigraphy in offshore Sabah, the original
approach
of
describing
sequences
by
unconformities (DRU, LIU, etc.) has stood the test
of time, whereas the intra-unconformity sequences
encountered might be described best by local
parameters. The problem of correlating sediments
in Sabah also stems from the rather unique
geology attributed to Borneo Island and the
surrounding offshore. The NW Borneo Foredeep
offers four distinct belts that need to be put in
regional context:
The exhumed Rajang/Crocker Basin, formed by
meta-sediments of Upper Cretaceous (KU) to Lower
Tertiary (TL) age, in the hinterlands and on the
shallow shelf north of Kota Kinabalu.
The Sarawak/Brunei/Sabah Shelf, Cycles IV/V
(Stages IVA-E) strongly inverted in part, and
mainly
formed
by
deltaic
sand/claystone
sequences. These sequences have been drilled by
many (albeit commonly old) exploration wells,
but on seismic lack good, correlative reflectors.
The Slope, with only a few well penetrations;
these wells here were often abandoned early in the
light of significant overpressure being encountered,
and forcing an early well TD; seismic is often poor
in these areas too.
The Deepwater, formed by a pile of tectonic
imbricates with turbidite fans and mass transport
complexes, encountered within the imbricates
(older systems), as well as enveloping these as
post-tectonic sediments.
Seismic examples
On the following pages, we discuss various aspects
of the development of the shelf slope transition
zone or shelf edge in these areas:
In northern Sabah, the Middle to Late Miocene
shelf lay essentially parallel to the present-day
coastline; however there were indentations and
outliers of the shelf edge linked to strike-slip
tectonics and clay injection (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Map showing the Stage IVC shelf edge, slope scars and locations of associated slope canyons in
NW Sabah. The palaeo-shelf edge ran in parallel to the present-day coastline; however we see local
anomalies caused by strike-slip tectonism as well as clay diapirism. Note the rapid NW progradation to the
Stage IVD shelf edge. The coloured dots represent points, where the transition from topset facies to foreset
(sigmoidal onlap facies) was picked on seismic.
Page 27 of 57
Figure 5. Seismic profile from the greater South Furious Field area showing the geometries of the shelf edge
(orange line) in the interval from Stages IVA-D. The sediments in the syncline between the two clay-cored
highs contain very little sand.
The shelf edge remained more or less stationary
during Stages IVA to IVC (Cycles IV to Mid Cycle V)
times (Figure 5).
At the central Sabah edge, distal shelf deposits
are often trapped in mini-basins, and the shelf
edges are formed by truncation/onlap against claycored anticlines (Figure 6).
In the area of the Sabah/Brunei border, the
margin is controlled by faults and minor depocenters (Figure 7).
THE SEDIMENTS IN OUTCROPS

Field and outcrop data complement seismic
observations, and NW Borneo is rich in fresh (unweathered) outcrops associated with new road cuts
and construction sites.
In such way a link
between the areas of sediment supply, the older
(and often reworked) stratigraphy, shelf and
deepwater sediments can be attempted.
Sources of sand
The Rajang and Crocker meta-sediments are at the
core of an inverted turbidite basin that formed in
KU-TL times under deep marine conditions
(Hutchison, 2005). The Crocker appears to be
formed by distal fan complexes (Figure 8), not
unlike the Rajang Group beds (Kelalalan/Belaga
Formation, Figures 9-10).
There are several good onshore outcrop locations
which enable completion of the picture described
in the previous section. During the Mid-Miocene,

the shelf was formed by muddy sediments,
generally referred to as Setap Shale (Figure 11).
They are commonly lean in organic matter and
contain minor turbidite sequences, as well as
carbonate shoals (Sibuti Formation). This can lead
in places to the development of oyster reefs and
marly mud-wackestone sequences (Simon et al.,
2014). The narrow sandy shelf that may have
existed in Sarawak (but which has never been
found), was located well in-land some hundreds of
kilometers from the present coastline. In the Long
Lama area of Sarawak (TM in Figure 2), the Setap
Shale contains many slumped folds and the
occasional slump block of sandy material (Kessler,
2009). In Limbang (Li in Figure 2), outcrops show
a thin-bedded turbidite sequence (Figure 12). So
far, not a single good oil and gas reservoir has
been found in Cycle III deposits.
Sediments of Cycles IV and V (Stages IVA to
IVE)
Seen from a reservoir standpoint, the Middle to
Late Miocene shelfal sands of the Cycles IV/V
sequences look very similar; indications of calcite
cementation being seen only at the eastern limit of
the Sabah shelf.
Otherwise the lithologies
encountered are clean sandstone and (often coaly)
shale. The first commercial oil field discovered in
shelfal deposits was the Miri Field. In addition to
penetrations in many Sabah and Sarawak wells,
the Lower Cycle V (Stage IVA) sequence is well
exposed in coastal outcrops in Sarawak (Figure
13).
Page 28 of 57
Page 29 of 57
Figure 7. Portion of a seismic profile through outer shelf deposits near to the Sabah/Brunei border. The
seismic line runs NE-SW slightly obliquely through the Stage IVC (TB 3.1) outer shelf depocenter in the
Kinabalu Field hanging wall block. The Stage IVC sequence (below upper green marker, and down to broken
yellow facies-divide line) reaches here a thickness exceeding 1300 m. Such distal shelf deposits are mostly
fine-grained, and clay content within the gross package exceeds 60 %.
Figure 8.
Originally anchimetamorphic,
but now strongly
weathered
sandstone/shale
sequences
belonging
to
the
?Eocene
West
Crocker
unit qualify as
the most likely
candidate as the
source for Middle
to Late Miocene
sands on the
Sabah shelf.
Page 30 of 57
Figure 9. Distal turbidites of the Belaga Formation, which appear to be chevron-folded, Baram River near
Long Lama. The sand is mostly fine-gained. The folding appears to be mainly the result of compressive
tectonic.
Figure 10. Quartzitic and very hard heterolithic conglomerate, which may have originated as a debris
flow. Top right inset is a sample from the rock face. Scale in cm.
Page 31 of 57
Figure 11. Middle Miocene sequences (Cycle III, TB 2.2, 2.3) below the Late Miocene are characterized
by mainly shale-dominated outer neritic environments. These occasionally contain thin-bedded Boumatype turbidite silt and sandstone beds, as shown here in an outcrop from Kampung Limbang (KL).
Figure 12. Outcrop of gray Setap Shale (~ Sibuti Formation) with two prominent turbidite sand
beds ca. 5 cm and 12 cm thick, respectively, on the old Beluru Road, Bukit Peninjau, in Sarawak.
This sequence is typically lean in sand, containing only few isolated, thin-bedded and distal
turbidites. Occasional calcareous fossils are found. The Setap Shale underlies fluvio-deltaic
sediments of the Lambir Formation, Cycle IV (Stage IVA) in Sarawak.
Page 32 of 57
Figure 13. Stratigraphic log of measured outcrop section at Entulang showing the
transition from a very fossiliferous Sibuti Formation (after Wannier, 2011, p. 160) to the
sandy Lambir Formation [(Lower Cycle V (Stage IVA), Serravallian]. There is an
unconformity at the base of the sand, with a tentative hiatus of 0.5 Ma.
Page 33 of 57
The reservoir facies in Cycles IV/V (Stages IVA to

IVE) can be divided as follows:
Lower coastal plain. On low resolution

seismic, these beds often appear as sheet sands. In
reality and on sub-seismic scale however, there is
widespread channeling, which can lead to
unexpected lower reservoir continuity than one
would foresee. This facies is characterized by tidal
channel fills, mouth bar and beach deposits, very
often rich in peats and coals. Channel sands often
display cross-bedded geometries (Figures 14-16).
Inner to middle shelf deposits are

characterized by relatively continuous sheet sands,
and grain-size is usually fine; these are stacked
with siltstone and shale packages that can form
sealing barriers between sandstone units (Figure
17).
Following a rapid transition from the inner

to the outer neritic shelf, the sand content of the
Cycle IV/Stage IVA interval drops very rapidly; the
shelf break can be defined here as the point at
which topset seismic facies is replaced by
sigmoidal onlap.
Figures 18-19 show potential distribution of sand
on the NW Borneo shelf during Stage IVA (Cycle VI)
and Stage IVC (Mid Cycle V), respectively.
Characterization of reservoirs
The presence of reservoir sandstones in NW
Borneo hinges on the processes that led to their
formation; this relationship and their properties
can be seen in Table 2.
Dykstra-Parsons
coefficient of permeability variation is a common
descriptor of reservoir heterogeneity. It measures
reservoir uniformity by the dispersion or scatter of

permeability values. A homogeneous reservoir has
a permeability variation that approaches zero,
while an extremely heterogeneous reservoir would
have a permeability variation approaching one.
The provenance of sand
Although it was proposed above that the Cycles
IV/V (Stages IVA to IVE) sands are essentially
reworked metamorphics from the Rajang/Crocker
hinterlands, the question poses itself from where
these sand prone clastics came from in the first
place. According to van Hattum et al. (2013), there
is good evidence, based on heavy mineral
assemblages, that the origins of most if not all
Rajang/Crocker deposits are located in the greater
Schwaner Mountains area of south-western
Borneo. They proposed therefore, that the Crocker
Fan sandstones were derived from nearby sources
in Borneo and nearby SE Asia, rather than from
distant Asian and Himalayan sources.
The
Crocker
Fan
sandstones
have
a
mature
composition, but their textures and heavy
mineralogy indicate they are first-cycle sandstones,
mostly derived from nearby granitic source rocks,
with some input of metamorphic, sedimentary and
ophiolitic material. In the Eocene sandstones,
Cretaceous
zircons
dominate
and
suggest
derivation from granites of the Schwaner
Mountains of southern Borneo. According to the
same authors, the provenance of the Tajau
Sandstone Member of the Lower Miocene Kudat
Formation in north Sabah is strikingly different
from other Miocene and older sandstones. This
sediment was derived mainly from granitic and
high-grade metamorphic rocks.
Figure 14.
Eastern slope of
Canada Hill in Miri
(Location M), Lower
Cycle
V
(Stage
IVA), with normal
faulting. The rock
face
shown
belongs
to
a
section of the Miri
Oil Field that was
uplifted,
and
exhumed in Late
PleistoceneHolocene
time.
Some sand layers
still contain traces
of residual oil.
Page 34 of 57
Figure 15. Upper Cycle IV/Lower Cycle V (Stage IVA) sequence from Bukit Song (Location BS, Lambir Hills,
Sarawak) showing a stacked sequence of sandstone and shale layers. Minor channeling is seen within the
thick sandstone units. Sands are mostly fine- to medium-grained, but larger pebbles can be found in rare
conglomeratic beds.
Figure 16. A rare cross-bedded conglomeratic bed is

seen in Cycle IV deposits at Bukit Song. The
conglomerate pebbles are mainly composed of white
quartz, possibly originating from quartz dykes in the
Rajang Group.
Figure 17. ?Cycle IV-V sequence in Labuan, Location
L, with predominantly fine-grained sandstone
deposited in lenses between continuous claystone
beds. Layered sequences of fine-grained sandstone
and claystone are often interpreted as shelf margin
deposits. The sediment composition is being
investigated by A/Prof. Dr. Nagarajan, Curtin
University Sarawak.
Page 35 of 57
Page 36 of 57
Page 37 of 57
uplift. Possibly, this area of crust started to rise

when subduction commenced in the Late
Cretaceous off Java, leading to accretion of
terranes, and thickening of the crust between
Sundaland and Australia (Hall, 2013). Areas of
Borneo as well as others, such as New Guinea and
in particular Sulawesi (pers. comm., Robert Hall)
have seen spectacular uplift especially since the
Pliocene.
Table 2. Summary of reservoir characteristics of
shelfal and deepwater sand reservoirs. Reservoir
connectivity addresses the extent of hydraulically
connected reservoir cells; in deltaic topset reservoirs
these are mostly < 1 km2, and mostly > 10 km2 in
basin floor fans.
*The Parsons-Dykstra index
describes the statistical distribution of porosity and
permeability in a reservoir.
No such rocks existed at the surface in Borneo
during
the
Early Miocene,
but
potential
metamorphic sources from an elevated region are
present on Palawan, to the north of Borneo and
could have supplied sediment to north Sabah. If
so, this may indicate that the Lower Miocene
Kudat Formation (usually the deepest formation
drilled in Sabah offshore exploration) has not
received any recycled clastics from the Crocker,
which in turn suggests that the latter had not been
uplifted and exhumed yet.
The provenance of sands and muds of the Miocene
Sibuti Formation was studied by Nagarajan et al.
(2013), based on the mineralogy, major and trace
element geochemistry data. The X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and scanning electron microscopy-energy
dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) data revealed
that the sandstones and mudstones contain
abundant in quartz, pyrite, clay, and heavy
minerals such as zircon, rutile, and some detrital
cassiterite. Elemental ratios such as La/Sc, Th/Sc,
Cr/Th, La/Co and Th/Co suggest sediments to be
derived from the felsic rocks. Also, the provenance
discrimination diagrams suggest that these clastic
sediments are of a recycled continental nature and
are mostly derived from a meta-sedimentary
source (of the Rajang/Crocker Formation).
Discriminant-function diagrams for the tectonic
discrimination of siliciclastic sediments revealed
that the sediments of Sibuti Formation were
derived from a collision zone, which is consistent
with the geology of the study area as described by
van Hattum et al. (2013). However, a turbidite
reservoir potential within this sequence could
never be demonstrated.
HOW MUCH UPLIFT CAN BE ESTABLISHED

FOR THE BORNEO HINTERLAND?
Gravity field and steady-state Ocean

Circulation Explorer (GOCE) satellite gravity
(Figure 20) images show a strong regional anomaly
of the Earths geoid in SE Asia, pointing to crustal
Recent research sponsored by JX-Nippon,

and carried out by Curtin University Sarawak has
indicated that the Sarawak coastline rose by some
75 m in the Miri area (on Miris Canada Hill 150
m) since the Late Pleistocene, when including and
compensating for the Holocene sea-level rise
(Kessler and Jong, 2014a and 2014b). This makes
a case for a recent uplift, probably including a
much longer and older component. The recent
uplift is dwarfing sea-level changes by a factor of
3:1. The coastline south of Miri is elevated by some
20 m above the current sea-level (Figures 21-22).
Vitrinite samples (VRM 0.42) obtained from

coaly Pliocene Tukau sediments, now 30 m and 50
m above sea-level; suggest that some 600 m of
sediments have been removed during the last
couple of million years.
A comparative study (vitrinite, seismic and

other) on Bukit Enkabang near Marudi (Table 3)
concluded that this area saw a Pliocene uplift in
the order of 500 m. From folding considerations, it
is commonly assumed that folds and thrusts of
sedimentary basins commonly originate in the
shallow subsurface, given it is easier to create folds
and thrusts when the overburden is minimal. The
nature of folds also implies steep dips in the core
sections, and smaller dips in the crestal (top)
section. This means that a deeply eroded fold-core
will show steeply dipping beds (such as the Tudan
dome north of Miri, for instance), whilst weak dips
would emphasize a section of the roof, with the
implication that erosion has only stripped-off flat
overburden, and a bit of the anticlines roof. The
Enkabang-1 well summary report quotes dipmeter
readings of 5 - 100 in the shallow section, with dips
increasing with depth.
Following the above
argument, it indicates that only a minor roof
section plus some overburden have been eroded.
In comparison with other folds in the area, this
might be indicative for a removed overburden in
the order of 300 to 1200 m.
Most likely, the uplift had started much

earlier. Hutchison (2005) recorded phyllite in the
Belaga Formation (of the Rajang Group), and this
has been corroborated by observations of the
authors in Batu Gading.
Phyllite requires a
minimum pressure of 1000 bar and a temperature
of 300 0C. Assuming a temperature gradient
between 30 and 40 0C / 1000 m, one would expect
a minimum uplift (followed by erosion) of 6000 m.
Page 38 of 57
Figure 20.
GOCE
satellite gravity. There is
a
strong
positive
anomaly in the SE Asia
Geoid, reaching from
Borneo
(B)
via
(S)
Sulawesi to New Guinea
(NG). This can perhaps
be explained by a
buoyant and thickened
continental crust, which
is isostatically rising
leading to strong uplift
and
erosion.
Image
processed by ESA. The
picture shown has an
escalation
factor
of
10000.
Given
the
anomaly stretches over
a large part of East,
South-East Asia and
Oceania,
one
might
speculate that the uplift
could be triggered by the
large rainfall (monsoon),
and strong erosion in the
area.
Figure 21. Cycles IV/V outcrops along the shoreline between Miri and Bekenu. It shows the elevation of
the coastal plateau, and cliffs. Recent radiometric dating of littoral terrace deposits suggest that the shown
coastline here has been uplifted by ca. 20 m since the end of the Pleistocene (not counting the effect of a
rising sea-level that has occurred simultaneously).
Page 39 of 57
Figure 22. Deltaic sediments of ?Cycle V near Tusan Beach Head are wave-cut at a Late Pleistocene
unconformity. The unconformity is now located some 20 m above mean sea-level, and makes a case for
hinterland uplift. The flat-lying paralic sediments above the unconformity are composed of coaly sands and
were C14-dated as Late-Pleistocene to Holocene age (Kessler and Jong, 2014a). The inclination seen in the
older section must have been originated in the Plio-Pleistocene when folding occurred, leading to a syncline, the
axis of which is located a few kilometres offshore.
Table 3. The different

parameters shown here
were used to assess
the magnitude of uplift
in the area of Bukit
Enkabang.
A
comparison of methods
suggests a Pliocene
uplift and sediment
removal in the order of
500 m. The porosity
argument
is
purely
indicative, and relates
to compaction of the
clastics if compared to
adjacent wells.
Page 40 of 57
The Rajang Group sediments also contain

clear quartz mono-crystals in the Belaga
Formation of Tamalla, nested in vugs or growing
on
sandstone
surfaces;
this
requires
temperatures > 200 0C which also suggests
removal of 6000 m plus of sediments.
Gou (2014) carried out vitrinite reflectivity

assessment on samples of the Crocker Formation
in Sabah, and calculated a removal of 4100 m of
sediment (=0.82 VRM). Some of the VRM data he
studied are > 1; hence there remains some
ambiguity about which number is the more likely,
if either.
Material balance. A material balance

exercise carried out by the authors, equating the
thickness post-Oligocene sediments with the
amount sediment stripped off from central Borneo
along major river catchment areas, equally
suggests that 6000-7000 m of sediment must have
been removed.
The conundrum of the Bario salt. The latter

is found in Tertiary rocks of undated age in the
Bario Highlands. The salt contains (unconfirmed)
lithium chloride, which suggests the salt is derived
from high mountain salinas such as those known
from the Himalayas or Andes.
Highland salt
encountered in tropical regions suggests a local
dry micro-climate in the shadow of the monsoon.
A study by Grant (2005) linking the Sabah

deepwater depositional systems to the Inboard
erosional area suggested an uplift of some 6000 m.
More recently, estimations of 4000 6000? m of
uplift in the Brunei Inboard area was obtained
from the study by Gratrell et al. (2012, Figure 23),
while study of the Belait Field area conducted by
ISIS Petroleum Consultants also generated similar
estimates of uplift in Bruneis hinterland (pers.
Comm., Peter Barber).
SHELF AREAS
INJECTION
MODIFIED
BY
CLAY
The idea that clay injection can raise or modify

anticlines is far from new (e.g., Venezuela,
Trinidad), and has also been advocated in a
number of older (1950s) internal Shell reports in
Borneo. We place the clay injection in the context
of regional compression and basin dynamics as
described by Kessler and Jong (2014a and 2014b)
and demonstrated on Miris Canada Hill.
A
number of Brunei and Sabah anticlinal oil fields
also appear to be clay-cored, and this mobile
phase may have affected or even controlled charge,
reservoir and seal aspects of the petroleum system.
As shown in the Miri example (Figure 24), and also
NW Sabah (Figure 25), clay reacts as a hydraulic
medium and transfers fluids from the areas of
maximum pressure (basin center) to areas of

minimum pressure ( via faults, shale diapirs, etc.).
THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON UPLIFT

AND EROSION
The influence of climate parameters on uplift and
erosion during Late Cenozoic time has been
demonstrated by Shroder and Bishop (2009) on
the Nanga Parbat Himalaya. The authors
hypothesize that the Nanga Parbat pop-up
structure was initiated at ca. 10-12 Ma.
(comparable to the almost co-eval age of uplift and
shelf development in Borneo) before present, with
un-roofing on-going at least until the Late
Pleistocene. Furthermore, in other parts of the
world it has been shown by Whipple (2009), that
the internal dynamics of actively deforming
collisional mountain ranges are influenced by
climate in other parts of the world as well.
Triggered by a climate-driven increase in erosion
rate, friction-dominated mountain ranges are
expected to show a number of simultaneous
responses: a decrease in the width of the range, a
temporary increase in sediment yield, a persistent
increase in the rate of rock uplift and a reduction
in the subsidence rate of surrounding basins. The
most convincing field evidence for such a
coordinated response of a mountain range to
climate change is made by Whipple (2009) on
examples from the European Alps and the St Elias
range of Alaska.
Such recent and rather ground-breaking research
poses the question as to what extent the uplift in
the Borneo hinterland, as well as of the
mountainous regions of Sulawesi, New Guinea and
other areas of SE Asia, could have been prompted
by climate changes.
DISCUSSION
Answering the question as to what prompted the
establishment of widespread sand-dominated shelf
areas is rendered difficult by the simple fact that
there are no contemporaneous analogs of the latter
in the tropical regions. The contemporaneous
North Sea shelves are at least partly sand-prone,
but have developed within an unusually strong
tidal regime; similar conditions cannot easily be
argued for in the Miocene NW Borneo shelves.
This said, sandy shelves must depend on two
essential factors, namely:
i.
high load of sediments from the hinterlands
combined with a massive, unprecedented outflow
of clastic sediments. Supply is likely to have
stemmed from multiple sediment outputs in both
Sabah and Sarawak, as well as
ii.
persistent long-shore currents that can
carry sand over large distances.
Page 41 of 57
Page 42 of 57
Figure 24. Parts of the Canada Hill section in the Miri anticline are interpreted to have been uplifted by a
pressurized mobile clay core acting as hydraulic liquid, from Kessler and Jong (2014b).
Figure 25.
Seismic example
of a presumed
clay-cored
structure in the
South
Furious
area
of
NW
Sabah. The red
marker is the
unconformity
separating
the
Stage IVA shelf
edge (below) from
the Stage IVC
(above).
The
rising clay (pink
colour) may have
impacted
the
position of the
shelf edge over
time
and,
by
providing
a
sealing
mechanism, have
influenced
hydrocarbon
migration.
Page 43 of 57
There are, however, still questions that need to be

answered. Next to the Baram and Champion
Deltas, and again in Sabah there were areas where
carbonates grew, apparently completely unaffected
by the enormous influx of clastics and long shore
currents. It is noted that a contemporaneous
juxtaposition of carbonates and sands also occurs
off the extremities of the Mahakam Delta in East
Kalimantan. Topography may play an important
role here. These shelfal areas were equally close to
high mountains in the hinterlands subject to
erosion in a tropical monsoon climate. Could it be
that the clastic load reached deeper portions of the
basin through canyons by-passing the Luconia
shelf?
To discuss the origin of the widespread MidMiocene sandy shelf areas of Borneo, we could
therefore imagine the following sequence of events:
1)
Areas of the Eo-Oligocene Sundaland are
stretched, as a rift is formed in the Central South
China Sea, where oceanic crust is established.
2)
A collision between the southern portion of
Sundaland and the Australian Plate leading to
Early to Mid-Miocene compression/inversion in the
greater Borneo area.
the key driver for a switch from a muddy to sandy

shelf development is vested in the timing and
magnitude of uplift. From the current data, we
infer:
A coastal uplift of 20 or more meters in

areas of Sarawak since the end of the Pleistocene,
A semi-regional uplift in coastal areas of

Sarawak in the order of 500 m since the Late
Pliocene, and
A total cumulative uplift of some areas of

Sarawak and Sabah of some 6000 m since the
Eocene.
Furthermore, uplift may have been strongly
enhanced by monsoonal impact, consequent
erosion and isostatic rebound, a speculation
subject to further studies and evidence. In
particular, it would be important to compare the
Borneo uplift with adjacent young tectonism and
monsoon climate. Such work might clarify, if the
spectacular Borneo uplift remains a singularity, or
applies also to other areas such as New Guinea
and Sulawesi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3)
Segments of the previously thinned
continental crust are re-compressed, the Borneo
hinterland rises, and a hinge zone develops
between Borneo and its NW foredeep. The
Rajang/Crocker is exhumed providing massive
amounts of sand in a short time span.
4)
Under the influence of the monsoon,
erosion is accelerated and triggers additional unroofing as a result of isostatic rebound. High
mountain ranges form, potentially crowned by ice
caps, and salt lakes are established in the shadow
of the monsoon.
This study has benefited greatly from the

discussion and published work of past and
present authors who have contributed to the
ideas presented in this paper, and to whom we
are indebted.
However, any mistakes or
shortcomings remain the responsibility of the
authors.
Fruitful discussions with our excolleagues in Shell and JX Nippon are gratefully
acknowledged, and our gratitude is also
extended to our reviewers for offering
constructive comments, which helped to
improve the quality of this paper.
REFERENCES CITED
5)
With a slowing compression at the end of
the ?Pliocene, erosion exceed the climate-induced
uplift and mountains are eroded to their current
roots.
6)
The mentioned climatic influence remains
hypothetical up to now, and relies heavily on
analogues from areas that are both better
researched and better understood.
CONCLUSIONS
Here, for Borneo, we have attempted to portray the
origin of the Middle to Late Miocene Borneo
Baram-Balabac shelf margin from a variety of
viewpoints. In particular, we tried to reconcile
information obtained from fieldwork and outcrop
studies with interpreted seismic and regional
correlation data from the offshore areas. In a
nutshell, there is sufficient evidence to believe that
Besems, R. E., 1992. The Cycle concept in NW

Borneo with special references to Cycles I, II
and III, a review. SSB XGS Stratigraphic
note No. 12 (unpublished report).
Bol, A.J. and Thum, I., 1981. Exploration history
in offshore Sabah, Sabah Shell Petroleum
Company Ltd., Exp. R. No. 70131
(unpublished report).
Cullen, A., 2010. Transverse segmentation of the
Baram-Balabac basin, NW Borneo: refining
the model of Borneos tectonic evolution.
Petroleum Geoscience, 16, p. 3-29.
Doust, H., 1981. Geology and exploration history
of offshore central Sarawak. AAPG Studies
in Geology 12: Energy Resources of the
Pacific Region, p. 117 132.
Eckert, H. R., 1971. The Cycle concept in NW
Borneo: definitions and applications. SSB
Exp. R. 1870 (unpublished report).
Page 44 of 57
Gartrell, A., Torres, J., and Hoggmascall, N., 2012.

A Regional approach to understanding basin
evolution and play systematics in Brunei unearthing new opportunities in a mature
basin, adapted from oral presentation at
AAPG
International
Conference
and
Exhibition, Singapore, September 16-19,
2012.
Geiger,
M.
E.,
1964.
Stratigraphy
and
palaeogeography of the NW Borneo basin.
Geological Report No. 866 (unpublished
report).
Gou,
P.,
2014.
Organic
petrographic
characteristics of the Crocker Formation,
NW Sabah, Malaysia.
Bulletin of the
Geological Society of Malaysia, 60, p. 65-75.
Grant, C. J., 2005. Sequence boundary mapping
and paleogeographic reconstruction: the
keys to understanding deepwater fan
deposition across the NW Borneo active
margin, adapted from Oral Presentation at
2005 SEAPEX Exploration Conference,
Singapore, 5-7th April.
Hall, R., 2013. Contraction and extension in
northern Borneo driven by subduction
rollback, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,
76, p. 399411.
Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J. and Vail, P.R., 1988.
Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy
and cycles of sea-level change, In: C. K.
Wilgus et al., (eds.), Sea-Level Changes - An
Integrated
Approach,
SEPM
Special
Publication, 42, p. 71-108.
Hutchison, C.S., 2005. Geology of North-West
Borneo. Elsevier, the Netherlands, 421 p.
Hutchison, C. S., 2014. Tectonic evolution of
South-East Asia. Bulletin of the Geological
Society of Malaysia, 60, p. 1-18.
Jong, J. and Ho, F., 2000. A regional overview of
the NW Borneo margin, NW Borneo,
Malaysia. Sarawak Shell Berhad/Sabah
Shell Petroleum Company Ltd., Exp. R. No.
51121 (unpublished report).
Jong, J., Barker, S., Kessler, F. L. and Tan, T. Q.,
2014. The Sarawak Bunguran fold belt:
structural development in the context of
South China Sea tectonics. Processing 8th
International
Petroleum
Technology
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Manuscript
18197-MS.
Jong, J., Barker, S. and Kessler, F. L., 2015. A
comparison of fold-thrust belts in eastern
Sundaland: structural commonalities and
differences on the circum-Borneo margin.
Proceedings
Indonesian
Petroleum
Association, 39th Annual Convention &
Exhibition, Jakarta.
Kessler, F. L., 2009. Observations on sediments
and deformation characteristics of the
Sarawak Foreland, Borneo Island. Warta
Geologi, 35 (1), p. 1 -10.
Kessler, F. L. and Jong, J., 2012. Critical drilling
and play parameters of oil and gas
prospection in offshore Sabah, Deepwater
Block R and surrounding areas. JX Nippon
Oil and Gas Exploration (Deepwater Sabah)

Ltd., Kuala Lumpur (unpublished report).
Kessler, F. L. and Jong, J., 2014a. Habitat and C14 ages of lignitic deposits along the
northern Sarawak coastline. Bulletin of the
Geological Society of Malaysia, 60, p. 27-34.
Kessler, F. L. and Jong, J., 2014b. The origin of
Canada Hill a result of strike-slip
deformation and hydraulically powered
uplift at the Pleistocene/Holocene border?
Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Malaysia, 60, p. 35-44.
Lee, C., 2000. Regional seismic horizon, offshore
west Sabah, SSPC Exp. R. 70619
Liechti, P., Roe, F. W., and Haile, N. S., 1960. The
Geology of Sarawak, Brunei and the western
part of North Borneo. British Territories of
Borneo, Geological Survey Department,
Bulletin (Two volumes), 3, 360 p.
Mazlan B. Hj. Madon, 1994. The stratigraphy of
northern Labuan, NW Sabah Basin, East
Malaysia, Bulletin of the Geological Society
of Malaysia, 36, p. 19-30.
Morisson, K., and Wong, C. L., 2003. Sequence
stratigraphic
framework
of
Northwest
Borneo. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Malaysia, 47, p. 127-138.
Morley, R. J, Morley, H. P., 2011. Neogene climate
history of the Makassar Straits, In: R. Hall
and M. Wilson (eds.), South East Asian
Gateway Evolution, Spec. Pub. Geol. Society
of London, 198, p. 319-332.
Nagarajan, R., Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Kessler, F.
L., Hidalgo-Moral, E.L., Dodge-Wan , D., and
Taib, N. I,, 2015. Provenance and tectonic
setting of Miocene siliciclastic sediments,
Sibuti Formation, northwestern Borneo,
Arabian Journal of Geosciences, February
2015.
PETRONAS, 2007. Chronostratigraphic Chart of
the Cenozoic and Mesozoic basins of
Malaysia. PMU publication No 9: 71 p.
Sandal, T. (ed.), 1996. The geology and
hydrocarbon resources of Negara Brunei
Darussalam, Brunei Shell Petroleum Co.
Sdn. Bhd. and Brunei Museum, 243 p.
Shroder, J. F., and Bishop, M., P., 2009. Unroofing
of the Nanga Parbat Himalaya. In: Tectonics
of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the
Western Himalaya, M.A Khan et al. (eds.),
Geological Society of London Special
Publication, 170, p 163-179.
Simon, K., Hakif, M., Barbeito, M. P. J., 2014.
Sedimentology and stratigraphy of the
Miocene Kampung Opak limestone (Sibuti
Formation), Bekenu, Sarawak. Bulletin of
the Geological Society of Malaysia, 60, p. 4553.
van Hattum, M.W.A, Hall, R., Pickard, A.L, and
Nichols, G.J, 2013. Provenance and
geochronology of Cenozoic sandstones of
northern Borneo, Journal of Asian Earth
Sciences, 76, p. 266282.
Page 45 of 57
van Hoorn, B., 1997. Tectonics and hydrocarbon

habitat of SSPCs contract area, offshore
Sabah, Malaysia, SSPC Exp. R. 70054
Wannier, M., Lesslar, P, Lee, C., Raven, R.,
Jorkhabi, R., and Ibrahim, A., 2011.
Geological excursions around Miri, Sarawak.

Ecomedia, Miri, 279 p.
Whipple, K. X., 2009. The influence of climate on
the tectonic evolution of mountain belts,
Nature Geoscience, 2, p. 97 104.
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Franz L. Kessler

Dr. Franz Kessler has over 25 years of working experience in the oil and gas
industry, and is currently an Independent Oil and Gas Consultant. Previously
he was the Regional Geologist with Lundin Malaysia and had worked as a
Subsurface Manager/Geological Consultant for Petrotechnical Inspection
Sdn. Bhd. From 2009-2013, he was the A/Professor and Department Head of
Geosciences in Curtin University Sarawak in Miri, where he explored and
mapped areas of Sarawak and has published a number of papers on the
origins of West Baram Line and Canada Hill. In earlier years he carried out a
variety of functions as Geologist, Seismologist and Interpreter in some 16
Shell global ventures.
John Jong
Dr. John Jong has 20 years of international working experience in the oil and
gas industry. He started his geoscience career with Shell in the mid 1990s as
an Exploration Geologist and later worked in different roles including Project
Planner and Regional Geologist with Shell International in Houston from
2002-2004. In late 2006, John joined Tap Oil where he was involved in the
company's NV and exploration evaluation efforts in SE Asia, and he left Tap
Oil in 2009 to join JX Nippon for onshore Baram Delta exploration. Currently
he is the Exploration/New Venture Manager based in the KL office. John is
currently a member of AAPG, EAGE, PESA and SEAPEX.
Page 46 of 57
Benthic Foraminifera in Marine Sediment Related to

Environmental Changes off Bangka Island, Indonesia
K. T. Dewi, N. Nurdin, Y. A. Priohandono and A. Sinaga
Marine Geological Institute, Bandung
Corresponding author: ktdewi2004@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Bangka Island is a famous tin island that lies offshore southeast of Sumatra. Tin mining has
taken place both on land and from paleo-valleys under the sea by dredging or hydraulic method.
Nearshore tin mining activities may have indirectly affected the environment, including marine
organisms such as benthic foraminifera. The purpose of this study is to understand foraminifera
in the sediment from offshore Sungailiat, Bangka Island as marine stress environment.A total of
25sea floor sediment samples were acquired by using a grab sampler at water depth between 6
and 26 meters.. About 300 foraminiferal shells were picked from each sample and then they
were identified, calculated and documented. Some abnormal specimens were then analyzed by
using EDX-SEM.
The results show that there are more than 60 species which belong to 39 genera of benthic
foraminifera in the study area and Rotaliida is the leading order. More than 50% of the
foraminiferal shells have poor preservation or abnormal tests such as abraded, blackish,
yellowish and brownish tests. Based on EDX analysis, these abnormal specimens are composed
of Al2O3 (4-18%), Fe2O3 (8.87%), SiO2 (5-27%), K2O (1%), FeO (4-7%) and TiO2 (9.29%).The
occurrence of abundant abnormal shells may be related to physical characteristics in the study
area that are likely to affect the turbidity, nutrients and pollutants of the marine environment.
Keywords: benthic foraminifera, abnormal tests, EDX analysis, Bangka Island.
INTRODUCTION
Foraminifera have been used widely as bioindicator of environmental changes especially in
polluted marine areas. Parameters used include
foraminiferal
diversity,
population
density/abundance,
assemblage
structure,
biological responses, test ultra-structure, test
pyritization, test chemistry and test morphology
(Yanko et al., 1999). Foraminiferas response to
unusual living environment varies depending on
the source of the pollutant. Banerji (1992, in
Yanko et al., 1999) studied a correlation between
heavy metals in sediment and foraminiferal tests.
He found that species diversity tends to be high
when Fe, Mn and Zn concentration increases in
the sediment. Ammonia prefers environments with
high concentration of Fe, Mn, and Zn but its
abundance
decreases
by
increasing
the
concentrations of Cd, Co, and Pb. Yasuhara and
Yamazaki
(2005)
recorded
the
decreasing
population of foraminifera and ostracods up to
90% due to high industrial activities in Osaka
between 1960-1970. Another response is shown by
deformed foraminifera tests. Rositasari (2011)
found abundant abnormal foraminiferal tests of
Ammonia beccarii in Jakarta Bay, which might be
related to both natural and anthropogenic causes.
Furthermore, Dewi et al. (2011) collected abnormal
shells of foraminifera, ostracods and other organic

particles from offshore Berau Delta, east
Kalimantan. The specimens appear as darkish
shells (black, dark green and dark brown) that are
composed of various chemical compositions from
different sources.
The purpose of this study is to recognize
foraminiferal community affected by environmental
stress in the offshore Sungailiat, Bangka Island.
Bangka is a famous tin island (30% of the world's
tin) that lies in the southeastern part of Sumatera.
Tin has been mined both on land and from paleovalleys under the sea since the 1700s. Offshore
mining is done by dredging or hydraulic method
from makeshift (wooden) pontoons (unconventional
floating mines). This method uses machines to
suck up sands from the seafloor, which destroys
the seabed, coral reefs and marine organisms,
such as foraminifera. This mining process also
uses
toxicchemicals
that
have
indirect
consequences to environmental condition and are
damaging marine ecosystem.
METHODOLOGY
The study area is located offshore in the eastern
part of Bangka Island, between Tanjung Tuing in
the north and Rebo beach in the south of
Page 47 of 57
Sungailiat (the second largest city in Bangka after

Pangkal Pinang). A total number of 44 surface
sediment samples have been collected by a grab
sampler and scuba divers from an area within
longitude 10600-10632 E and latitude 160 192S (Figure 1). The sediment samples were
taken from water depth between 4.5 m and 23.8
m. Twenty five samples were selected for
foraminiferal study with volume of about 25 cm3 of
wet sediment. These sediment sampleswere then
washed through a sieve of 0.063 mm and dried in
an oven. About 300 specimens of foraminifera were
picked out from other sediment particles and
placed onto assemblage plates. Then, they were
identified and calculated based on normal and
abnormal specimens. The abnormal specimens
were classified as abraded and covered or filled by
black or non-black particles (Figure 2). The
selected abnormal specimens were then analyzed
by
using
SEM-EDX
(Scanning
Electron
Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy)
in the Laboratory of Quaternary Geology, Centre of
Geological Survey, Bandung (Figure 3).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Benthic foraminifera
We found abundant benthic foraminifera in all
sediment samples, usually between 200 and 300
specimens except in one sample (Station 3). This
station is located very close to the coastal area and
river mouth,with sediment composed of gravelly
sand. There are more than 60 identified species of
benthic foraminifera, belonging to 39 genera (Table
1). Selected species of benthic foraminifera are
documented as shown on Plate 1.
Figure 1. Sediment sampling location of the study area. Inset map is from Google Earth.
Page 48 of 57
Figure 2. Appearances of foraminiferal tests of Dendritina striata.

Station 39 was considered as the healthiest
station. This dive spot is in reef environment,which
is characterized by abundant to very abundant
Cymbaloporetta, Eponides, Amphistegina and
Dendritina. This composition is unusual because it
is does not contain typical 'reefal' symbiotic
bearing benthic foraminifera, but it is composed of
opportunistic genera such as Elphidium, Ammonia,
Bolivina
and
heterotrophic
small
benthic
foraminifera such as genera Miliolida and
Textulariida. It seems that this site belongs to
marginal environment for reef growth as classified
by Hallock et al. (2003) based on foraminiferal
index.
The occurrence of abundant and widely distributed
Amphistegina radiata can be an indicator of
shallow water environment associated with reef
complex. This species is found predominantly on
the reef slope of Spermonde shelf, south Sulawesi
(Renema et al, 2001; Renema and Troelstra, 2003).
Two species of the genera Amphistegina are also
found in the reef slope on the coral rubble or
fragments and sand in the Seribu Islands, Java
Sea (Renema, 2008). Natsir et al. (2012) recognized
that Amphistegina lessonii is common in the
Waigeo island of Raja Ampat, Papua, where they
were collected from water depth of less than 11 m.
Certain stations contain more than 25 specimens
(very abundant) of Amphistegina, Operculina,
Elphidum, Quinqueloculina, Rosalina, Rotalinoides
or Eponides.. The first four genera are widely
distributed throughout the study area and are
typical genera for shallow marine environments.
The widest distribution belongs to Elphidium,
which appears at almost at every station.
According to Hallock et al. (2003), Elphidium is
classified as certain stations opportunistic group
that will appear in the reef and other
environments.
This genus consists of several
species including E. advenum, E. crispum, E.
depressulum and E. striatapunctatum sp. In the
nearshore to offshore areas(Stations 4, 5, 9, 11,
15, 18, 21, and 28), the collected samples include
abundant Quinqueloculina, Amphistegina and
Operculina. They were found in sediment types of

slightly gravelly sand and silty sand at water depth
between 6 and 26 meters.
The occurrences of benthic foraminifera were then
grouped into several of the 16 orders proposed by
Sen Gupta (1999). This classification is not only
based on texture and composition of the test wall
but is also completed by data on chemistry and
mineralogy. In the study area, it has only six
orders:
1.
Order
TROCHAMMINIDA
(genus
Trochammina),
agglutinated
wall
with
proteinaceous or mineralized matrix;
2.
Order TEXTULARIIDA, characterized by
agglutinated wall, with particles cemented by lowMg calcite. In the study area, it is represented by
Textularia, Agglutinella and Martinottiella;
3.
Order MILIOLIDA with test of high-Mg
calcite,
surface
texture
porcellaneous
(Spiroloculina, Parahauerina, Massilina, Miliolinella,
Quinqueloculina, Triloculina, Dendritina, Peneroplis,
Marginophora);
4.
Order LAGENIDA, test of low-Mg calcite,
wall monolamellar, represented by Nodosaria;
5.
Order BULIMINIDA, test of low-Mg calcite,
wall bilamellar (Bolivina and Rectobolivina); and
6.
Order ROTALIIDA, test of low-Mg calcite,
wall bilamellar, chamber arrangement mostly low
(Cancris,
Eponides,
Rsalina,
Discorbinella,
Planulina, Planorbulina, Amphistegina, Florilus,
Asterorotalia,
Ammonia,
Operculina,
Rotalia,
Elphidium, Calcarina, and Cibicides). This study
shows that the study area is characterized by
Order Rotaliida and is dominated by Amphistegina,
Elphidium and Operculina.
Deformed foraminifera specimens
Recent benthic foraminiferal assemblages have
been used as proxies to monitor the effects of
pollution in marginal marine water. One response
of benthic foraminifera to degradation of
environmental condition is by occurrences of
deformed specimens. Morphological abnormalities
of foraminifera are characterized by abraded
and/or loss of part of test, suture and chambers.
Page 49 of 57
S tation number
Water depth (m)
No Sediment types
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
9 11 13 14 15 17 18 21 22 25 27 28 29 31 34 35 36 39
13.7 22.5 23.6 26.5 11.4 10.4 23.8 6.0 18.9 16.2 12.2 7.8 17.8 22.8 17.9 22.6 21.9 6.9 21.1 10.5 10.0 19.4 11.2 8.9
Sg
S(g) S(g) S(g) S(g) Sm(g) Sg
Genera of benthic foraminifera

Amphistegina
C
Elphidium
C A
Quinqueloculina
C F
Operculina
A
Spiroloculina
C F
Dendritina
F
Triloculina
F
F
Peneroplis
F
Textularia
F
Rotalia
F
Pseudorotalia
R
Rosalina
F
Ammonia
VA
Asterorotalia
Brizalina
R F
Calcarina
Cancris
Rotalinoides
Cibicides
Martinotiella
Cymbaloporetta
Sprirolina
Heterolepa
Discorbinella
Planorbulina
Massilina
F
Adelosina
Agglutinella
Trochamina
Eponides
Florilus
Planulina
Shlumbergerina
Bolivina
Pararotalia
Parahauerinoides
Rectobolivina
Nodosaria
Alliatinella
Le ge nd
R : Rare (1 specimen)
F : Few (2-5 specimens)
C : Common (6-10 specimens)
A : Abundant (11-25 specimens)
VA : Very abundant (>25 specimens)
VA A VA
A A A
VA VA C
VA VA A
C F
C
A
C C
C
F
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
F
F
A
F
C
R
F
C
C
F
F
Sg
S(g)
Sg
Gs Smg
Sg
S(g) S(g) S(g) S(g) Sm(g) S(g) Ms(g) Smg S(g) S(g)
F VA
A
C
VA C
F
C
A
C
C
F
F
A
F
R C
F
F
A
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
VA VA VA
A
C A
VA A VA
VA A VA
R F
R
C C C
R
F
A
F
A
F
F
F
R
R
R
R
C
C
F
C
C
C
A
VA
R
F
C
F
F
R
R
F
VA
F
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
F
C
A
F
F
R
F
VA
F
C
F
A
R
R
F
F
F
F
F
R
R
A A
C
A A A
VA VA C
VA C
A
C
C A
F
R F
C A
F
R F
C
F
F
C
C
VA
C
C
F
C
R
C
F
F
F
F
F
R
A
R
R
F
R
C
F
C
C
C
C
F
R
C
F
F
C
C
A
C
C
C
R
F
C
4.5
Zs
A
F
C
F
F
A
F
F
F
F
A
C
F
C
F
R
F
C
F
F
F
A
A
Sg
F
C
F
C
F
F
F
C
F
C
C
VA
C
F
F
C
C
VA
F
F
C
F
R
F
R
R
R
R
R
F
F
Classification of sediment (Folk, 1980)

Sg
: Gravelly sand
S(g) : Slightly gravelly sand
Sm(g) : Slightly gravelly muddy sand
Smg : Gravelly muddy sand
Gs
: Sandy gravel
M s(g) : Slighltly gravelly sandy mud

Zs
: Sandy clay
Table 1. Distribution of benthic foraminifera in the study area.

Some of them have unusual color such as covered
or filled by grey, yellow, brown or black particles
(Plate 2).
In the study area, the number of normal tests is
mostly lower (<50%) than abnormal specimens,
except at Stations 2, 14, 15, 27, 31, 35 and 36
(Figure 3). Abnormal shells with non black colors
(grey, brown, yellow) can reach more than 50% of
the total specimens and they are characterized by
broken tests. The black particles are usually filling
the chambers rather than covering the test. It
seems that the chambers were broken first due to
physical factors and then were filled by black
sediment particles. The highest number of abraded
with black color occurs at Station 5, which is
located close to the river mouth. The genus
Dendritina was found mostly with heavy damages
that can reach 80%. This genus is associated with
reef environments and indirectly it can be an
indicator of environmental changes on coral reef in
the study area. It appears that this genus is the
most sensitive genus to environmental changes in
the study area. The interesting point is that their
abraded specimens are not only covered by

blackish color but also loss of their chambers. This
may be related to physical activities of offshore tin
mining in the study area that are likely to affect
turbidity, nutrients and pollutants of its marine
environments. This physical influence can also be
seen on other genera such as Operculina,
Elphidium, Amphistegina, Quinqueloculina, etc
(Figure 3). The heavy damages (60-80%) are
usually found on larger foraminiferal specimens
with flat and rounded morphological tests, such as
Operculina and Dendritina.
Result from SEM-EDX shows that eight selected
and abnormal specimens are composed of Al2O3 (418%), Fe2O3 (8.87%), SiO2 (5-27%), K2O (1%), FeO
(4-7%), TiO2 (9.29%), as seen on Figure 4. The
Carbon value is between 9.25 and 15.27%, which
is lower than the result from offshore Berau Delta
that reaches 74.19% (Dewi and Illahude, 2005;
Dewi et al., 2011). The low values may indicate
that the black color is not derived from coal but
other sources. It may be from sediment
components that contain Al2O3 ,SiO2 , FeO, and
Page 50 of 57
TiO2. Most of these chemical components are also

found in the abnormal specimens from off Berau
Delta with exception of TiO2. The last element is
only detected in the Bangka study area and occurs
in one specimen of Textularia. This genus has
specific wall structure that is built by materials
from surrounding area. Therefore, it can be related
to quartz sand that are commonly found in the

study area. We also tested the normal specimen of
Amphistegina with opaque test (Figure 4, number
8) and it is composed of C (9.25%) and CaO
(90.75%) only. Another study by Sharifi et al.
(1991) shows that deformed testscontain high
proportions of metal such as Cn and Zn.
100%
50%
0%
1
11 13 14 15 17 18 21 22 25 27 28 29 31 34 35 36 39
Normal
Abnormal non-black
Abnormal black
Figure 3. Comparison number of normal and abnormal tests of foraminifera.
No.
SEM-EDX analysis
Specimen
Chemical composition
Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 MgO
K2O
CaO
10.54
57.25
9.01
18.66
3.52
12.47
47.87
9.12
17.15
6.85
15.27
44.54
12.44
63.44
4.03
5.88
7.85
6.36
10.09
25.11
21.7
35.69
2.32
4.09
12.89
55.88
5.34
14.17
7.5
4.21
11.21
27.83
18.47
27.14
9.25
90.75
SEM
8.87
18.47
FeO
TiO2
1.02
6.53
1.12
7.08
6.07
9.29
Figure 4. Chemical composition of selected foraminiferal tests.
Page 51 of 57
CONCLUSION
There are more than 60 species of benthic
foraminifera from
offshore Bangka Island,
southeast Sumatera. They belong to 39 genera and
mostly belong to Order Rotaliida. These species
and their diversity appear to represent normal
(non-deltaic and non-reefal) shallow tropical
marine assemblages.
More than 50% specimens are deformed shells,
such as abraded, blackish, yellowish, brownish
tests. Based on EDX analysis, these abnormal
specimens are composed of Al2O3 (4-18%), Fe2O3
(8.9%), SiO2 (5-27%), K2O (1%), FeO (4-7%) and
TiO2 (9.29%). The occurrence of abnormal shells
may be related to marine tin mining in the study
area, which likely would have affected the turbidity
or light intensity, hydrodynamics, food availability
and pollutants to the environment. On the other
hand, many of the poorly preserved specimens
may be the result of post-mortem degradation
processes, like transport by currents or waves,
burial and reworking, scavenging by sedimentfeeding organisms, etc. It is not known whether
the sediments sampled were actually disturbed by
dredging and tin removal processing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank our colleagues in Marine Geological
Institute for their support and constructive
suggestions during the completion of this study.
Thank you to late Wikanda, Laboratory of
Quaternary Geology, Centre of Geological Survey
for his assistance on SEM for EDX analysis.
REFERENCES
Dewi, K.T., and Illahude, D., 2005. Ostracoda from
off Derawan Island, East Kalimantan. Bull.
Marine Geology 20 (1), p. 1-14.
Dewi, K.T., Priohandono, Y.A. and Masduki, A.,
2011. Abnormal microfaunal shells as early
warning indicator of environmental changes
surrounding Berau Delta, East Kalimantan.
Bull. Marine Geology 26 (1), p. 23-32.
Folk, R.L., 1980. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks.
Hamphill Publishing Company, Austin,
Texas, 170p.
Hallock P, Lidz B.H., Cockey-Burkhard, E.M. and

Donnelly K.B., 2003. Foraminifera as
bioindicators in coral reef assessment and
monitoring:
The
FORAM
Index.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Journal 81, p. 221-238.
Natsir, S.N., Subkhan, M., Tarigan, M.S., Singgih
P.A. Wibowo and Dewi, K.T., 2012. Benthic
foraminifera in South Waigeo waters, Raja
Ampat, West Papua. Bull. Marine Geology 27
(1), p. 1-6.
Renema, W., Hoeksema, B.W, and van Hinte, J.E.
2001. Larger benthic foraminifera and their
distribution patterns on the Spermonde
Shelf, South Sulawesi. Zoologische Verh.
334, p. 115-150.
Renema, W., and Troelstra, S., 2003. Larger
foraminifera distribution on a mesotrophic
carbonate shelf in SW Sulawesi (Indonesia),
Paleogeography,
Paleoclimatology,
Paleoecology 175, p. 125-146.
Renema, W., 2008. Habitat selective factors
inuencing the distribution of Larger
Benthic Foraminiferal sssemblages over the
Kepulauan
Seribu.
Marine
Micropaleontology, 68 (3-4), p. 286-298.
Rositasari, R., 2011. The characteristics of
foraminiferal community in Jakarta Bay.
Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kelautan Tropis,
FPIK-IPB 3 (2), p. 100-111.
Sen Gupta, B.K., 1999. Systematics of modern
Foraminifera. In
B.K. Sen Gupta (Ed)
Modern Foraminifera, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, p. 7-36.
Sharifi, A.R., Croudace, I.W. and Austin, R.L.,
1991. Benthic foraminiferids as pollution
indicators in Southampton Water, Southern
England. J. Micropalaeontology 10, p. 109113.
Yanko, V., Arnold, A.J. and Parker, W.C., 1999.
Effects of marine pollution on benthic
foraminifera. In: Sen Gupta, B.K. (Ed.)
Modern Foraminifera, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, p. 217-235.
Yasuhara, M., and Yamazaki, H., 2005. The impact
of 150 years of anthropogenic pollution on
the shallow marine ostracode fauna, Osaka
Bay, Japan. J. Marine Micropaleontology 55,
p. 63-74.
Page 52 of 57
Plate 1. Selected normal shells of benthic foraminifera from off Bangka Island.
Plate 1:
1. Ammonia beccarii(Linnaeus), L = 0.35 mm
2. Amphistegina radiata (Fichtel and Moll),L = 1.24 mm
3. Asterorotalia trispinosa (Thalmann), L = 0.6-1.1 mm
4. Discorbinella bertherloti (d'Orbigny),L =0.24 mm
5. Elphidium striata punctatum (Fichtel and Moll), L =0.22 mm
6. Parahauerinoides sp., L=0. 68 mm
7. Cancrisauriculus (Fichtel and Moll), L = 0.44 mm
8. Pseudorotalia schroeteriana (Parker and Jones), L=0.88 mm
9. Rotalinoides gaimardii (d'Orbigny), L=1.3 mm
10. Florilus elongatus (d'Orbigny), L = 0.25 mm
11.Pseudorotalia schroeteriana (Parker and Jones), H = 0.62 mm
12.Planorbulinella larvata (Parker and Jones), L = 1.35 mm
13.Alliatinella sp. L = 0.30 mm
14. Rosalinaglobularis d'Orbigny, L = 0.32 mm
15. Eponides cribroepandus (Asano and Uchio), L=0.83 mm

16. Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal ), L = 1.75 mm
17. Spirolina arietina (Batsch), L= 1.85 mm)
18. Operculina ammonoides (Gronovius), L = 1.57 mm
19. Triloculina trigonula(Lamarck), L= 0.55 mm
20. Adelosina cf. A. litoralis Martinotti, L= 0.2mm
21. Spiroloculina subimpressa Parr, L = 0.85 mm
22. Quinqueloculina quiquecarinata Collins, L = 0.45 mm
23. Brizalinaantegressa (Subbotina), L = 0.32 mm
24. Bolivinaabbreviata Cushman, L = 0.38 mm
25. Rectobolivina brifrons (Brady), L = 0.52 mm
26.Nodosaria ovalis (Koch), L=0.4 mm
27. Martinottiella communis (d'Orbigny), L = 1.30 mm
28. Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, L = 0.70 mm
Page 53 of 57
Plate 2. Abnormal tests from various species of benthic foraminifera.
Page 54 of 57
Page 55 of 57
Page 56 of 57
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY OF SE ASIA PART 2
Page 57 of 57

Marine Geology of Indonesia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Marine Geology of Indonesia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Berita Sedimentologi

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Tertiary Uplift and the

Benthic Foraminifera in Marine Sediment

The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)

The Sedimentology Commission - The Indonesian Association of Geologists (IAGI)

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Prof. Yahdi Zaim

Mohamad Amin Ahlun Nazar

Prof. Dr. Harry Doust

Dr. J.T. (Han) van Gorsel

Dr. T.J.A. Reijers

Dr. Andy Wight

Photo courtesy of BPPT Agency for the

Number 33 August 2015

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

From the Editor

Jurassic Shallow Marine Sand

We're pleased to deliver another

Coordinator, replacing Wayan

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

Book Review : The SE Asian Getway:

Book Review - Biodiversity,

Tertiary Uplift and the Miocene Evolution

Benthic Foraminifera in Marine Sediment

Call for paper BS #34

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

he forum was founded in

FOSI has close international

team. IAGI office in Jakarta will

The official website of FOSI is:

Most of FOSI administrative work

FOSI Group Member

Number 33 August 2015

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Indonesian Marine Geology Research Vessels: Their

Number 33 August 2015

Baruna Jaya VIII. The Baruna Jaya VII is a

THE RESEARCH VESSELS

Number 33 August 2015

Baruna Jaya II Baruna Jaya III Baruna Jaya IV

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

replaced previous Geomarin I and II vessels.

instrument. It also has sediment coring system

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

The research vessels managed by BPPT are up to

Number 33 August 2015

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Number 33 August 2015

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

The vast area of Indonesia needs to be explored.

Arifin, L., 2013. Pemetaan Geologi dan Geofisika di

Number 33 August 2015

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Making the Most of Biostratigraphic Data; Examples from

Corresponding author: mike@gssinternational.co.uk ; monika.dlubak@halliburton.com ;

Number 33 August 2015

assignments given in the general descriptions

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Number 33 August 2015

RELATIVE AGES OF THE SAND UNITS

MARINE GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA PART 2

Number 33 August 2015

This also means the duration of stages can vary