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Abstract
The Hamisana zone (HZ) is one of the major high strain zones of the Pan-African (Neoproterozoic) Arabian Nubian shield (ANS). It trends broadly NS from northern Sudan into southeastern Egypt and meets the present Red
Sea coast at :23N. The HZ has been the subject of controversy with regard to its importance for the Pan-African
structural evolution. Interpretations range from a suture zone, a regional shear zone, or a large-scale transpressional
wrench fault system. In this study, we characterize the nature of the high strain deformation by applying the
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility method along with field and microstructural investigations. These investigations
demonstrate that deformation in the HZ is dominated by pure shear under upper greenschist/amphibolite grade
metamorphic conditions, producing EW shortening, but with a strong N S-extensional component. This deformation also led to folding of regional-scale thrusts (including the base of ophiolite nappes such as Gabal Gerf and Onib).
Consequently, the high strain deformation is younger than ophiolite emplacement and suturing of terranes. A weak
subsequent overprint was mostly non-coaxial. It took place under considerably lower temperature and led to a minor
NESW-trending, dextral wrench fault. Although it is of only local importance this fault may be itself a conjugate
relative to the prominent NWSE-trending sinistral Najd faults in the northern ANS. Therefore, the HZ is dominated
by late orogenic compressional deformation and cannot be related to either large-scale transpressional orogeny or
major escape tectonics. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hamisana zone; ArabianNubian shield; Late-orogenic compression; Magnetic susceptibility
1. Introduction
The Pan-African orogenic cycle has long been
recognized as a period of major crustal accretion,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 49-6221-544843; fax: +496221-545503.
E-mail address: hr8@ix.urz.uni-heidelberg.de (H. de Wall).
where continental, island-arc, and oceanic terranes were brought together to form the crystalline basement of the African continent as part
of a late Neoproterozoic supercontinent (Unrug,
1997, for review). Whereas some parts of the
Pan-African orogen are characterized by continental collisional tectonics (Burke and Sengor,
0301-9268/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 1 - 9 2 6 8 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 4 1 - 8
180
1986; Stern, 1994) others are typical for accretionary orogens (Windley, 1992, for definition).
During the last two decades, the Arabian Nubian shield (ANS), the northeastern part of
Africa Arabia, has been established as a typical
example of an accretionary orogen with lateral
accretion and suturing (Gass, 1981; Kroner, 1985;
Kroner et al., 1987; Stern, 1994). In the course of
orogenic activity, numerous sutures and other
major deformational zones originated all across
this shield. Subsequent to the assembly of terranes, late deformation zones developed as the
expression of lateral escape tectonics or other
transtensional or transpressional episodes during
the final stages of continental crust formation
(Burke and Sengor, 1986; Stern, 1985, 1994;
Johnson and Kattan, 1999). Contrasting models
of transpressional orogeny (Sanderson and Marchini, 1984) have been proposed for the ANS
(OConnor et al., 1994; Abdelsalam et al., 1998),
some of which relate terrane assembly to a single,
major event of transpression.
In order to distinguish between these models, it
is essential to re-examine the evolution of the
orogenic structures in the ANS. Towards that
aim, the present authors studied a major PanAfrican deformational zone, the Hamisana zone
(HZ), which is exposed in the Red Sea Hills of
southeastern Egypt and northeastern Sudan (Fig.
1). The NS-trending HZ is spectacularly visible
on satellite images, where it can be traced for
more than 300 km (Miller and Dixon, 1992). It is
parallel with a zone of similar size on the SudanEthiopia border, the Baraka zone (Dixon et al.,
1987) and the less prominent Oko zone, which is
located 100 km to the east/southeast of the HZ
(Abdelsalam, 1994, Fig. 1).
Well-defined ophiolites and ophiolite belts have
been mapped on both sides of the HZ and interpreted as a suture zone between major PanAfrican terranes. East of the HZ this belt was
called the Onib-Sol Hamed suture (Fitches et al.,
1983; Dixon et al., 1987; Kroner et al., 1987;
Stern et al., 1989, 1990, Fig. 1). The HZ, cuts the
Onib-Sol Hamed suture and is, consequently,
younger. Although this structural relationship has
181
a relatively simple evolution from oblique convergence and suturing towards transpressional shear
zones as a final stage of orogeny (OConnor et al.,
1994; Nasr et al., 1998; Smith et al., 1999).
As it is clear from this controversy, the time
sequence and the general tectonic significance of
these structures at a regional scale are not yet
fully known. Based on recent mapping by the
Egyptian Geological Survey, a part of the HZ
(Figs. 1 and 2) was studied in the field and
sampled for detailed structural studies. In addition to the usual structural geological investigations, the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility
(AMS) of the rocks in the HZ was studied. This
latter method has been shown to be most sensitive
to document the type and style of deformation
even in places where no or hardly any deformation is visible macroscopically (Tarling and
Hrouda, 1993). In that way, it is possible not only
to characterize the deformation within the HZ but
also to determine a subsequent overprint, which
may escape detection by other methods. This
application of the AMS method is the first major
study of this kind in the ANS, apart from minor
pilot studies (Greiling, 1997; de Wall et al., 1998,
1999; El Eraki and Greiling, 1998).
182
The most important of such faults in the northwestern ANS are the NW SE-oriented Najd system, including Wadi Kharit-Wadi Hodein fault
zones, the broadly N S-oriented HZ and the Oko
Shear zone (Abdelsalam, 1994; Kroner et al.,
1987; Stern, 1985, 1994; Greiling et al., 1994; Fig.
1).
3. Field observations
The gneissic rocks of the HZ and the surrounding area are characterized by a distinct metamorphic banding (s1), which is particularly clear
between felsic or intermediate layers intercalated
with amphibolite (Fig. 9(A) (C)). On both sides
of the HZ this banding is flat-lying at a regional
scale with gentle folds at km-scale wavelengths
(EGSMA, 1999).
Towards the HZ, the NS-trending folds become tighter, so that the metamorphic banding
183
184
Table 1
Magnetic data for the individual samples
Sample
Rock type
sa
Linb
a95
Folc
a95
Td
P%e
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
amphibolite
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
biotite-schist
amphibolite
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
leucogranite
amphibolite
amphibolite
amphibolite
orthogneiss
amphibolite
biotite-schist
leucogranite
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
amphibolite
amphibolite
amphibolite
orthogneiss
orthogneiss
amphibolite
orthogneiss
amphibolite
amphibolite
amphibolite
paragneiss
1
2
2
2
4
3
4
2
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
5
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
4
3
1
1
4
850
447
395
395
6849
377
9900
2120
4743
733
324
4297
20
405
740
717
229
737
290
7208
303
6398
61
1112
3159
14370
805
9027
55
3605
2406
663
977
427
82
181/11
223/70
011/01
011/01
213/16
041/16
351/04
248/52
169/24
015/30
028/45
353/06
026/47
020/39
341/53
347/11
008/29
120/38
168/13
179/05
170/10
346/13
359/20
060/04
198/03
172/04
018/15
190/06
198/21
049/37
354/21
175/34
006/37
357/42
171/10
4.3
2.2
2.2
3.8
1.2
3.2
6.8
1.5
4.7
1.7
1.9
18.0
4.5
3.1
4.6
4.1
3.0
2.0
7.5
2.6
5.5
2.9
3.0
2.6
3.3
6.7
4.6
2.6
11.2
1.9
5.1
1.9
094/76
281/79
101/84
101/84
133/59
315/75
079/62
264/51
252/75
295/22
360/45
065/19
049/43
293/87
261/84
262/65
076/57
054/63
078/89
263/40
089/47
067/55
270/88
138/15
289/76
106/10
092/44
279/77
246/29
109/56
314/27
264/86
281/84
298/61
221/17
4.4
5.2
5.2
3.7
1.3
6.1
4.8
1.3
4.5
1.2
2.5
6.5
2.3
4.3
4.7
10.8
2.4
1.9
2.7
3
4.1
2.6
2.8
10.1
2.7
5.7
5.1
16.6
1.6
1.1
3.5
2.2
0.22
0.88
0.84
0.84
0.14
0.70
0.56
0.34
0.33
0.17
0.41
0.12
0.38
0.64
0.51
0.83
0.15
0.88
0.46
0.73
0.25
0.27
0.70
0.34
0.11
0.18
0.68
0.26
0.54
0.20
0.10
0.46
0.17
0.83
0.69
1.31
1.13
1.11
1.11
1.27
1.12
1.50
1.24
1.60
1.07
1.11
1.23
1.06
1.04
1.03
1.11
1.02
1.07
1.11
1.40
1.17
1.51
1.23
1.59
1.19
1.34
1.10
1.28
1.12
1.20
1.23
1.11
1.10
1.15
1.10
1
2a
2b
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
29
30
34
36
37
38
39
40
185
186
Fig. 6. (A) Magnetic foliation map and (B) magnetic lineation map, covering the same area as Fig. 2. Inset stereonets show the
orientation means as calculated for each sampling site (data in Table 1). Note two domains (I and II, respectively), which are distinct
by their fabric orientation.
187
5. Microstructures
Rocks in the HZ are characterized by a metamorphic fabric developed under amphibolite facies conditions. Amphibolites and hornblendebearing gneisses, derived from volcanic rocks and
gabbros contain coarse-grained green hornblende,
biotite, feldspar and quartz. In the amphibolites,
pronounced linear as well as distinct planar fabrics occur, which are defined by elongated
feldspar aggregates and the preferred orientation
of hornblende (Fig. 9(D)). Aspect ratios for prolate feldspar porphyroclasts in amphibolite, with a
well-developed linear fabric, reach up to 4.
Coarse-grained biotite and muscovite produce
the metamorphic foliation in the orthogneisses
and metagranitoids. Occasionally, a stretching lineation is marked by elongated quartz grains and
ribbon quartz. Inclusions of a continuous mica
foliation within large anhedral quartz grains and
paramagnetic minerals is a function of single crystal anisotropy and degree of preferred orientation
(Siegesmund et al., 1995; Hrouda et al., 1997).
However, from Fig. 7 it is obvious that scattering
of the shape factor values is indicated both in
samples with low (mainly paramagnetic minerals)
and with high (ferrimagnetic minerals) susceptibilities. Therefore, we conclude that beside mineralogical influences the observed variations in
ellipsoid shape are related to differences in fabric
geometry across the HZ. However, a significant
relationship of the shape factors to a particular
structural domain or a systematic variation in the
shape along and across the HZ was not detected.
In general, the AMS results agree with the field
observations, where also variations in the rock
fabrics have been detected.
188
189
Fig. 9. Structural features of the HZ: A, B Field photographs from the western margin of the HZ, looking S (A) and SW (B),
respectively, from a point at the southern end of Gabal Um Rasein (Fig. 2 for location). The photographs are arranged so as to
show the steep dip of the foliation within the HZ (cliffs in A) and the shallowing dips away from the HZ (towards W, B). The central
part of the slope in B is build up of the lbib gneiss, the top of the Gabal Gerf ophiolite nappe (compare map, Fig. 2). C Example
of banded gneiss with amphibolite layers (black), showing (broadly symmetric) boudinage, which indicates N S extension and E W
shortening. East side of Um Rasein, Fig. 2 for location; hammer for scale (above central boudin). D Handspecimen of amphibolite
from the HZ (P 26) cut parallel with a mineral lineation marked by elongated feldspar porphyroclasts (structural X direction; XY
section) and normal to the mineral lineation (YZ section), respectively. The amphibolite shows a pronounced stretching fabric. E,
F Photomicrographs of orthogneisses from the HZ, showing examples from domain I (E) and II (F), respectively: (E) coarse-grained,
elongated quartz with lobate boundaries but little internal deformation defines an early foliation (S). Younger foliation surfaces (C),
defined by mica minerals, cut the early foliation and are interpreted here as shear surfaces. This S C fabric indicates a sinistral sense
of shear (sample P 21, X polarizers). (F) Dynamically recrystallized quartz. Quartz grains and subgrains are oriented oblique to the
earlier foliation and indicate a dextral shear deformation (sample P 23, X polarizers).
190
As a consequence of strong simple shear deformation a divergence between the high strain and
low strain geometries should be expected, since
the angle between the shear zone boundary and
the X-axis of the strain ellipsoid decreases from
45 towards a subparallel orientation with progressive simple shear deformation. Such oblique
magnetic fabrics have been observed in regions
were granite emplacement is related to strike slip
fault zones (Djouadi et al., 1997) or to transform
geometry (Bouillin et al., 1993).
However, in the present study, the lineations in
high strain and low strain areas are parallel, for
example 352/06 for the nearly undeformed metagranitoid (P 10) and 359/20 for a strongly deformed orthogneiss (P 21). This supports the
results of microstructural observations that noncoaxial deformation is a minor component of the
bulk deformation in the HZ.
The pronounced sigmoidal deflection of the
magnetic lineation in structural domain II (Fig. 6)
is clear on the map in Fig. 9, where the trend of
the traces of the magnetic lineation trajectories is
presented. This deflection and progressive rotation of the magnetic lineation in the SW-part of
the study area are accompanied by low temperature deformation as described in the chapter
above (fractures in feldspar, strong undulose extinction and localized recrystallization in quartz).
For some samples a sense of shear could be
determined and is indicated on the map (Fig. 9).
7. Discussion
From the regional tectonic context and from
geologic maps, a strike-slip movement along the
HZ has been inferred (Vail, 1985, 1988; Kroner et
al., 1987; Greiling et al., 1994; Nasr et al., 1998).
However, at least some field-based structural
studies (Stern et al., 1990; Miller and Dixon,
1992) failed to detect traces of such a large-scale
deformation and in particular those of a strikeslip episode along the north-central part of the
HZ. These latter results are partly in accordance
with our observations in the field that the deformation appears to be relatively weak in places.
But detailed studies revealed a more complex
191
Acknowledgements
This work is a part of a cooperation between
the Geologisch-Palaontologisches Institut, Heidelberg, and the Egyptian Geological Survey and
Mining Authority (EGSMA), Cairo, supported by
the BMBW through the Forschungszentrum
Julich, International Bureau. The financial assistance is gratefully acknowledged. We thank the
Chairmen of EGSMA, G.M. Naim and M. El
Hinnawy for their generous support. Many
192
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