How To Write Effectively

How to write effectively
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/index.htm
Whether you're a first-time writer/editor or a seasoned professional, our expert guides on
planning, structuring and revising an article or book chapter, by yourself or with others,
will help you master the craft of writing.
How to... write a book chapter

Article Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction
How do book chapters and journal articles differ?
The publishing process
Conclusion
References
By Margaret Adolphus
Introduction
An edited volume is a collection of original, research-based chapters which is organized
into a cohesive volume, often around a particular topic, in a structured way, possibly with
parts, an introduction and conclusion, and perhaps deliberately containing papers with
opposing views.
Emerald is a significant publisher of edited volumes, and the cornerstone of its portfolio
is its book series.
Edited volumes, whether published by Emerald or by another publisher, tend to fit into
one of two categories:
1. Research series
Research series usually focus on an emerging theme, either within a specific field of
study or discipline, such as Advances in Austrian Economics, or on a broader field of
study which cuts across a few disciplines, such as Research in Organizational Change
and Development.
Volumes are published at regular intervals and are devoted to a specific sub-theme or,
more generally, to the latest scholarly work and practice.
2. Handbooks
Handbooks often aim to capture the state of a particular field past and present, with a
trajectory for the next ten years of scholarly research.
Examples include: Handbook of Collaborative Management Research, Handbook of
Action Research or Handbook of Organization Development, published by SAGE, or
Emerald's Handbook of Survey Research, Transport Survey Methods, and Research in the
Sociology of Work.
Typically, both types of edited volume are disseminated through the same outlets as
journals. The main difference, however, lies in the former's thematic focus (making it
similar to a journal special issue) and greater degree of structure, and in the review
process. The latter, together with differences at the chapter level, will be explored in
subsequent sections.
Publisher's note
The author would like to thank the following people for their help in writing this article:
Professor Abraham B. (Rami) Shani, Professor Neal Ashkanasy, and Professor Cary
Cooper.
Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/book_chapter.htm?

part=1 on Saturday November 19th, 2011
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
How do book chapters and journal articles differ?

The following discussion is largely a generalization; there will be many examples of both
journal articles and volume chapters which differ from the pattern suggested below, and
in some series, the chapter could equally have been published in a journal.
However, in the majority of cases the greater length of a volume chapter provides for a
fuller development of the subject.
Book chapter structure differs not only from that of journal articles, but also according to
whether the volume is a handbook or a research series, so each of the two categories are
considered separately below.
Handbooks
Handbooks tend to concentrate on reviewing rather than adding to the research. However,
a good research review does not merely summarize the literature, it also moves the
conversation along by making recommendations, building a new concept, or suggesting
further research avenues.
Take for example Emerald's Handbook of Survey Research (Marsden and Wright, 2010),
which updates the 1983 edition to provide an account of the subject's development over
the past half century, as well as new usages.
Commenting in the Preface on the changing landscape of survey research and its vast
literature, the authors state that:
" ... chapters in this handbook perform the considerable service of organizing these
literatures and articulating major themes within them" (Marsden and Wright, 2010, p.
xv).
Research volumes
Professor Abraham B. (Rami) Shani is a professor at California Polytechnic State
University and editor of Emerald's Research in Organizational Change and Development,
as well as SAGE's Handbook of Collaborative Management Research. He believes that
the less restrictions on a book manuscript's length enables authors to transcend the
limitations of what he sees as the narrowness of journal articles.
Authors have more scope to develop their research at greater length; while maintaining
the same degree of scientific rigour. They can go beyond a brief discussion of findings,
explore them more deeply and examine their research in the broader theoretical and
practical context. This helps provide a more holistic framework for the research,
capturing it in a way that makes sense.
Many chapters in research volumes combine conceptual and empirical research, building
on particular studies to expand a particular concept.
According to Professor Cary Cooper, the organizational psychologist who is also a series
editor of Advances in Mergers & Acquisitions, the longer book chapter article is a more
appropriate vehicle in which to review the literature and or theoretical frameworks, and
develop a new conceptual model.
Dr Martha Pennington would agree: she is constantly looking for big, innovative ideas for
her series Innovation and Leadership in English Language Teaching (see the interview,
"Meet the editor of... Innovation and Leadership in English Language Teaching").
Outside the hard sciences, she claims, people want to write about a concept, then report a
research study, and then expand the concept based on the research.
Volume chapters enable authors to reflect not only on concepts, but also importantly
on practice.
For example, Quam (2010) explores the relationship between two trends: demographic
shifts in the working-age population and the proliferation of web technologies, and
devotes considerable space to discussion of the implications for the workplace.
Professor Shani also believes that volume chapters provide an additional freedom over
and above that of greater length: the ability to depart from the highly structured format of
a journal article (research question, literature review, methodology, findings, conclusion,
etc.).
Authors can develop their own structure and logical flow of ideas, and be more reflective.
In particular, if they have undertaken qualitative research involving interviews and
conversations, they can include actual quotations, which is relatively rare in journal
articles. This provides an additional richness, while still maintaining academic rigour.
Yet another freedom, frequently mentioned by series editors in Emerald's "Editor
interviews", is freedom from the confines of blind peer review. Many authors feel that
they can say things which they would not dare say in a journal article.
According to Dr Neal Ashkanasy, professor of management at the University of
Queensland, Australia, and series editor of Emerald's Research on Emotion in
Organizations:
"Journal reviewers, especially reviewers for the more high profile journals, tend to be
inherently conservative. Consequently, they have little tolerance for papers that challenge
orthodoxy."
When submitting an article for a journal, an author might feel the need to rein in
speculation or provocation, on the grounds that the article might be read by a reviewer
whose ideas were being criticized.
Thus book chapters offer a unique opportunity to express innovative ideas and
therefore, claims Ashkanasy, are often among the most cited articles in the field of
management. Indeed, many editors consciously look for a contribution that genuinely
covers new ground.
An example of this is the chapter by Li et al. (2010), who propose a new conceptual
model, based on complexity theory, for affective experiences and affect structure in
organizations and then discuss its organizational implications.
Moreover, Professor Shani believes that many chapters in research annuals have triggered
whole volumes of research. Quite literally, in the case of appreciative inquiry, which grew
out of an article written in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva in the first volume of
Research in Organizational Change and Development, and which now has its own series:
Advances in Appreciative Inquiry.

The publishing process

All academic writing goes through a series of drafts and reviews, but there are a number
of ways in which an edited volume differs from a journal, notably the submission
process, review and role of editor.
The submission process

Whereas a journal receives unsolicited submissions, most high quality series will invite
contributions from those (junior as well as senior faculty) doing state-of-the-art work in
the area.
There may be a connection with a conference for example, contributions for Research
on Emotion in Organizations are selected from papers for Emonet or the AMA.
Sometimes, an open call is issued, through various relevant e-mail listservs and websites.
A potential contributor may be asked to submit a proposal, which should have sufficient
detail to make the argument of the chapter clear.
Each book series publishing process is different, so consult with the editor(s) regarding
their particular requirements.
Review
There is a perception that book series are not reviewed, but this isn't true. All quality
series have a review process, but the difference is that it is usually more open than the
journal article review process.
If the series originates at a conference, then the first stage of review will be feedback
from delegates.
In many cases, the review process will be handled by the volume editors, who either
carry out the review themselves or else delegate the task to others. Sometimes, the writers
on the project will be tasked to review one another's work.
The reviewers will be looking for the scholarly merits of the work does the author know
the literature, is their argument a genuinely new and worthwhile contribution, are there
any flaws in the logic, etc.?
Criteria are both less, and more, personal: on the one hand a review chapter may not
contain details of the author's own research project; on the other, their previous work will
be taken into account, and not just the article under consideration, as for a journal.
Role of editor
A significant difference lies in what is reviewed: whereas an author of a journal article
will normally submit a fairly final draft ("fairly" because it may be substantially rewritten following the review), volume contributors will have proposals, as well as first
and second draft, commented on.
The role of the editor is also far more developmental: he or she will work with authors
through their drafts, with suggestions for improvement.

Conclusion
It is not difficult to see why many believe that contributing a book chapter should be part
of the repertoire of any serious scholar it's an activity which can both change research,
and lead to individual advancement.
In brief:
1. There is a considerable academic pay-off from publishing with a high prestige
volume, in that you associate with leading scholars in the field. Unlike the process
of contributing an article to a journal, there is likely to be a chance for
collaboration and discussion between contributors, which in turn creates
networking opportunities and the chance to work together on further projects.
2. High profile handbooks can attract as many citations as leading journals.
3. Finally, Professor Shani believes that for some, volume chapters play a seminal
role in reviews for promotion. Asked to give examples of research that have made
a real difference, candidates will often cite chapters in research volumes. For
reasons given above, the latter provide the structure for longer expositions of
research which give the subject a wider, and fresh, perspective.

References
Cooperrider, D.L. and Srivastva, S. (1987), "Appreciative inquiry in organizational life",
in Pasmore, W. and Woodman, R. (Eds), Research in Organizational Change and
Development, Vol. 1, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 129-169.
Li, Y., Ashkanasy, N.M. and Ahlstrom, D. (2010), "Complexity theory and affect
structure: a dynamic approach to modeling emotional changes in organizations", in
Zerbe, W.J., Hrtel, C.E.J. and Ashkanasy, N.M. (Eds), Emotions and Organizational
Dynamism, Research on Emotion in Organizations, Vol. 6, Emerald Group Publishing
Limited, UK, pp. 139-165.
Marsden, P. and Wright, J. (2010), Handbook of Survey Research, 2nd ed., Emerald
Group Publishing, UK.
Quam, K.F. (2010), "The mature workforce and the changing nature of work", in
Pasmore, W.A., Shani, A.B. and Woodman, R.W. (Eds), Research in Organizational
Change and Development, Vol. 18, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, UK, pp. 315-366.

How to... collaborate on writing an article

Article Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
Writing articles from large collaborative projects

Smaller scale collaborations and working with PhD students
Writing the article: planning, communicating and working on drafts
Who comes first? Settling the order of contributors
Writing articles from large collaborative projects

In the field of management, large-scale multidisciplinary teams working on big projects
are commonplace. Such projects are often heavily funded and extend across institutions,
countries, and sectors: it is not uncommon for several universities to be involved and
perhaps a blue-chip company as well.
Collaborative research is now a common part of the research landscape, and commonly
yields not one but up to half a dozen journal articles, as well as reports and possibly
books. It may be difficult for the individual researcher especially if he or she is relatively
junior, not to feel that their individual publishing efforts may become submerged.
However, if well planned, there will be plenty of opportunities for all. There are a number
of points to consider:
In this section
Strategic planning
Working in a multidisciplinary environment
Establishing relationships
Strategic planning
Establishing a dissemination strategy, which looks at the how, where and who of
publishing, should be part of the project planning process.
This strategy should consider not only the dissemination of the final results, when all the
data are complete, but also at the different stages of the research process, for example it
may be that part of the project requires doing a very extensive literature review in a so far
uncharted but highly significant area. It should also be flexible enough to consider the
opportunities that may arise at particular stages, for example a particular colleague may
come at the data from a different disciplinary angle, or results may throw up a new line of
enquiry.
The dissemination strategy should look to deliberately maximize the quantity and quality
of the work published. These days the wide-scale measurement of research outputs the
UK RAE being an obvious example it is important to maximise the data set and identify
as many publishing angles as possible.
The dissemination strategy should also take account of:
1. Access to data, and ownership of intellectual property, i.e. is it joint, or does the
person who collected the data have sole access for research purposes?
2. Who will publish what, where and how identify particular journals, bearing in
mind:
o what audiences you wish to reach, for example it may be that certain
aspects of your research will be particularly interesting to a particular
discipline
o what your strategic objectives are do you wish to add to the body of
published research, in which case you will target (probably top quality)
academic journals, or do you wish to disseminate your findings to
practitioners
3. Who will be first author, and lead the writing of the article?
Example
Two researchers (from the USA and Australia) collaborated on a large-scale historical
project which resulted in a book and six papers. One person collected the archival
material and the other carried out a preliminary analysis. Together they decided on a
series of papers, on each of which they split roles which they swapped for different
papers. For example on one paper, one did a first draft which was mainly descriptive
while the other did the second draft which was more explanatory analysis; on another,
one did the environmental background and context and the other added the specific
historical case study findings.
On another major funded research project, two researchers conducted a study which used
semi-structured interviews and collection of texts such as official documents, website
material and reports. Except where prevented by logistics, both carried out the interviews
(which were then professionally transcribed) and both had equal access to the data.
Working in a multi-disciplinary environment

Multidisciplinary teams are very common in the management field, which is a strength as
it means that you have the benefit of different perspectives.
For example, your team may include people from Operations Management and Human
Resource Management/Organizational Behaviour. Researchers from each of these fields
may identify different angles, from which they develop articles with the slant of their
disciplines, taking a particular part of the data. Thus, if the data set concerns the
establishment of a new IT system in organizations, the OM people are more likely to be
interested in the part of the data which is concerned with operational issues, whereas the
OB people may be more interested in people's perceptions of their change in role.
Example
Sometimes, multidisciplinary collaboration means not just having different perceptions
on data but being prepared to step outside the paradigms of your own discipline and
adopt the perspectives of another discipline in order to build new theories. Michael
Hyman (1990), in an article "Unbounded collaboration: a way to broaden and improve
marketing theory", talks about collaborations with colleagues in other disciplinary areas
which have the object of bringing in the perspective of other disciplines to look at
marketing problems and thereby improve marketing theory. This involves a lot of
unstructured dialogue with the other party and listening carefully to the ways in which
they do things.
Establishing relationships
Much has been written about the theory of teams and team-building, but ultimately good
team-work is a matter of developing good relationships. Research is often long-term,
laborious, and full of setbacks so it is important to develop a good personal chemistry.
Collaborative work should be based on respect and equality. Every team member should
be valued, from the person at the beginning of their PhD to the professor with a list of
publications as long as bank holiday shopping list. Asymmetrical relationships which
value fame and disparage inexperience may damage the cooperative endeavour.
Openness and honesty is critical: team members should know that they can trust one
another to do what they say they will do and not make arbitrary decisions, e.g. about
cutting out a particular part of the data from an article without clearing it with others.
Equally, it is important to have an atmosphere where everyone can 'think aloud', voice
concerns, etc. Good team work may be hampered both by someone who is overly shy and
diffident and by a very dominant, dogmatic personality.
Example
CIBER (Centre for Information Behaviour and the Evaluation of Research) is a largescale ongoing interdisciplinary research group which is concerned with the mapping,
monitoring and evaluating of digital information systems, platforms, services and
environments. It comprises a multidisciplinary team of information media specialists
including publishers, librarians and journalists, and researchers come from University
College London and City University (UK), the University of Tennessee (USA), the
University of Warsaw (Poland), and Elsevier Science publishing. The group is engaged in
a number of different projects at any one time and also has three smaller research
groupings.
At any one time, the group will be researching on four to five different projects.
Collaboration is very important and research is very much a team effort, as is publishing:
all researchers' names will appear and articles routinely appear with around three to five
names.
At the outset of any project, the dissemination strategy is carefully discussed and a
publishing plan is prepared which includes:
number of publications, e.g. five

what journals to target, bearing in mind the strategic objectives of dissemination,
e.g. some journals are good for the RAE, others will convey the message to
practitioners
who will be the lead author, responsible for coordinating the efforts of other
authors and having their name first.
Reference
Hyman, M. (1990), "Unbounded collaboration: a way to broaden and improve marketing
theory", in Lichtenthanl et al. (Eds), AMA Winter Educators' Conference
Proceedings,American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL.
Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/collaborate.htm?

Smaller scale collaborations and working with PhD students

Here we shall look at two other forms of collaborative writing, both of which involve
collaborations on smaller, and probably less complex projects.
In this section
Smaller scale collaborations with one other researcher

Collaboration with PhD students
Collaboration with practitioners
Smaller scale collaborations with one other researcher

Much of what has been said about large-scale projects applies here, and it is difficult to
determine what makes a collaboration large or small! Probably the main difference lies in
the degree of formality surrounding the project smaller scale collaborations may not be
funded to the same degree, and may not require such rigorous reporting.
Thus while it may in theory be less complex for two people to collaborate on writing an
article than for a team, such collaborations lack the structure of a well-run large research
project with a clear plan for who publishes what where, and indeed who collects what
data. With the latter, the collaboration rationale stems from the research agenda; smaller
scale collaborations may be motivated by a whole host of reasons only some of which
have anything to do with research.
Two people may meet up at a conference or be working within the same department and
decide to pursue mutual research interests. Desire for collaboration may be strategic: a
junior researcher may look for a more experienced colleague with links to the top
journals. (This works both ways, and any potential collaborator will be interested in what
you can bring to the party not only operationally but also strategically.)
Example
Now teaching in a research institution, and with pressures to publish in "A" journals, I
realized that I needed to collaborate with colleagues who can bring in more skills than I
posses or who have published in "A" journals. There are few and most would rather stick
with their own network. So, if you do not have network with members who have a record
of "A" journal publication, it is extremely difficult to break the "A" journal barrier.
As with larger-scale collaborations, honesty, openness, trust and respect are all important.
Experienced researchers recommend the following:
1. Go carefully. Don't be rushed into making 'who does what' decisions, dip your toe
in the water and see how the relationship develops. This is particularly so if you
are a junior researcher wanting to collaborate with someone more senior: be very
clear what you want to get out of the relationship, e.g. mentoring, links with
journals etc. and don't be either swamped by the ideas of someone more powerful
and persuasive than yourself or end up as an unpaid research assistant.
2. Have an initial meeting at which you determine what you feel you have to
contribute, and what you want to get out of the collaboration. If your collaborator
has a different approach to research or is from a different discipline, allow time
for an unstructured, free-flowing dialogue, that allows ideas to develop.
3. You will also need to establish:
o what skillsets you bring to the relationship, the obvious example being
qualitative and quantitative researchers working together, but also one
person may be good at first drafting versus the detail of revision, one
person good at the minutiae of gathering data, the other at taking the
overview and analysis, etc.
Example
One American researcher writes or his collaboration with a researcher a
few years ahead of him: "We worked well because we had complementary
skills: he was very skilled at the modelling phase and polishing the final
product and I was more skilled at the entrepreneurial aspects: getting the
project started, managing the various phases, writing the grant proposal to
obtain funds, etc."
o
what your research approach is: having different approaches can be a

strength, but you need to be sure that you understand why you are taking
different approaches and agree who does what, e.g. one person can do a
statistical analysis, one can assemble the questions for the focus group,
etc.
o what your attitude to deadlines is do you both respect these?
o what is the difference in your writing styles and how will you work round
any problems this causes?
o what your outputs are going to be and where, who will 'own' what, and
whose name will go first.
4. Knowing what you want to get out of a collaborative relationship means not
confusing access to data with access to research expertise. For example, you may
have a particular idea for an article which calls for a broader data set. You could
then approach someone who has the access and get permission to carry out a
survey or focus group. If they have just provided access, then you will need
merely to acknowledge them. If however they have provided data analysis, then
they will be a co-author.
5. Don't avoid solo work because you lack confidence it will increase your appeal
to potential co-authors if you have been published.
6. Collaboration is not an exact science. Go by your gut feel, avoid those who try
and dominate you.
"I strongly recommend only collaborating with people you really like."
"Picking the wrong partner can result in a nightmare of long timelags and poor output."
Collaboration with PhD students

Many collaborations are based on experienced researchers working with doctoral
students, mostly their supervisees. Collaboration here is not the result of networking but
rather the product of a highly structured relationship.
The traditional practice of using the work of PhD students to increase one's published
output is now frowned upon in most academic circles: their intellectual property and right
to be named must be respected (as must be that of research assistants).
"With PhD students, remember that it is very much their work, theirs should be the lead
name. It's very much an issue of trust and respect, they own the intellectual property."
"The RAE has produced PhD supervisors insisting their names go on PhD student papers
in plague proportions!"
By the same token, an academic will invest a considerable amount of time in supervising
a doctoral student and may justifiably feel entitled to get some return on their investment.
Providing this is done ethically, it can be mutually beneficial to both parties: more
outputs for supervisors, and mentoring for students.
Example
A Professor of Marketing at a UK university adopts the following strategy with her
students.
A publication strategy is discussed at the outset, as part of the learning agreement. They
will work on a number of joint publications for conferences and journals and she will
always be the second author.
They will start off by writing a conference paper together, which is better for
inexperienced researchers as it allows for publishing a smaller 'slice' of the research
journals will normally only publish PhD research once all the data is collected. The
writing is an iterative process, with the professor commenting on student drafts.
Writing a journal article will be subject to a similar process, with the student producing
drafts, and the professor taking on a mentoring, overview role. They may divide up the
work as follows:
Student: First draft, literature review, findings

Professor: Provide a strong introduction, look at the methodology, state
implications
The contribution of the professor is also to be able to stand back and have an overview of
what the audience of the particular journal wants, and is also in a better position to
respond to reviewers' comments ("We did it this way because ...")
Elsewhere, PhD students may be encouraged to write up their research as it unfolds, and
may receive mentoring help or help with English if it is not their mother tongue. They
may also undertake routine editorial tasks of publishing, e.g. returning comments to
reviewers.
Collaboration with practitioners

Here, the academic researcher, who will after all get most of the kudos of getting the
research published, may well do most of the groundwork of writing and research. The
practitioner's input may be to provide the practitioner context or background, describe the
implications for practice or policy, look at changes within the area, help frame the topic,
critique and edit the paper, or possibly include data which had been given in board
presentations but not otherwise disseminated outside the organization.

Writing the article: planning, communicating and working on

drafts
"I am not sure how people can write together" is one reaction to the topic of joint writing,
possibly caused by the fact that good joint writing seems as seemless as if done by one
person. People have different ways of working over the nitty-gritty of writing an article
with another person. It is not possible to give a set recipe, only guidelines. The following
are important considerations:
Planning: approaching the whole endeavour like a project, with clear timelines
and stages
Communication: having a communication strategy, and ways of dealing with the
problem of keeping in touch over geographical distance
Writing the drafts: who does what?
Disagreements: how will you deal with these?
In this section
Planning
Communication
Writing the drafts
Disagreements
Planning
There is a lot of good will in many collaborations, and it may seem overly bureaucratic to
have a project plan. However, for those with a background in business disciplines the
professional management of a project should be second nature. In particular it is
important to agree:
roles and responsibilities

timelines: how long you expect to take to do drafts, turn them around, get to the
point where you can submit, etc.
Always bear in mind that you should be prepared for the unexpected, and build in
flexibility, e.g. for unforeseen data results.
Communication
The advent of email has considerably facilitated both research collaboration and
academic publishing, linking as it does people regardless of location and making it easy
to exchange documents, and many co-authors find that they mostly manage by email.
However, for a major project it is usually good to have face-to-face meetings every so
often at critical project stages; with multi-country/institution collaborations, you can have
one meeting in each country/at each institution, the cost of which should be included in
the funding.
Other useful communication tools are:
Conference calls: an excellent way of getting a group of dispersed people

together and allowing an exchange of views at particular time, can be a very good
way of resolving complex issues and much faster than emails going back and
forth.
Websites: these days, it is possible using web editing to construct simple web
pages fairly easily, and many academics in any event have their own space
allocation on the university server. Can be a particularly good way of showing
visual items, large items which might not otherwise make it though firewalls,
multiple items e.g. a lot of documents to do with the data set, or where it is
important to show chronological sequence.
Those heavily into technology may want to check out the website of the Distributed
Knowledge Research Collaborative, which looks at ways in which technological
resources can facilitate information exchange, and which includes descriptions of various
items of computer-mediated communication software as well as a user interface for
organizing and storing bibliographic information on the web.
Here is how one author approaches collaboration, in one case with a geographically
separated co-author and in another case with someone nearer to home
Example
We plan out papers and articles at face-to-face meetings following our analysis of the
data. The person who is to be first author writes up the first draft and then sends this draft
by email to the other, usually with specific requests to focus on particular sections of the
paper. We talk a lot by phone.
Another co-author and I often sit side by side at the computer. We talk. I type. We argue
about what I've typed and I edit it. Then we talk again and so forth. Once we have the
bones of something on paper, we assign responsibility for developing particular sections.
Writing the drafts

A common approach is to have one person who is the lead author, agreed at the outset,
who then takes on the major responsibility for the article, including having an overview,
checking over the final version, resolving disagreements, etc.
Example
Michael Hyman (2001) recommends having a leading or co-ordinating author, and
having a contract which binds the authors into an agreement, rather like a pre-nuptial.
He defines a lead or co-ordinating author as the one who makes a substantial intellectual
contribution and a substantial time commitment to the project, and who is responsible for
the project vision, funding, management, coordination, revision, review, as well as for
circulating copies of all revisions, correspondence, and for any post publication issues
including claims about the veracity of the article's contents.
Writing is always an iterative process, and particularly when there is more than one
author. It is important that you and your co author/s have a plan at the beginning for how
you work with the drafts you produce: will one person be responsible for producing the
first draft with someone else commenting, or will you each be responsible for different
parts?
Example
The lead author does the first incomplete draft, which is then sent around. There will be
around 10-15 drafts in all. I don't ask people to adhere to a particular file naming
convention, but files do need to be dated.
It is often a good idea to divide up the paper and decide who will be responsible for what,
probably according to people's particular skills.
Example
I mostly work with co-authors in different locations. We just agree on who will draft what
bits, then pass them to each other in logical sequence for the next section's contribution
and build the paper like building blocks.
For example, someone with strong quantitative skills may provide the data analysis,
someone who has done a lot of reading may submit the literature review, a practitioner
may look at the implications for practice. If one of the researchers is less experienced,
then this may suggest a particular pattern, with the more experienced researcher giving an
overview and acting as mentor (see previous Collaboration with PhD students section).
When looking at the 'building blocks' of the paper, it is important not to neglect the
overview, and context: the particular slant you want to bring out. Someone should be
responsible for that aspect. In addition, someone, preferably who is good at attending to
detail, should deal with the final revisions. It is usual for the lead author to give the paper
a final read through, however in the case of multiple authors he/she would normally
expect the main 'donkey work' of checking references, making sure that everything is
clear and that there are no grammar or spelling mistakes, to have been done.
In the case of a multidisciplinary collaboration, then different authors can contribute
from different disciplinary perspectives. One discipline will usually take the lead, and
that person should provide the 'slant' and the literature review.
Organizing the mechanics of draft-writing is as important as deciding who does what. It

is crucial to:
have a logical naming convention of files which indicates the name of the author
and the date on which the version was created.
have a system of indicating what are the changes from the previous version, e.g.
using track changes, different colour, etc.
Lastly, different writers have different styles and it is important to present a consistent
document where such differences do not show through. Someone should be responsible
for the task of going though the whole paper and adjusting major writing style differences
into one common style.
Disagreements
Disagreements are inevitable in writing as in other walks of life. They are rarely
successfully dealt with by either pretending they are not there or by one party bullying
the others.
It is thus important to bring all disagreements out into the open and have a frank
discussion, but also to be constructive and humble.
Examples
It comes down to managing the team. You have to see where people are coming from. It's
a question of getting everybody to say what they want out of this, and what can we take
out of this?
Just like in a marriage ... talk it through.
Some potential sources of disagreement may be caused by different disciplinary or
research approaches. For example, different disciplines may embody different
conventions such as over the style of the literature review; qualitative and quantitative
approaches to research may have a different tolerance of ambiguity.
Ultimately, many things will need to be decided by reference to the style and other
preferences of the journal to which you are submitting.
A common cause of disagreement is the order of names; this will be dealt with in the next
section.
Example
In the course of their research for the book Singular Texts/Plural Authors, Andrea
Lunsford and Lisa Ede (1990) spoke to Eleanor Chiogioji, a researcher in the Learning
and Instruction Division of the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, about
the main advantages of collaborative writing. Her response was as follows: "... you get
multiple perspectives and more feedback. You throw out something or somebody throws
out something, but you agree or disagree and this is where the value comes up. It opens
up another line for you to pursue." The disadvantages: when engaged in the give and take
of a group setting, you don't have the space to follow your own lines of argument;
stylistic differences of different writing styles; different writing ability; occasionally
losing the big picture and getting bogged down in detail.
References
Hyman, M. (2001), "The co-ordinating author and the co-author contract", Marketing
Educator, Vol. 20, Summer.
Lunsford, A. and Ede, L. (1990), Singular Texts/Plural Authors: Perspectives on
Collaborative Writing, Carbondale & Edwardsville, Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale, IL.

Who comes first? Settling the order of the contributors

We deal with the order of names of contributors as a separate section because it is a
matter of some strategic importance and therefore causes a considerable amount of
disagreement and rivalry.
Note that the laws of copyright state that all authors of a work have ownership of that
work, and therefore the right to exploit it. All those who have contributed towards the
research for or writing of an article should have their names on it. This includes all
authors who contribute data or some analytical technique, even if they do no writing.
Those who contribute the data or technique will 'own' it.
Always make sure that a 'paper trail' links you back to any data you collected, any
instrument that you developed, or research technique you pioneered.
In the placing of names on medical papers, there are fairly strict rules; in the area of
management, there are conventions rather than rules.
The lead author will usually go first: see Writing the drafts for a discussion of that role.
"Leading the article writing process is good motivation as you lose your leadership if you
do less work."
When the team works together on a number of articles, it is usual to share out the role of
lead author so that other members of the team get a chance to take on this role.
If all have contributed equally, then the order is alphabetical.
With multi-author works, it is usual to place contributors in the order of the level of their
contribution, which can be difficult if you have two researchers who have contributed
equally. In such cases, it may be a matter of horse trading: Jack goes first this time, Jill
next time.
Example
The UK Research Assessment Exercise says the following: "Jointly authored work should
normally be cited only once in a submission, since this will again provide the fullest
picture of research activity within the submission. While a number of staff may
contribute to joint work, quality profiles will be based on the overall research output of
each department and not that of individuals". See Guidance on Submissions, June 2005,
#102, UOA 36, #13.
In other words, if Jack and Jill work in the same department and jointly contribute to one
paper, then if that paper is cited against Jack's output, Jack only needs to find three other
outputs, whereas Jill needs to find four.

How to... write more simply

Article Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
Developing a coherent argument

Using the paragraph effectively
Writing clear sentences
Avoiding wordiness
Developing a coherent argument

Writing a purpose statement
In an interview with John Peters, Emerald's former chief executive and editor of
Management Decision, the following was said about how to counteract the vagueness and
lack of clarity in some papers:
"Write a purpose statement! Write 'The purpose of this paper is ...' Then do what you say
you will do. And please tell us why it's important, or novel, or valuable. What's in it for
the researcher and the practitioner?"
In other words, be very clear what your paper is about so that you could explain it easily
to anyone who asks. In these pages we give some hints about how you can make your
language clearer, but the most important thing in getting your message across is that you
fully understand your message.
Good introductions and conclusions

Your introduction is your chance to get your reader interested in the subject. First
impressions count, in research as in life. A good approach is to:
Establish the importance of the research area.

Establish a reason why your own particular study is important because it is
particularly important for the industry, or because there is a gap in the literature
and it would be inappropriate to apply existing knowledge.
Having outlined the territory, you can now stake your research claim directly:
"The purpose of this article ...", "This article investigates ..."
Examples
"A longitudinal study of corporate social reporting in Singapore"
Eric W.K. Tsang
Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 11 No. 5
"Equity in corporate co-branding"
Judy Motion et al.
European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37 No. 7
Likewise, the conclusion of your piece should be a summing up of the methodology and
the findings, but also about why they are important, and in particular what is the impor
tance to research and to managerial practice. See below how the author concludes the
article in the co-branding study quoted above.
Example
A number of managerial implications were identified within the analysis and the
following strategy for co-branding was identified ...
The role of marketing communications in corporate co-brands and the equity sources that
emerge offer a potential agenda for research and further theory development about the
nature of co-branded equity. Such research will further understanding of how co-branding
offers corporate brands the opportunity to move beyond sponsorship relationships to
partnerships that redefine the brand identity, discursively reposition the brand and build
co-brand equity.
Some things to avoid

There are some habits which are easy to fall into but which can cause writing to be less
clear.
Don't use undefined terms

When using terms with which the reader may be unfamiliar, always give some expla
nation, as in the following definition of "grounded theory".
Example
One of the most developed inductive research methods is that of grounded theory ... In
this methodology the researcher starts with a priori constructs, inquires deeply into
organisational behaviour and gradually tests and forms theoretical constructs.
"Grounded theory methodology and practitioner reflexivity in practitioner research"
Denis Leonard and Rodney McAdam
International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, Vol. 18 No. 2
Note how in the above example, the authors do not explain "inductive": if you are writing
for an academic audience, it is reasonable to assume that they will know basic terms.
Temper generalizations
Never make general claims unless you really can prove them qualify them in some way.
Words that can temper generalizations include: as a rule, for the most part, generally, in
general, potentially, normally, on the whole, in most cases, usually, the vast majority of, a
large number of, it is likely that, have tended to.
Giving examples is also a good way of backing up generalizations.
Example
Here, the literature suggests that contracts have tended to reinforce the position of large
community organisations, and diminish the position of smaller organisations. For
example, Ernst & Young's (1996) study of the New Zealand Community Funding
Agency found that there was a clear concentration of public resources in favour of large
community organisations ...
"A comparison of contracting arrangements in Australia, Canada and New Zealand"
Neal Ryan
International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 12 No. 2
Use analogies with care

Make sure that analogies really do work. A famous analogy was coined by US Supreme
Court judge Oliver Wendell Holmes. In a case concerning protesters during the First
World War, he ruled that the First Ammendment of the US Constitution (the right to free
speech) does have some limits depending on cirumstance, noting: "The most stringent
protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting 'Fire!' in a theatre,
and causing a panic". A number of people (e.g. Alan M. Dershowitz, "Shouting 'Fire!'",
Atlantic Monthly, January 1989) have claimed this was a weak analogy in the original
case. In any event, it has now been overused to such an extent that it has little impact.
Avoid faulty logic

Traps to avoid include:
if you are developing a general argument, make sure that the statements on which
you base the argument are valid.
Example
"It is the belief of the authors of this paper that much CAL software has been designed
more with presentation than with learning effectiveness in mind."
This author makes this claim without substantiation from any literature or examples.
This extract is reproduced by kind permission of Professor Gabriel Jacobs, Professor of
European Business Management at the University of Wales, and remains his copyright.
non sequiturs, where the author makes sudden jumps in the sense, with the effect
that a point raised in one paragraph is followed by a completely different point in
a subsequent paragraph, or even within the same paragraph. This leaves the reader
confused and unable to hold onto the thread of the argument!
Make explanations coherent

The "flow" of your paper should be consistent: when providing descriptive or explanatory
information, as in a literature review or report of research, or a case study, make sure that
you avoid either giving too much information or too little. Avoid jumps in the logic
(where you require the reader to understand certain things which are obvious to you but
not necessarily to them), or repeating information.
Make effective transitions

Any piece of writing tells a story in the case of a research article, the story concerns a
contribution to research, with an outlining of territory with your literature review, then an
outline of your methodology followed by your results with their implications. With any
story, it is important to follow the necessary steps so that the reader has all the facts. This
sounds too obvious to mention, but it is surprising how often people neglect to do this
with the result that the article is not very clear.
The chances are that if when you read through a draft of your article, if you become
aware that there are uncomfortable gaps in your narrative, then you may well have left
out some important steps. However, if your draft still reads "jumpily" even with the
correct logic in place, this can often be fixed through a gracious transitional sentence,
which connects the subsequent point with the previous one. Such sentences will probably
use a transitional word or phrase such as the following:
Likewise, in the same way, similarly, in comparison

Shows similarity, comparison, drawing a parallel
On the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, despite, in spite of, on the contrary
Contrasts with what has gone before, dissimilarity
First, second, to begin with, at the same time, later, finally
Placing in order, showing a temporal sequence
Thus, accordingly, therefore, because, in consequence, as a result, because, owing
to, since
Shows causality, cause and effect
As has been said previously
Referring back
For example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows
Examples
In other words, namely, to be more precise, that is to say
Explanation
Also, for example, in other words, moreover, more importantly
Addition, reinforcement
Finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, to conclude, to sum up, this
paper has demonstrated
In summary, conclusion
Using headings
Using headings is another very effective way of guiding your reader through your
material, and making it more readable, because it forces you to divide up your material
into chunks.
Two very different articles show examples of the use of headings.
Example
"Conducting market research using the Internet: the case of Xenon Laboratories" (Andy
Lockett and Ian Blackman, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 3)
uses headings to signal the literature review and the case study, as well as different
elements within those sections (background, limitations of the traditional approach, etc.).
"RoMEO studies 1: the impact of copyright ownership on academic author self
archiving" (Elizabeth Gadd et al., Journal of Documentation, Vol. 59 No. 3) makes far
more frequent use of numbered headings.
Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/simply.htm?part=1 on

Saturday November 19th, 2011

The paragraph is one of the main building blocks of writing. Its effective use is key to
good writing. If it is used badly if paragraphs are either very long, or short, or if there is
a sudden break in sensewithin or between paragraphs then the meaning is obsured.
What makes a paragraph?

All the example paragraphs below are concerned with a particular topic or theme, which
is developed using the structure of the paragraph. A key aspect of a good paragraph is this
unity: there is one major point of discussion. All the sentences in this paragraph should be
related to this one idea, and should flow from one another.
Examples
Observation can be used as both a quantitative and a qualitative research methodology. In
the case described in this study, observation was mainly used qualitatively as the research
was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand, observation, if structured, can
generate detailed quantitative findings. Data, for example, generated via EPoS tracking (a
machine-based observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. Whether findings
generated by observation are quantitative or qualitative in nature depends on whether the
research is structured or unstructured which, in turn, often depends on the stage of the
research project.
"Saying is one thing; doing is another': the role of observation in marketing research"
Jonathan Boote and Ann Mathews
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 2 No. 1
This section contains definitions of managerial roles and tasks. The informants described
career management for managers as the identifying and developing of "high potentials".
A "high potential" is an individual who possesses certain technical and personality
requirements that will permit them to rise to the executive cadre within their organization.
They are usually under 35 years old and have been with their company for two to five
years. A new cohort group is formed every two to three years.
"Cultural assumptions in career management: practice implications from Germany"
Carol D. Hansen and Mary Kay Willcox
Career Development International, Vol. 2 No. 4
Topic sentences
A well-constructed paragraph should contain a sentence which states the theme of the
paragraph, which subsequent sentences should develop and support.
The example paragraphs are repeated below with the topic sentences in bold in each case.
Note that in these cases, the topic sentence occurs at the beginning of the paragraph, with
the subsequent sentences developing the point made. While it is not an invariable
grammatical rule that topic sentences should be at the beginning of paragraphs, it is
nevertheless a good tip for those who are not very experienced in writing.
Example
Observation can be used as both a quantitative and a qualitative research
methodology. In the case described in this study, observation was mainly used
qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand,
observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative findings. Data, for example,
generated via EPoS tracking (a machine-based observational tool) is highly statistical in
nature. Whether findings generated by observation are quantitative or qualitative in
nature depends on whether the research is structured or unstructured which, in turn,
often depends on the stage of the research project.
This section contains definitions of managerial roles and tasks. The informants
described career management for managers as the identifying and developing of "high
potentials". A "high potential" is an individual who possesses certain technical and
personality requirements that will permit them to rise to the executive cadre within their
organization. They are usually under 35 years old and have been with their company for
two to five years. A new cohort group is formed every two to three years.
Ensuring coherence
A well-crafted paragraph should have a consistent and logical organization of ideas, with
points flowing from one another in a natural sequence. There are two main ways of doing
this: implicitly by making the ideas develop from one another and explicitly by building
bridges.
Implicit links: making ideas develop

Develop the idea set out in the topic sentence by adding information, providing
explanation, giving examples, providing data, defining terms, comparing and contrasting.
The example below shows how one of the above paragraphs does this (with our
comments in bold).
Example
methodology. EXAMPLE: In the case described in this study, observation was mainly
used qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. COMPARISON: On
the other hand, observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative findings.
EXAMPLE: Data, for example, generated via EPoS tracking (a machine-based
observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. EXPLANATION: Whether findings
research project.
Building bridges
The handout on paragraphs created by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab has this
to say:
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can
help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
logical bridges:
The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form
verbal bridges:
Keywords can be repeated in several sentences

Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences
If you ensure that ideas develop along a main theme, as we discussed above, it should
help in building logical bridges. Verbal bridges however are also very useful, and there
are a number of ways of providing them:
Using linking words and phrases.

Referring back to key ideas, either repeating phrases or using pronouns.
Here's the example again, with our notes in square brackets.
Example
the case described in this study [REFERRING BACK], observation was mainly used
qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand
[QUALIFICATION], observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative
findings. Data, for example [EXAMPLE], generated via EPoS tracking (a machinebased observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. Whether findings generated by
observation are quantitative or qualitative in nature depends on whether the research is
structured or unstructured which, in turn, often depends on the stage of the research
project.
A number of verbal link phrases feature on the previous page: How to make effective
transitions.
Paragraph length
While in general it is best to avoid paragraphs that are too long, there is no hard and fast
rule for their length other than to say that sense will dictate a new paragraph, when it is
clear that you are dealing with another topic.


The paragraph is one of the main building blocks of writing. Its effective use is key to
good writing. If it is used badly if paragraphs are either very long, or short, or if there is
a sudden break in sensewithin or between paragraphs then the meaning is obsured.
What makes a paragraph?

All the example paragraphs below are concerned with a particular topic or theme, which
is developed using the structure of the paragraph. A key aspect of a good paragraph is this
unity: there is one major point of discussion. All the sentences in this paragraph should be
related to this one idea, and should flow from one another.
Examples
the case described in this study, observation was mainly used qualitatively as the research
was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand, observation, if structured, can
generate detailed quantitative findings. Data, for example, generated via EPoS tracking (a
machine-based observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. Whether findings
research project.
"Saying is one thing; doing is another': the role of observation in marketing research"
Jonathan Boote and Ann Mathews
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 2 No. 1
This section contains definitions of managerial roles and tasks. The informants described
career management for managers as the identifying and developing of "high potentials".
A "high potential" is an individual who possesses certain technical and personality
requirements that will permit them to rise to the executive cadre within their organization.
They are usually under 35 years old and have been with their company for two to five
years. A new cohort group is formed every two to three years.
"Cultural assumptions in career management: practice implications from Germany"
Carol D. Hansen and Mary Kay Willcox
Career Development International, Vol. 2 No. 4
Topic sentences
A well-constructed paragraph should contain a sentence which states the theme of the
paragraph, which subsequent sentences should develop and support.
The example paragraphs are repeated below with the topic sentences in bold in each case.
Note that in these cases, the topic sentence occurs at the beginning of the paragraph, with
the subsequent sentences developing the point made. While it is not an invariable
grammatical rule that topic sentences should be at the beginning of paragraphs, it is
nevertheless a good tip for those who are not very experienced in writing.
Example
methodology. In the case described in this study, observation was mainly used
qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand,
observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative findings. Data, for example,
generated via EPoS tracking (a machine-based observational tool) is highly statistical in
nature. Whether findings generated by observation are quantitative or qualitative in
nature depends on whether the research is structured or unstructured which, in turn,
often depends on the stage of the research project.
This section contains definitions of managerial roles and tasks. The informants
described career management for managers as the identifying and developing of "high
potentials". A "high potential" is an individual who possesses certain technical and
personality requirements that will permit them to rise to the executive cadre within their
organization. They are usually under 35 years old and have been with their company for
two to five years. A new cohort group is formed every two to three years.
Ensuring coherence
A well-crafted paragraph should have a consistent and logical organization of ideas, with
points flowing from one another in a natural sequence. There are two main ways of doing
this: implicitly by making the ideas develop from one another and explicitly by building
bridges.
Implicit links: making ideas develop

Develop the idea set out in the topic sentence by adding information, providing
explanation, giving examples, providing data, defining terms, comparing and contrasting.
The example below shows how one of the above paragraphs does this (with our
comments in bold).
Example
methodology. EXAMPLE: In the case described in this study, observation was mainly
used qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. COMPARISON: On
the other hand, observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative findings.
EXAMPLE: Data, for example, generated via EPoS tracking (a machine-based
observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. EXPLANATION: Whether findings

research project.
Building bridges
The handout on paragraphs created by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab has this
to say:
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can
help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
logical bridges:
The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form
verbal bridges:
Keywords can be repeated in several sentences

Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences
If you ensure that ideas develop along a main theme, as we discussed above, it should
help in building logical bridges. Verbal bridges however are also very useful, and there
are a number of ways of providing them:
Using linking words and phrases.

Referring back to key ideas, either repeating phrases or using pronouns.
Here's the example again, with our notes in square brackets.
Example
the case described in this study [REFERRING BACK], observation was mainly used
qualitatively as the research was highly exploratory in nature. On the other hand
[QUALIFICATION], observation, if structured, can generate detailed quantitative
findings. Data, for example [EXAMPLE], generated via EPoS tracking (a machinebased observational tool) is highly statistical in nature. Whether findings generated by
observation are quantitative or qualitative in nature depends on whether the research is
structured or unstructured which, in turn, often depends on the stage of the research
project.
A number of verbal link phrases feature on the previous page: How to make effective
transitions.
Paragraph length
While in general it is best to avoid paragraphs that are too long, there is no hard and fast
rule for their length other than to say that sense will dictate a new paragraph, when it is
clear that you are dealing with another topic.

Writing clear sentences

One golden rule for clarity is that sentences should be comprehensible at first reading.
Thus when you are reading through a draft, read each sentence individually and check
that it makes sense, and that it would not be better split into two.
Use the active voice rather than the passive voice

Using the passive voice (the subject receives the action) rather than the active (the subject
does the action) is a classic error even amongst experienced writers, and has the
immediate effect of adding unnecessary words which means that the sentence loses
impact.
Here, the second sentence is much clearer than the first because the weight of the action
is taken by the verb. It also results in fewer words.
Example
The reason why he stopped composing was because his health started failing.
Failing health caused him to give up composing.
There may be times when using the passive voice makes better sense as, for example,
when the verb or the object of the sentence are more important than the subject.
Example
Women were given the vote.
Skating is forbidden.
A related fault is to use noun formulations of verbs, such as implementation for

implement:
Example
"The implementation of the plan was successful" for
"The plan was implemented successfully".
Use parallel sentence construction

When similar ideas are introduced, emphasize their similarity by using a similar
grammatical construction. The following two (very different) examples illustrate this:
Examples
It is on this premise that the research was conducted which aimed at exploring two
specific areas: pre-outsourcing cost analysis and post-outsourcing supplier management.
The first topic was chosen primarily because the existing literature is rather prescriptive
and only offers transaction cost theory (Walker and Weber, 1984; Alexander and Young,
1996a) as an analytical tool, which most commentators believe is ineffective. The second
topic was selected due to the lack of research on the subject, and the evidence suggested
that most outsourcing deals have fallen short of expectations and deteriorated over time
(Greenberg and Canzoneri, 1997; Lacity et al., 1994).
"Strategic outsourcing: evidence from British companies"
Ying Fan
Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 18 No. 4
You shall not murder.
You shall not commit adultery.
You shall not steal.
(Exodus 20: 13-15)
Use punctuation carefully

Punctuation is a huge topic, and not one which we can easily deal with by mentioning a
few simple rules. If you are aware that you have a problem with how to use punctuation,
you would be better consulting a book on grammar, or other reference book such as
Fowler's Modern English Usage (see our How to... prepare papers if English is not your
first language guide). Any of these resources will give you some basic help in applying
punctuation sensibly and sensitively.
Here are some "starter" rules for good punctuation which if broken can cause some
linguistic confusion:
Use commas to help the reader breathe

The spoken aspect of language dictates the way we read and write. When you read this
sentence you will probably be reading it in your head and you will subconsciously pause
for breath at certain points and you will probably find reading this sentence difficult
because it has no commas. In fact, commas are the "breathing spaces" in sentences, and
one way of seeing where you need to include commas is to read your sentence to yourself
and see where you need to introduce pauses.
Effective use of the comma should mean that the reader has no need to pause and think
about the sense of the sentence.
Use commas to separate out clauses

A clause is an independent part of a sentence, with a noun and a verb. Some clauses
should be separated by commas, particularly those that can stand on their own as
sentences (known as independent clauses).
Example
I decorated the room in blue, although I prefer purple.
Relative clauses (i.e. clauses which introduce new material into a sentence relating to one
of the constituent parts) should also be separated out by commas.
Example
Second, where there was high agreement, there also had to be high certainty that on a
scale from 1-10 the items measured team efficiency.
"Transformational leadership or the iron cage:
which predicts trust, commitment and team efficacy?"
Kara A. Arnold et al.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 22 No. 7
Use semi-colons to separate out two equally balanced clauses.
Example
These comments press a case for some re-thinking on the question of how theory can
support empirical research; they also make reference to a bewildering array of theoretical
forms ...
"What counts as 'theory' in qualitative management and accounting research?
Introducing five levels of theorizing"
Sue Llewelyn
Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 16 No. 4
Use phrases and clauses carefully and accurately

Be careful where you place subordinate clauses if they are placed in the middle of
sentences, this can be confusing.
Example
"Observation was, in the case described in this study, mainly used qualitatively as the
research was highly exploratory in nature" reads awkwardly.
"In the case described in this study, observation was mainly used qualitatively as the
research was highly exploratory in nature" is much better.
When you refer back to something using a construction such as "this", make sure that it is
clear what you are referring to.
Example
"My husband works as a musician sometimes, this is his third career"
would be better stated as
"My husband works as a musician sometimes; music is his third career."

Avoiding wordiness
There are many ways of avoiding wordiness. A few basic guidelines are given in this
section.
Cut the clutter

Good writers develop a concise style, which avoids redundant words. A good tip for
editing a draft is to go through it and cross out any words which don't add to the meaning,
while at the same time looking for more concise ways of saying the same thing.
Original version
Vocabulary acquisition is naturally a basic skill for all language students and much
research has been done in this domain at all levels from ab initio to advanced study
(Chesters et al., 1992; Meara, 1997). A group of academics within the French Department
decided upon the idea of designing a micro-computer program that would allow students
to learn French vocabulary in such a way, that:
1. the learning would be faster
2. the lecturer input would be less
3. the effectiveness of learning would be enhanced
Edited version
Vocabulary acquisition is a basic skill for all language students, and is the subject of
research at all levels from ab initio to advanced study (Chesters et al., 1992; Meara,
1997). A group of academics within the French Department decided to design a microcomputer program to help student to learn French vocabulary faster, more effectively, and
with less lecturer input.
Avoid circumlocutions
A "circumlocution" is the use of many words when just a few will do an easy trap to
fall into when trying to make a point a little more forcefully! Here are some examples,
together with simpler ways of expressing the same idea:
It is possible that
May, might, could
There is no doubt that
Doubtless
Used for ... purposes
Used
He is a man who ...
He
In a hasty manner
Hastily
At this point in time
Now/then
In the near future
Soon
Prior to, in anticipation of, following on, at the same time as
Before, after, as
Notwithstanding the fact that, despite the fact that
Although
Concerning the matter of
About
The reason for, owing to the reason that, on the grounds that
Because, since, why
If it should transpire that, in the event that
If
With regard to
About
Owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that
Since, because
This is a subject which
This subject
In a situation in which
When
Is able to, has the capacity to
Can
On the occasion of
When
For the purpose of
To
The question as to whether
Whether
Avoid "padding" words and tautologies

There are some other words of this type which are pure padding and can be omitted for
example, "basically", or "current" as in "the current chairman" when you are not referring
to past or future chairmen.
Tautologies are those words which mean the same thing: safe haven, future prospects,
weather conditions, etc. Sometimes, tautologies are used for rhetorical effect, but at other
times removing one unnecessary word will improve conciseness.
Avoid unnecessary determiners, qualifiers and modifiers

There are some words which appear to modify a noun but which merely clutter up the
sentence.
Example
Managers need some [kind of] extra help if they are to avoid getting bogged down with
paperwork.
It is [basically] in order to ...
The [sort of] person I would like to meet is ...
The software was implemented and tested on a cohort of level 2 students who had, [in
general], studied French for 8 years.
[To a certain extent] women no longer lag behind men in terms of pay in certain areas.
Either omit these words or give specific details.
Avoid using noun formulations of verbs

There is an increasing tendency in the English language to use nown formations to
replace a perfectly good verb.
Example
The articles should de-mystique the subject by explaining complicated concepts and
offering definitions where appropriate.
should be
The articles should demystify the subject by explaining complicated concepts and
offering definitions where appropriate.
The top example uses a nown formation from "mystique", but the word "demystify"
means just the same thing and is more common parlance.
Change clauses into phrases and phrases into single words

Sometimes, phrasal constructions can be reduced to adjectives:
The employee with talent

The talented employee
The economy with the best performance
The best performing economy
Relative clauses can also sometimes be reworded:
The prisoner who had been recently released

The recently-released prisoner
The IT system that met most of our requirements
The most compatible IT system
Other clauses can be worded more simply as in the following example, in which two
clauses are put together as one:
If citing a shortish extract, you can do this by just reproducing it within the article
A short extract can be reproduced within the article
Try and avoid phrases like "It was", and "There is":
There is a tendency amongst managers of X company ...

Managers of X company tend to ...
It was Kotler who said ...
Kotler said ...
Some infinitive phrases (those that use verbs with "to") can be turned into sentences with
active verbs:
The responsibility of a leader is to motivate and inspire

A leader should motivate and inspire
The product is considered to be sound
The product is considered sound
Sometimes verbal phrases with gerunds (-ing words) can be turned into adjectives:
Because of the ground being rough

Because of the rough ground
Avoid repetition or excessive detail

When you read through a draft, check you are not repeating things unnecessarily or
putting in too much detail.
Example
The purpose of this paper is to describe the experience of a team of academics in the
Department of French, School of Modern Languages within the Faculty of Arts,
Humanities and Social Studies at the University Institute of X in the development of a
Computer-assisted learning software program.
Here, we do not need to know all the details of the department's position in the
organization! The authors go on to provide great detail about the process of acquiring
funds for the exercise, which again is unnecessary and detracts from the main focus of the
article, which is about the development of CAL software.
Example
During the phase the team and the software programmer met on four occasions to discuss
strategy at the planned Phase 1 strategy meetings.
As the author includes this under the heading "Phase 1", all the information after
"strategy" is redundant.

How to... prepare papers if English is not

your first language
Article Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why write for an international journal?

Using an editing service
Book resources
Website resources
Why write for an international journal?

There is extensive advice all over this part of the Emerald Management eJournals site on
how to write for an international journal. On this page, we summarise the process for the
benefit of those writing in a foreign language, point to other parts of the site where these
are covered, and talk about particular issues faced by those with language difficulties.
In this section
Why an international journal: what are the advantages?

Have I got something to publish?
Where should I publish?
Producing a draft
When to approach the editor?
Getting help with the English
Getting into the formal publishing process
Why an international journal: what are the advantages?

Writing for an international journal has a number of advantages, principally:
You will reach an international community of fellow scholars in your area, and
hence enhance the impact and outreach of your work, as well as your likelihood
of being quoted.
As most international journals are peer reviewed, your work is given an automatic
seal of approval, and a number of people will put effort into improving it and help
getting it published.
Have I got something to publish?

Being published is about making an original contribution to the body of knowledge. The
first task is to consider whether you do have something original to say what is your
article about, and why will your peers want to read about your work? What are the
implications for future research? For practice? It is a good idea to prepare a brief 50-word
statement which covers these questions, for your own benefit so that you have a clear
idea in your own mind what your article is about and why it is important. It is also highly
advisable to discuss your work with experienced academic colleagues.
"My first piece of advice would be: 'Get as many experienced academics as possible to
read the work before sending to publishers'. Perhaps an 'authors' support group' could be
established in faculty to meet and comment on developing work. My own experience of
such a group is that, given a non-threatening and supportive atmosphere, it can be very
productive in generating research ideas and collaborative working."
Dr David Parker
editor specialising in operations management, logistics, marketing, e-commerce, based
in Queensland, Australia
"Most editors will not be experts in your field of study. Before you submit your work to a
journal, you should have colleagues within your field read your work as well, as editors
are usually not able to tell if you have said something that is inappropriately controversial
or if your statistics contain a mistake."
Dr M. Lynne Murphy
Senior Lecturer in Linguistics, University of Sussex, UK
Believe it or not, the above considerations are far more important than putting the article
into reasonable English, which is always possible with a bit of help.
"Improving the English will not get a poor piece of research published it is the research
method, rigour and appropriateness of analysis and findings that are the important things.
A paper's structure, the English, format and style can always be improved. But little can
be done if there is a poor conceptual framework, shallow literature underpinning,
inappropriate data collection methods and techniques of analysis, and which culminate in
superficial conclusions."
Dr David Parker
Where should I publish?

If you have answered the question "Have I got something to publish?" favourably and
fully, you will be in a good position to deal with the next part of the process, which is
finding an outlet for publication. Most people in the publishing business recommend
targetting a suitable journal which means that you have to go about looking for a
journal whose editorial aims and objectives match your work. See our How to... find the
right journal guide for more on how to go about this.
Producing a draft
Write a draft of the paper in whatever English you have it is better to do it like that than
to write in your own language and then translate. Don't worry too much about grammar,
spelling, etc. this should come later, once you have a draft of the content, as a separate,
editing stage.
When you write, good advice is to look at your targetted journal, and others in the same
field, and look at how articles are written. That way, you will pick up tips concerning
phrasing, nuances, English idiom, etc.
"My general advice to a non-English speaking author would be to read high quality
journals in their field (it is important that it is in their respective discipline) and take note
of how experienced authors draw upon others' work, their use of referencing to support
argument and develop research methods, and the phrasing adopted (discipline specific
rather than generalised). Be succinct and keep sentences short."
Dr David Parker
"When writing a paper, it is best to look at how papers in the same subject area are
written [and to try and] mimic the way language is used to discuss a certain topic. A
native English writer will use language to discuss the same topic in a wide variety of
ways, and these ways can be used to help non-native speakers get around the problem of
repeating themselves."
Simon Linacre
Publisher, Emerald Group Publishing Limited
You may need more 'hands-on' help here, in the form of someone who can help you
express yourself more clearly in English. This is not the same as using a professional
editing service but involves sitting down with someone (perhaps a colleague in your
department) whose English is better than yours and who can help you clarify your
meaning.
Once you have a draft where your meaning is reasonably clear, even if the English needs
polishing, then it is worth getting informal advice as to its publishing potential.
When to approach the editor?

Before entering the publishing process formally, it is always worth approaching the
editor, or perhaps someone on the editorial Board whom you know, to read a draft of the
paper with a view to giving you an opinion of its research and academic content before
you go to the trouble and possibly expense of polishing the English.
However, before this stage is reached it is important that the article is clear enough for the
editor to see the general argument, even if the English needs a polish.
"Most editors will be willing to give an early draft of a paper a first read and offer
comments to an author before formal submission it is much better to do this with a
promise to 'tidy up' the English than submit an article that has poor English, as this will
be rejected immediately. Also, editors will not want to struggle with a whole article
written in poor English, so any early draft should be a shortened version of a couple of
pages to give a flavour of the research area and findings."
Simon Linacre
Publisher, Emerald Group Publishing Limited
It is in your own best interests to check that your draft is reasonably clear before you
submit even a draft for informal assessment to an editor. Check with a member of your
department, or if that is not possible for whatever reason, find a colleague in another
university department, or even a non-academic with reasonably fluent English.
Getting help with the English

Although you should not approach an editor until you have a draft which is reasonably
clear, once you have an indication of interest you need to think about tidying up your
English.
At this point, you might wish to consider using the services of a professional editor see
Using an editing service section.
In the latter case, if you cannot make your ideas clear enough, you are advised to find
someone whose English is reasonably good and who can help you find ways of
expressing yourself clearly. You should do this before you approach someone even for an
informal assessment.
Getting into the formal publishing process

Once your paper is in reasonable order you are ready to enter the publishing process
formally. At this stage, your position is little different to that of any other author: you will
have chosen your journal, and you will submit your paper to the editor in the knowledge
that there is a reasonable overlap between the scope of your article and the objectives of
the journal. If the editor considers that your article has potential, he or she will submit it
for peer review (see our How to... survive peer review and revise your paper guide for
more details on this process). As part of that process, reviewers may offer their own
suggestions for changes to the English.
You will need to make sure that your article is carefully and fully referenced. This is not
something that demands a great knowledge of English but something which is fiddly and
which requires care. See How to... use the Harvard reference system guide for more
information.
Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/english.htm?part=1 on

Using an editing service

This means using the service of a professional editor who is not a subject expert (unlike a
journal editor) but who specialises in helping authors express themselves in language that
is as clear as possible, so that they can communicate with their intended audience. They
are highly skilled professionals whose work often contributes to the end product but if
they are lucky, will get a modest fee and an acknowledgement in the author's preface after
everyone else. Most have heard of the American author, Ernest Hemingway, but few of
his editor, Maxwell Perkins, who is actually responsible for a good part of his prose.
Emerald has an editing service which puts people in touch with such editors, who are
highly experienced and whose work has been vetted. In preparing this "How to..." guide,
we contacted all of them, and we quote advice from some of them below.
In this section
What types of editing are there?

What is the cost involved?
What else to expect
When should I contact an editor?
What types of editing are there?

Structural editing is concerned with what one might term 'high level' language
considerations:
Is there a logical argument, does the paper follow a structure, does the author
avoid sudden jumps in the sense (non sequiturs)?
Does the author avoid using words ambiguously?
Has the author followed the format and style requirements of the journal to which
he/she is submitting?
Is the paper's use of headings appropriate?
Ditto paragraphs?
Copy editing is concerned with such matters of language as punctuation, grammar,

spelling, hyphenation, and following bibliographical style.
What is the cost involved?

You would need to discuss costs with the editor concerned who is only likely to give a
quote if you send a paper by email. Costs, however, are likely to be quoted by the hour or
by the page, and may vary from 18/20 per hour (the lower end) through 25-35 per
hour up to 50 to 100 per hour (for very highly technical work).
If the editor works 'on screen', the rate will be higher one editor charges 10 per 400
word page for a paper edit and 15 for an on-screen edit, while a telephone discussion to
resolve issues would cost 50 per hour. The amount of time varies too one 'average' is
given as 175 for a 'standard' 15 page article, and estimates vary between 3-4 hours to 812 hours.
The following professional societies' websites should provide some guidance, but
remember that this is essentially for relatively straightforward work:
Society of freelance proofreaders and editors

National Union of Journalists Book branch
It is generally worthwhile to gain an idea from the editor what level of work will be
undertaken, and how thoroughly the person will edit.
"Editors are expensive especially if you are working in a country with a weaker
currency than your editor's. (This is true for most non-European academics trying to hire
editors in the UK.) Most of my clients do not pay for their editing out of their own
pockets, but get the assistance of their university or another funding agency, and such
funds are usually available if the author knows to whom they should make such enquiries
at their university.
In e-mailing for an estimate of how much the editing will cost, you should attach the
document to be edited so that the editor can see how much work is required.
Do not try to haggle with editors or to try to use guilt ('I'm just a poor academic') in order
to intimidate the editor into reducing the quoted price most editors are struggling to
make ends meet as well. If they take jobs for less than their usual rate, they may lose
money. Treat editors as you would treat other professionals, and as you would like to be
treated if you were in such a position.
You should be prepared to pay the editor immediately upon receiving their work."
Dr Lynne Murphy
What else to expect

Most editors will consider it important to allow what is called the 'author's voice' , i.e. the
authentic style of the author, to show through, and it should also be remembered that
much of the language may be intrinsic to the specific academic discipline rather than to
natural, spoken English.
"I attempt to keep the author's style, as far as possible, although I try to draw his attention
to what I would consider would be inappropriate styles for the destined publication, with
suggestions for improvement. I find that many EFL authors [those to whom English is a
freign language] may write a part of a paper in one verbal tense and suddenly switch to
another tense. In cases like this, I suggest whichever is the more appropriate. For
example, if writing for Popular Science, I would suggest a more informal present tense
style, whereas the British Medical Journal would exact more formal scientific paper style
writing. This has to be agreed beforehand between the author and the editor."
Brian W. Ellis
Specialist in scientific editing based in Cyprus
"I always remain non-intrusive for general editing, but when I feel that something is
unclear or should be changed, I draw the attention of the writer to this and make
suggestions in UPPER CASE. The author also then has the option of discussing these
with me."
Dr Brian Bloch
Specialist German-English editor/translator
The editor will also check the format and style of the journal to which you are submitting
so make sure you provide this information. (You can also save money by checking this
yourself.)
The same goes for references so you will save considerable time and money if you do
that yourself see our How to.. use the Harvard reference system guide.
You should not expect your editor to solve all your English problems! You may well find
that they need to contact you to resolve queries, caused by ambiguities in the English.
"Often with well-written EFL, there are subtle changes of meaning that may not actually
be intended. For example, if I see the word 'anxiety' written by a French speaker, it could
cover a range of meanings from 'anxit', 'inquitude', 'apprhension' or 'angoisse', all of
which are found as equivalents in dictionaries. For the meaning to be clear, I would need
to know the original word or, at least, what the author had in mind, so that I could qualify
the noun with an appropriate adjective, if necessary (or select a different word). An editor
cannot second-guess an author, if he is to do a good job, and my experience dictates that
such subtle changes are often more time-consuming than the poor quality original,
especially as the author is more likely to wish to debate terminology or phraseology,
simply because he has a better knowledge of English to start with."
Brian W. Ellis
Specialist in scientific editing based in Cyprus
"You should not expect that the paper will be ready to submit to the journal/publisher on
the day that you receive it back from the editor. In most cases, the editor will have written
some queries regarding sections of the paper that were ambiguous or contradictory or that
could use further information that the editor could not provide. Attending to such matters
will often take a couple of days."
Dr Lynne Murphy
When should you contact an editor?

The general advice from Emerald is first to contact the editor informally with a working
draft and the promise to tidy up the English, but to get the English sorted out before
entering the more formal, peer-reviewed publishing process. Note the following
comment, where it is suggested that it may be a waste of time to get a relatively clear
manuscript edited when its content may change as a result of editorial or peer review.
"If one is faced with a fairly good article, which obviously needs a bit of polishing but is
generally quite clear, I have been inclined to say, '"This is good enough for an editor to
make a judgement. Don't spend money on it now', so that the author can make sure they
only spend money on the final version. It would be expensive to have a lot of correction
done on an 8,000 word article, and then have the editor insist that 3,000 words are cut. In
several cases I have advised that the authors check whether the editor is interested in the
topic, and that they say they will have the English revised for the final version.
The other thing that one often faces is an article with reviewers' comments with very
specific suggestions for revision elaboration of the methodology section or more
developed conclusions are the most common which I cannot do anything about without
more information from the author. Why had they chosen to do it this way, or which of the
possible conclusions do they favour? If I start editing at that point, I am going to get
involved in a lengthy (costly) exchange with the author trying to pull the information out
of them. I would normally suggest that they answer those very specific questions before I
begin, so that I have everything that I need for a final edit before I start.
Thinking about it, I think that I am more than likely to refuse to edit the first version of
the article I am sent between those that I suggest are good enough for an editor to
decide whether they are interested in the article in principle, and those that I ask for more
information before I can start."
Professor David Turner
Editor based in Wales
Some editors will also recommend a final edit before submission.

Book resources
If you are using English regularly as a means of communication, you need to get good
reference books, in particular a grammar and a dictionary.
Dictionaries
You will obviously need a dictionary which translates your own language into English,
but you will also need a good English-English dictionary.
The type of dictionary you use will be determined by where the journal for which you are
writing is based.
If writing for an American-based journal, use Merriam-Webster's Dictionary,

which is also available online free.
If you are writing for a UK- or Australian-based journal (and that includes
Emerald), use the Oxford English Dictionary.
The Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors is an invaluable and relatively
inexpensive tool which is invaluable for checking the spelling of awkward words, as well
as other issues of language usage such as spelling and capitalization.
Grammars
Practical English Usage

Michael Swan
Oxford University Press, 2005 (3rd edition), ISBN-10: 019442099
An alphabetical guide to the most common problems of English grammar.
Oxford Guide to English Grammar
John Eastwood
Oxford University Press, 1994, ISBN-10: 0194313514
A basic English grammar, organized according to parts of speech.
Fowler's Modern English Usage
R.W. Burchfield
Oxford University Press, 2004 (3rd edition), ISBN-10: 0198610211
A more detailed alphabetical guide to English grammar.
Website resources
There are a large number of writing sites, many of them compiled by universities anxious
to give their foreign students help with academic English. Much of this advice is geared
to undergraduates, but there is still some useful advice. We have selected the best of
them, together with other relevant sites, and the details are below. If you know of any
others which you have found particularly useful, please do not hesitate to contact us.
In this section
General features of academic writing

Writing on research papers
General language
Grammar
Online dictionaries
Bibliographic referencing
Portal and gateway sites
General features of academic writing
Online Writing Lab (OWL)

One of the first Internet writing resources, this site is the work of Purdue
University Online Writing Lab, and contains some very high quality handouts on
a range of subjects from placement of the comma to writing research papers and
non-sexist language.
University of Hertfordshire Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for
International Students
This is an excellent resource written by Andy Gillett. The sections on "Features of
academic writing" and "Rhetorical functions in writing" may be particularly
useful, as are the sections on punctuation and spelling.
University of Toronto Advice on Academic Writing
Again addressed to undergraduate assignments, but looks fairly comprehensively
at logic, style, grammar, etc.
The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison
An excellent set of resources again aimed at students but providing a useful
resource on grammar, as well as advice on writing clearly.
The University of Victoria Writers' Guide
Useful advice on paragraphs, sentence construction.
The Writing Centre at Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute
Mainly scientific writing, but has some sections on language use.
Goldsmiths University of London Resources for English Academic Literacies
A highly useful site looking mainly at all types of language issues.
Advanced Composition for Non-Native Speakers of English eslbee.com
Has a page on 'advanced academic composition'.
Writing on research papers
Scitext Cambridge
Includes a useful article on how to compose a scientific paper the term
'scientific' is used in the most general sense of research.
Youngstown State University Guidance on Writing Research Papers
One of the few resources actually on research papers. Takes one through the
whole process from formulating the question to editing.
General language
William Strunk's Elements of Style

Dating from 1918, this is one of the classics of guides to grammar and style, set
out as a series of rules.
bartleby.com
This site takes well-known reference books on English usage, such as Fowler,
American Heritage Book of English Usage, and provides a search facility. Quite
why they use the 1908 version of Fowler is a mystery, and their pop-up ads are
irritating, but other than that they provide a very useful site.
Common errors
A useful reference work where you can check usage/spelling.
Grammar
Guide to grammar and writing

A good online source of grammar information, accessed by means of drop-down
menus.
Jack Lynch Guide to Grammar and Style
Very well set out with alphabetical organization, easy to check common 'difficult
words', e.g. is it alot or a lot?
Internet Grammar of English
Written for undergraduates by the English Department of University College
London, but a useful resource for anyone interested in grammar.
Online Writing Lab (OWL)
A very useful generic site (see above), which contains a lot of information
specifically on punctuation, capitals and spelling, parts of speech, and English as
a second language.
Hong Kong Polytechnic University English Language Centre
This is an 'English for Academic Purposes' site, but it contains some very useful
sections on usage, grammar and sentence construction.
University of Hertfordshire Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for
International Students
Has excellent sections on punctuation and spelling, as well as general advice (see
above).
Online dictionaries
www.voycabulary.com
This site acts as an online dictionary in the sense that it converts words on
websites into links with online dictionaries.
Websters online
A free online dictionary.
Bibliographic referencing
How to... use the Harvard reference system

See our How to... guide for information and links to various other sites.
Portal and gateway sites
Cambridge Language Consultants

An editing and consulting services specialising in research publications, this
excellently organized site has pages devoted to writing resources online and in
print.
ELB Brighton
Has useful links to other sites for English for academic purposes.

How to... structure your article

Article Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the purpose of the paper?

Ways of organizing a paper
The body of the paper
Writing the conclusion
What is the purpose of your paper?

"We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acic (DNA). This
structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest."
(Francis Crick and James Watson,
introducing their seminal 1953 Nature paper on the double helix)
One of the most common faults of research papers is that they fail to communicate a
sense of purpose, and how they extend the boundaries of knowledge. The most important
thing that a writer can do when thinking about writing is to write a purpose statement,
covering:
What is the significance of the paper?

Why is it important and original?
Who will be interested, who is the intended audience?
What next: what are the implications for practice, what are the further research
questions?
The purpose statement belongs close to the start of the article, but should also be central
to the article's composition. It will help you develop the article's structure, and provide a
focus as you weave in salient facts and discard others. All subsequent points should be
related to the development of this purpose statement.
Examples of purpose statements

The aim of this paper is to develop a holistic model of customer retention, with specific
emphasis on the repurchase intentions dimension, incorporating service quality and price
perceptions, customer indifference and inertia. The holistic approach in the study reported
here is distinct from most past studies on this topic that focussed on a single determinant
of customer retention, namely service characteristics. The hypothesized relationships are
tested using data from a large-scale survey of the telecommunication industry.
(Chatura Ranaweera and Andy Neely,"Some moderating effects on the service qualitycustomer retention link", International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, Vol. 23 No. 2)
Are most leadership behaviours universal? Or, are there exceptions across country and
corporate cultures? This study aims to answer these important questions. Our aim is to
highlight any generalizability concerns that may arise due to American-centric
researchers and their leadership theories. By taking a global perspective, researchers and
managers can be more confident with their understanding of what leadership means and
how leadership works in various national settings.
(Karen Boehnke, Nick Bontis, Joseph J. DiStefano and Andrea C. DiStefano,
"Transformational leadership: an examination of cross-national differences and
similarities", Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, Vol. 24 No. 1)
In this paper, we will critically reflect on the assumptions and assertions of the human
resource-based view of the firm. The human resource-based view of the firm is limited in
its unambiguous, instrumental, and rationalistic conceptualization of the relationships
between the HRM practices, the HR outcomes in terms of knowledge, skills and
commitment, and the success of the organization. Our critique is directed towards the
utilitarian and formal/technical assumptions of this view, since it reduces human beings
to "human resources". In our opinion, this view represents the "standard system-control
frame of reference of much management thinking" (Watson, 2002, p. 375). We argue that
such a conceptual model does not do justice to the complexity of human beings and their
functioning in organizational processes. In particular, the approach neglects the
ambiguities, irrationalities, and emotions that characterize the usual practice in
organizational change (Carr, 2001; Downing, 1997).
The purpose of this article is to sketch the outlines of a more differentiated approach
towards the contribution HRM can make to organizational change, an approach which
corresponds to a process-relational perspective, and one which "acknowledges the
pluralistic, messy, ambiguous and inevitably conflict-ridden nature of work
organizations" (Watson, 2002, p. 375). Such a conceptual model pays more attention to
both the rational and instrumental considerations and the emotional needs and desires that
influence processes of organizational change. We base our approach on the core elements
of the relational theory of emotions (Burkitt, 1997). This view helps us in understanding
the complex functioning of human beings in the processes of organizational change (see,
for example, Albrow, 1992; Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995; Downing, 1997; Duncombe
and Marsden, 1996; Fineman, 2000; Pedersen, 2000 ). According to the relational theory
of emotions, the actions and intentions of a person do not only stem from their rationality,
but they are always and inextricably bound up with the emotions he or she has.
Furthermore, emotions are viewed as being both individual characteristics and features of
the power-based relationships between people involved in organizational change. In
particular, we will focus on emotions as elements of implicit, so-called "hegemonic",
power processes, which function as subroutines in the daily practices of organizations.
Hegemonic power processes may induce the organizational members to consent to
prevalent organizational views and to accept their insertion into organizational practices,
despite the possible disadvantages these practices might pose for them (Benschop and
Doorewaard, 1998; Doorewaard and Brouns, 2003).
(Hans Doorewaard and Yvonne Benschop, "HRM and organizational change: an
emotional endeavour", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 16 No. 3)
Purpose statements and thesis statements

Sometimes, you may wish to write a paper which develops a particular thesis, in which
case your statement of purpose will be more a "thesis statement" one that does not
merely state coverage but which also sets out an argument.
The following is an example of a "thesis statement" from a practitioner article about the
survival of high tech companies, expressed in succinct and rather journalistic fashion.
Example of a thesis statement

Our premise: only high-tech companies that align their business models with the
hypercompetitive future one in which horizontal, not vertical, business models offer
strategic advantage will succeed. Those that don't will falter.
(Vivek Kapur, John Peters and Saul Berman, "High-tech 2005: the horizontal,
hypercompetitive future", Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 31 No. 2)
A thesis statement should be precise, and focussed enough for all related points to be
considered in the article. As with a purpose statement, it should be kept in mind at all
points during the writing of the article, and may well change as the writing progresses.
In many cases, a series of hypothesis statements will be developed, perhaps as a result of
a literature review.
The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin-Maddison has useful handouts on
thesis statements:
Thesis and purpose statements

Developing a thesis statement
They are aimed at undergraduates, but are clearly set out.
The introduction
The purpose statement sits withing the introduction: what else should of the introduction
contain? The latter's purpose is not merely to set out the paper's main aims, but also to
provide context: why the topic is important and what it contributes to the body of
knowledge, background to the research, what the structure of the paper will be, what
made you decide to research this topic/write the article?
Look at the following articles and the way that they set out their introductions and
provide a context for the purpose statement.
Examples of introductions
In "HRM and organizational change: an emotional endeavour" (Hans
Doorewaard and Yvonne Benschop, Journal of Organizational Change Management,
Vol. 16 No. 3), the authors preface their purpose statement with a paragraph about the
importance of the human-resource based view of the firm for the organization as a whole
and for the field of organizational change.
Victor H. Vroom, in "Educating managers for decision making and leadership"
(Management Decision, Vol. 41 No. 10), provides a particularly strong example of an
article which states why the research was important to him, starting with an account of
how he became interested in follower behaviour and participation as a graduate student.
"Children's visual memory of packaging" (James U. McNeal and F.Ji Mindy, Journal of
Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 3) starts by reminding us how biassed consumer
research is to the verbal rather than the visual, as a jumping off point for his own
research.
"On the use of 'borrowed' scales in cross-national research" (Susan P. Douglas and Edwin
J. Nijssen, International Marketing Review, Vol. 20 No. 6) considers the use of a research
tool, and starts by describing the interest that there has been in cross-national and multicountry research, as a preface to describing the ways in which constructs and scales are
transported without due consideration of equivalence.
Clyde A. Warden et al., in "Service failures away from home: benefits in intercultural
service encounters" (International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 14 No.
4), provide a novel way of setting the context by quoting a service encounter from Jules
Verne's Around the World in 80 Days.
How long should the introduction be?

Opinions vary over this some say 500-700 words, others two pages. All in all, the
introduction should be long enough to develop the purpose statement and set out the
background to the topic, but should not overwhelm, or be out of proportion to, the rest of
the paper.
When should the introduction be written?

There is a school of thought which says that the introduction should be written last, along
with the conclusion. However, the purpose statement should be the kernel of the work
and should be written first, and it is also useful to set out the context of the article. It is
probably wise to write the introduction first, because the introduction sets out your stall,
as it were, and then revisit it as you write.
Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/structure.htm?part=1

on Saturday November 19th, 2011
Ways of organizing a paper

One of the most difficult aspects of writing anything is the organization of material, and
research papers are no exception. This section presents some very general tips on creating
a structure.
Organization can be represented as a flow chart of processes which consider a series of
ever decreasing perspectives on the article:
The article's purpose was considered in the previous section. It should always be the
cornerstone of the article and should be borne in mind at all points to prevent
aimlessness.
What are the main ideas?

Brainstorm the main ideas relevant to your article. Include within this ideas from the
literature, which may be background material or which may also be used to develop
hypotheses.
Having done this, look at the main themes that emerge in your notes and group them into
major sections. You could try using some organizational device such as colour coding
your notes, or index cards. The following questions may be important:
Why is the topic significant?

What background material is relevant?
How is it relevant to my thesis/purpose statement?
Which are the more important points?
How can these ideas be grouped?

It is a good idea to create an outline of your paper before you start generating the text, so
that you have a blueprint. This could be a very rough draft or it could be a series of notes
on index cards. Either way, you should by this stage have the main headings, and the
main topics within the headings, so that you know where your article is going.
Writing a paper is like stringing pearls to make a necklace. There is an optimum order for
these pearls to form a paper, and some pearls are better left out.
(Kwan Choi, Editor, Review of International Economics, "How to publish in top
journals")
There are a number of ways of organizing your material.
John A. Sharp, John Peters and Keith Howard refer to the "stimulus-response" pattern of
writing, quoting Monroe, Meredith and Fisher's 1977 book The Science of Scientific
Writing:
Question-Answer
When you generate a question in writing, the reader will expect you to answer the
question soon.
Problem-Solution
If you present a problem the reader will expect a solution or an explanation of why no
solution is forthcoming.
Cause-Effect, Effect-Cause
Whether you have mentioned a cuase first or an effect first, once you have mentioned
one, the reader will surely expect you to mention the other.
General-Specific
When you make a general statement, the reader will expect to be supplied with specifics,
which clarify, qualify or explain the general statement.
John A. Sharp, John Peters and Keith Howard, in The Management of a Student Research
Project (Gower, 3rd ed., 2002)
If you look at Emerald articles, you will see a number of different structures, for example:
describing the development of a research project, from literature background to

methodology to findings and discussion
chronological, describing developments over a period of time
developing a number of hypotheses, and using these to develop a thematic
structure for the article.
Whatever your method of organization, it needs to be logical and appropriate to your

material.
How can the main sections be broken into sub-headings?

By this stage you will know what your main sections are; the next task is to structure
your material within the major sections. Here, the task is basically very similar to
organizing material into main headings: select, and group, the main ideas within the
sections. You will probably want to organize material into subheadings within the main
sections: subheadings help you develop the logical flow of your material, and also act as
sign posts to your reader.
Here are a couple of examples of articles which make particularly good use of headings:
"A comprehensive system for leadership evaluation and development" (Larrson et

al., Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 24 No. 1).
"Children's visual memory of packaging" (James U. McNeal and F. Ji
Mindy, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 3).
Note that Emerald requires that headings be short, clearly defined and not numbered.
Are there smooth transitions between paragraphs?

Lastly, check that within sections there is a smooth flow of ideas. If the purpose statement
is the foundation of the article, its paragraphs are the bricks that make its construction
sound. Paragraphs are described in the "Use the paragrah effectively" section of our How
to... write more simply guide, and should always be concerned with the development of a
topic or theme. Paragraphs should also develop and flow from one another, without too
many awkward breaks in the sense, or non sequiturs with abrupt changes in topic without
explanation.

The body of the paper

The body of the paper is where you recount the interesting facts of the research, after you
have set the scene and before you sum up the latter's implications.
John A. Sharp and Keith Howard, in The Management of a Student Research Project
(Gower, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 195), propose the following logical order for a research report:
1. Introduction
2. Survey of prior research
3.
4.
5.
6.
Research design
Results of the research
Analysis
Summary and conclusions
A similar approach could be taken in a research article.

Emerald articles containing research usually follow a similar structure:
Literature review
Research methodology or approach
Findings
Literature review
It is important to remember that an article is not the same as a dissertation: you should
not cite all possible references on the topic but only those that are relevant to your
research or approach. The literature review is not exhaustive; it is part of the setting of
context. Bear in mind the following:
Quote those papers from which your own research follows.

Make it clear what the position was prior to your own paper, and how your paper
changes it.
Make sure that the papers you cite are relatively recent.
Cite only your own articles in so far as they are directly relevant to your
research/approach.
Cite papers of potential referees, explaining the significance of the work to your
own analysis.
Once you have decided which articles are really important, create a "package" and
have the articles to hand as you write.
A common approach is to use the literature to develop a series of hypotheses, which are
in turn used to develop a new framework or as a determiner of the research objective.
Example
"Children's visual memory of packaging" (James U. McNeal and F. Ji Mindy, Journal of
Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 3) is an example of an article which takes such an
approach.
Research methodology/approach
If you have done empirical research, you need to state your methodology clearly and
under a separate heading. The methodology should:
indicate the main methods used
demonstrate that the methodology was robust, and appropriate to the objectives.
Focus on telling the main story, stating the main stages of your research, the methods
used, the influences that determined your approach, why you chose particular samples,
etc. Additional detail can be given in Appendices.
Examples
Efthymios Constantinides, in "Influencing the online consumer's behaviour: the Web
experience" (Internet Research, Vol. 14 No. 2), presents the results of a review of the
issue of online customer behaviour from 48 academic papers. He describes the majority
characteristics in terms of time of publication, journal, etc. rather than giving a detailed
list.
"Some moderating effects on the service quality-customer retention link" (Chatura
Ranaweera and Andy Neely, International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, Vol. 23 No. 2), describes the stages in research, the methods (including
prior studies and their impact on use of the methods), the sample and how it was selected,
and a brief description of the instrument (greater detail is given in the Appendix). Again,
the focus is on the main details in so far as they lend weight to the credibility of the
research.
4), describe the pretest, including the research that influenced the approach, and the
actual survey, with essential details of the instrument, measure, and participants.
James U. McNeal and F.Ji Mindy, in "Children's visual memory of packaging" (Journal
of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 3), describe the two studies they did to test the
hypotheses developed through their literature survey. The first was a content analysis of
cereal packets; the method of determining the packages is described, as is the coding
criteria for content analysis. The second was a study of children drawing cereal boxes; the
rationale for use of this technique is given, and the sample, procedure and coding
approach are all described.
In the case of a theoretical paper, where you are not actually reporting on research which
you did, but perhaps putting together other people's research and developing it into a
hyphothesis or framework, you will still need some sort of section on methodology which
details the criteria you used in selecting your material. Alternatively, you will need to
show how researches in literature lead you to derive new conclusions.
Findings
As with the methodology, focus on the essentials, the main facts and those with wider
significance, rather than giving great detail on every statistic in your results. Again, tell
the main story: what are the really significant facts that emerge? Your section on results
may well include one on discussion of the significance of the findings.
Examples
Efthymios Constantinides, in "Influencing the online consumer's behaviour: the Web
experience" (Internet Research, Vol. 14 No. 2), summarizes the main issues of web
experience for the online consumer under the main headings which they found to be
important in the literature, in such a way both researcher and practitioner can get a good
idea of the main themes.
In "Some moderating effects on the service quality-customer retention link" (Chatura
Ranaweera and Andy Neely, International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, Vol. 23 No. 2), the authors describe their results, and the statistical tests
they ran, in sufficient detail to give several pages of discussion on their results.
4), start their discussion of results by stating what they included in the analysis only
those service failures that were equally represented in both cultural settings. The
statistical tests (ANOVA, Chi-square) are discussed in relation to how they impact on the
study's overall objectives. The results are linked back to the hypotheses.
James U. McNeal and F. Ji Mindy, in "Children's visual memory of packaging" (Journal
of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 3), present the results of their study summarized
according to relevance to visual memory. There is also an extensive discussion section.
Appendices
The purpose of an appendix is to contain material which is important to give a full
understanding of the topic of the paper, but which is too cumbersome to be given in the
text; to do so would disrupt the reader's train of thought. If material is relatively short, it
can be integrated into the text. If in doubt, study the examples given, and also other
examples from the journal you are hoping to publish in.

"It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately
suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
(Francis Crick and James Watson
concluding their seminal 1953 Nature paper on the double helix)
The conclusion should summarize the main state of play at point of writing and look
forward to the future. Here are some do's and don'ts:
Do:
summarize and conclude, restating the main argument, and presenting key
conclusions and recommendations
state how your findings/new framework, etc. apply to the world of practice
state what are the implications for further research
say to what extent your original questions have been answered
state the limitations of your research.
Don't:
start a new topic or introduce new material

repeat the introduction
make obvious statements
contradict anything you said earlier.
As Emerald's philosophy is based on the idea of research into practice, most journal
editors and reviewers are particularly keen on a statement of implications for the
practitioner. This statement, along with one describing the implications for further
research, should be within the conclusion somewhere, either within a section heading
"Conclusion" or "Discussion", or in a separate section. Obviously in some cases it may
not be possible to make such statements, but all research papers should state implications
for research, and most papers will have implications for practice.
Examples
Dean Neu et al., in "The changing internal market for ethical discourses in the Canadian
CA profession" (Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 16 No. 1), close a
review of ethics in the accountancy field with a summary of the key findings of their
analysis, a discussion of how the work complements existing work, the limitations of the
research, and summary remarks on the contemporary dilemmas of accountants: "We
would like to close by suggesting that we have entered a period in which accountants are
being forced to live a twin life, one that encompasses the globally competitive, but
equally integral, moral individual."
Allen Edward Foster and Nigel Ford, in "Serendipity and information seeking: an
empirical study", (Journal of Documentation, Vol. 59 No. 3), summarize findings in
bullet points, then talk about the need for further triangulated studies.
J. Nijssen, International Marketing Review, Vol. 20 No. 6) also has a lengthy section on
the implications for further research.
Clyde A. Warden et al., "Service failures away from home: benefits in intercultural
4), conclude their research on intercultural exchanges in the area of service by
summarizing their findings, and their are sections on the management implications
(apologizing for poor service) and business strategy implications (need for training).
In "Transformational leadership: an examination of cross-national differences and
similarities" (Karen Boehnke et al., Leadership and Organizational Development
Journal, Vol. 24 No. 1), there is a section "Discussion" on their research findings which is
full of obversations for practice; the "Conclusion" starts: "One executive's remark can
summarize the content of all the reports: 'key learnings from this experience were that a
clearly focused, committed organization with strong visible leadership can accomplish
what might otherwise be seen to be the impossible!'".


"It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately
suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
(Francis Crick and James Watson
concluding their seminal 1953 Nature paper on the double helix)
The conclusion should summarize the main state of play at point of writing and look
forward to the future. Here are some do's and don'ts:
Do:
summarize and conclude, restating the main argument, and presenting key
conclusions and recommendations
state how your findings/new framework, etc. apply to the world of practice
state what are the implications for further research
say to what extent your original questions have been answered
state the limitations of your research.
Don't:
start a new topic or introduce new material

repeat the introduction
make obvious statements
contradict anything you said earlier.
As Emerald's philosophy is based on the idea of research into practice, most journal
editors and reviewers are particularly keen on a statement of implications for the
practitioner. This statement, along with one describing the implications for further
research, should be within the conclusion somewhere, either within a section heading
"Conclusion" or "Discussion", or in a separate section. Obviously in some cases it may
not be possible to make such statements, but all research papers should state implications
for research, and most papers will have implications for practice.
Examples
Dean Neu et al., in "The changing internal market for ethical discourses in the Canadian
CA profession" (Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 16 No. 1), close a
review of ethics in the accountancy field with a summary of the key findings of their
analysis, a discussion of how the work complements existing work, the limitations of the
research, and summary remarks on the contemporary dilemmas of accountants: "We
would like to close by suggesting that we have entered a period in which accountants are
being forced to live a twin life, one that encompasses the globally competitive, but
equally integral, moral individual."
Allen Edward Foster and Nigel Ford, in "Serendipity and information seeking: an
empirical study", (Journal of Documentation, Vol. 59 No. 3), summarize findings in
bullet points, then talk about the need for further triangulated studies.
J. Nijssen, International Marketing Review, Vol. 20 No. 6) also has a lengthy section on
the implications for further research.
Clyde A. Warden et al., "Service failures away from home: benefits in intercultural
4), conclude their research on intercultural exchanges in the area of service by
summarizing their findings, and their are sections on the management implications
(apologizing for poor service) and business strategy implications (need for training).
In "Transformational leadership: an examination of cross-national differences and
similarities" (Karen Boehnke et al., Leadership and Organizational Development
Journal, Vol. 24 No. 1), there is a section "Discussion" on their research findings which is
full of obversations for practice; the "Conclusion" starts: "One executive's remark can
summarize the content of all the reports: 'key learnings from this experience were that a
clearly focused, committed organization with strong visible leadership can accomplish
what might otherwise be seen to be the impossible!'".

How to... write an abstract

Article Sections
1. What is an abstract?
2. Some examples of abstracts
3. How not to write an abstract
In this section
A definition
How to go about the writing process
Instructions for writing a structured abstract for Emerald
Instructions for writing a structured abstract for Emerald Emerging Markets Case
Studies
Tips for writing abstracts for conference papers
What is an abstract?
A definition
An abstract is a succinct summary of a longer piece of work, usually academic in nature,
which is published in isolation from the main text and should therefore stand on its own
and be understandable without reference to the longer piece. It should report the latter's
essential facts, and should not exaggerate or contain material that is not there.
Its purpose is to act as a reference tool (for example in a library abstracting service),
enabling the reader to decide whether or not to read the full text.
Two common reasons for writing an abstract are
1. to summarize a longer piece of work published as a journal article, thesis, book or
web page, an existing article for the purposes of a journal,
2. or to submit an application to write a paper for a conference.
In both cases, you will be given specific guidelines as to how to write the abstract
including a maximum word count from either the relevant publisher or the organizer of
the conference; those for Emerald are set out below. Conference papers are usually
selected on the basis of abstracts: see tips below.
How to go about the writing process

1. Start by writing a statement of the paper's purpose, which should be as succinct as
possible. If you include background keep this to a minimum and only include
such information as to provide a context.
2. Summarize the paper, reporting its main facts. Remember the following points:
o Follow the chronology of the paper and use its headings as guidelines.
o Do not include unnecessary detail, as in the first example in "How not to
write an abstract".
o You are writing for an audience "in the know" you can use the technical
language of your discipline or profession, providing you communicate
your meaning clearly, and bear in mind that you are writing to an
international audience.
o Make sure that what you write "flows" properly, that there are "connecting
words" (e.g. consequently, moreover, for example, the benefits of this
study, as a result, etc.) and/or the points you make are not disjointed but
follow on from one another.
o Use the active rather than the passive voice, e.g. "The study tested" rather
than "It was tested in this study".
o The style of writing should be dense, and sentences will probably be
longer than usual.
3. You should by now have a draft, which will probably be too long. Here are some
points to remember in cutting:
o cut out any unnecessary words that do not add to the meaning, but
o make sure that the abstract is not so "cut" as to be unreadable; use full
sentences, direct and indirect articles, connecting works, etc. An abstract
should use continuous prose, not notes.
4. Read through your draft, making sure that it covers the main points listed above,
and that there are no grammatical, spelling or typographical errors, also that it
"flows" properly.
5. If possible, get a colleague to read through your abstract as a form of "peer
review".
6. Submit!
If you have difficulty with the general purpose statement or with summarizsing your
article, it may be because the article's general concept is not that clear, or perhaps your
research design or approach needs revisiting.
Instructions for writing a structured abstract for Emerald

Emerald has introduced a new format for article abstracts intended to help researchers by
consistently providing the most useful information. Each abstract is made up of a number
of set elements. An example is provided at the foot of this page.
1. Write the abstract

To produce a structured abstract for the journal and Emerald database, please complete
the following fields about your paper. There are four fields which are obligatory
(Purpose, Design/methodology/approach, Findings and Originality/value); the other three
(Research limitations/implications, Practical implications, and Social implications) may
be omitted if they are not applicable to your paper.
Abstracts should contain no more than 250 words. Write concisely and clearly. The
abstract should reflect only what appears in the original paper.
Purpose
What are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?
Design/methodology/approach
How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research. What
is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper?
Findings
What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or
results.
Research limitations/implications (if applicable)
If research is reported on in the paper this section must be completed and should include
suggestions for future research and any identified limitations in the research process.
Practical implications (if applicable)
What outcomes and implications for practice, applications and consequences are
identified? How will the research impact upon the business or enterprise? What changes
to practice should be made as a result of this research? What is the commercial or
economic impact? Not all papers will have practical implications.
Social implications (if applicable)
What will be the impact on society of this research? How will it influence public
attitudes? How will it influence (corporate) social responsibility or environmental issues?
How could it inform public or industry policy? How might it affect quality of life? Not all
papers will have social implications.
Originality/value
What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.
2. Using keywords
Using keywords is a vital part of abstract writing, because of the practice of retrieving
information electronically: keywords act as the search term. Use keywords that are
specific, and that reflect what is essential about the paper. Put yourself in the position of
someone researching in your field: what would you look for? Consider also whether you
can use any of the current "buzzwords".
3. Choose a category for the paper

Pick the category which most closely describes your paper. We understand that some
papers can fit into more than one category but it is necessary to assign your paper to one
of the categories these are listed and will be searchable within the database:
Research paper. This category covers papers which report on any type of
research undertaken by the author(s). The research may involve the construction
or testing of a model or framework, action research, testing of data, market
research or surveys, empirical, scientific or clinical research.
Viewpoint. Any paper, where content is dependent on the author's opinion and
interpretation, should be included in this category; this also includes journalistic
pieces.
Technical paper. Describes and evaluates technical products, processes or
services.
Conceptual paper. These papers will not be based on research but will develop
hypotheses. The papers are likely to be discursive and will cover philosophical
discussions and comparative studies of others' work and thinking.
Case study. Case studies describe actual interventions or experiences within
organizations. They may well be subjective and will not generally report on
research. A description of a legal case or a hypothetical case study used as a
teaching exercise would also fit into this category.
Literature review. It is expected that all types of paper cite any relevant literature
so this category should only be used if the main purpose of the paper is to
annotate and/or critique the literature in a particular subject area. It may be a
selective bibliography providing advice on information sources or it may be
comprehensive in that the paper's aim is to cover the main contributors to the
development of a topic and explore their different views.
General review. This category covers those papers which provide an overview or
historical examination of some concept, technique or phenomenon. The papers are
likely to be more descriptive or instructional ("how to" papers) than discursive.
New! Instructions for writing a structured abstract for Emerald

Emerging Markets Case Studies
Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies is a new product launch for 2011. Emerald has
introduced a new format for teaching case study abstracts intended to help researchers by
consistently providing the most useful information. Each abstract is made up of a number
of set elements. There is an example abstract in section 2 of this guide.
1. Write the abstract

To produce a structured abstract for Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, please
complete the following fields about your paper. There are five points that need to be
covered in the case study structured abstract, and two further optional points, all listed
below.
Subject area of the case

Student level and proposed courses the case can be used on
Has this case been used previously, and if so, with what student level and on what
courses? If this case hasnt been previously used, what audience do you see
benefiting most from it?
Brief overview of the case

What are the main points of the case? What is the argument you are trying to
make?
Expected learning outcomes
What should readers of this case get out of it?
List of supplementary materials
For example teaching notes (which should be included in every case study), class
exercises, etc.
Optional:
List of further reading materials

Multimedia accompaniment to the case (e.g. audio, visual files)
Abstracts should contain no more than 250 words. Write concisely and clearly. The
abstract should reflect only what appears in the original paper.
2. Using keywords
Using keywords is a vital part of abstract writing, because of the practice of retrieving
information electronically: keywords act as the search term. Use keywords that are
specific, and that reflect what is essential about the paper. Put yourself in the position of
someone researching in your field: what would you look for? Consider also whether you
can use any of the current "buzzwords".
Tips for writing abstracts for conference papers

The difficulty here is that you will probably be writing the abstract as a preamble to the
actual paper, rather than subsequent to it. Here are some points to remember:
1. Clarify in your own mind what is the purpose of the paper: what it is that you are
going to do.
2. Look carefully at the themes of the conference: note those that apply and frame
your paper accordingly.
3. Very often, the submission procedure will dictate the format and the number of
words of the abstract. For example:
o Title
o Name of presenter, contact details
o Category of presentation (e.g. workshop, research paper, short paper,
poster etc.)
o Conference themes addressed.
o Keywords that will help people deciding whether or not to participate to
understand its focus.
o Objectives/intended outcomes and activities for participants
o The abstract.
4. Stick closely to the length given. You will often have no choice in this matter,
because if you submit electronically you will find yourself cut off in mid sentence
as you reach the required limit.
5. When writing the abstract, ask yourself the following questions:
o What is the purpose of my paper? This should, as with any abstract, be a
general definition statement about the objectives of your paper.
o What approach am I using? I.e. am I reviewing the literature, describing a
case study, supporting a research hypothesis, and if the latter, what is my
research design and research methodology?
o What are my findings?
o What is the import of my findings?
6. Choose your keywords carefully, making sure that they match the themes of the
conference.
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Some examples of abstracts

Below find some examples of structured abstracts for the various categories of Emerald
articles. The keywords are also listed. Note that we have deliberataley chosen older
articles so that you can compare the structured abstracts supplied below with the
unstructured abstracts required at the time of publication (just click on the article link).
Structured abstract examples in this section
Literature review
Case study
Conceptual paper
Research paper
General review
Example of a structured abstract for Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies
Example of a structured abstract for a literature review

Surviving and thriving in academia:
a selective bibliography for new faculty members
Deborah Lee
Reference Services Review
Vol. 31 No. 1
Literature review
Purpose
To provide a selective bibliography for graduate students and new faculty members with
sources which can help them develop their academic career.
A range of recently published (1993-2002) works, which aim to provide practical advice
rather than theoretical books on pedagogy or educational administration, are critiqued to
aid the individual make the transition into academia. The sources are sorted into sections:
finding an academic job, general advice, teaching, research and publishing, tenure and
organizations.
Findings
Provides information about each source, indicating what can be found there and how the
information can help. Recognises the lack of real training of many academics before they
are expected to take on teaching/researching duties and finds some texts which help.
Research limitations/implications
It's not an exhaustive list and apart from one UK book all the rest are US publications
which perhaps limits its usefulness elsewhere.
Practical implications
A very useful source of information and impartial advice for graduate students planning
to continue in academia or for those who have recently obtained a position in academia.
Originality/value
This paper fulfils an identified information/resources need and offers practical help to an
individual starting out on an academic career.
Keywords: Bibliography, Higher education, Teachers, Academic staff, Research,
Publishing
Examples of structured abstracts for case studies

Cash to accrual and cash to accrual:
a case study of financial reporting in two NSW hospitals 1857 to post-1975
Julie E.M. Scott, Jill L. McKinnon and Graeme L. Harrison
Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal
Vol. 16 No. 1
Case study
Purpose
This study traces the development of financial reporting in two publicly funded hospitals
in New South Wales over the period 1857 to post-1975, with particular focus on the use
of cash and accrual accounting.
The historical analysis draws on process and conceptual change and stakeholder theory,
and uses both primary and secondary data,
Findings
to describe patterns of change (and non-change) in the hospital's financial reporting and
to identify the social and political influences associated with such reporting.
Originality/value
This study provides historical context for recent developments in public sector reporting
and accountability in Australia, particularly the (re)introduction of accrual accounting,
and provides insights into the nature of accounting change both in public sector
organisations and generally.
Keywords: Public sector accounting, Financial reporting, Hospitals, Accounting history,
Analysis, Stakeholders, Australia
A comparative analysis of vertical integration in the UK brewing and petrol

industries
Gary Cook
Journal of Economic Studies
Vol. 24 No. 3
Case study
Purpose
Looks fundamentally at the reasons for vertical integration. Specifically addresses the
question of why vertical integration and close contractual equivalents have arisen in the
petrol and brewing sectors of the UK.
Reports the results of a comparative case study. Considers the ability of power and
efficiency explanations to account for both the current pattern of vertical integration and
its changes over time.
Findings
Principally concludes the following: the recent history of vertical integration is better
accounted for by efficiency rationales in the case of petrol and by market power in the
case of brewing. Nevertheless, elements of both are present in each industry.
particularly the (re)introduction of accrual accounting, and provides insights into the
nature of accounting change both in public sector organisations and generally.
Originality/value
Given the strong similarity in vertical and horizontal industry structure between these
sectors, this implies that a case by case approach is preferable to a form-based approach.
Keywords: Brewing industry, Petrol, Transaction costs, Vertical integration
Example of a structured abstract for a conceptual paper

The changing internal market for ethical discourses in the Canadian CA profession
Dean Neu, Constance Friesen and Jeffery Everett
Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal
Vol. 16 No. 1
Conceptual paper
Purpose
Starting from the premise that formal ethical codes and other ethical discourses differ in
their audiences, effects and characteristics, analyses how practitioner-directed ethical
discourses have spoken and continued to speak about character-based ethics.
Borrowing from the literature on professions and Pierre Bourdieu's theory of practice,
starts from the assumption that editorials in practitioner-orientated publications are a form
of cultural good traded on an internal symbolic market. By providing access to symbolic
capital, trade in this good acts to bind together members of the accounting profession, yet
trade in this good also has the potential to obscure a number of important, underlying
social issues. The study is based on a close (textual) reading of editorials in the Canadian
Chartered Accountant (subsequently renamed CA Magazine) from 1911 to 1999, and this
reading is framed in the light of a number of macro-level and meso-level (contextual)
changes.
Findings
It is found that character-based ethical discourses continue to pervade this professional
field.
Originality/value
These discourses, however, do not continue without important changes that themselves
need to be explained in light of the more widespread, non-professional field.
Keywords: Accountants, Ethics, Professionalism, Canada
Example of a structured abstract for a research paper

Structuring international service operations: a theoretical framework and a case
study in the IT-sector
Bert Meijboom and Migon Houtepen
International Journal of Operations & Production Management
Vol. 22 No. 8
Research paper
Purpose
The specific challenges with which companies pursuing international manufacturing
strategies are faced, if their output also contains a service dimension, are addressed.
A theoretical framework is proposed based on three virtually complementary perspectives
by integrating international production, demand, and contemporary ICT-based theory.
Subsequently, an exploratory case study in a pure service environment is described that
illustrates the value of the framework.
Findings
It is possible, for example, to apply the theoretical framework to case studies in
internationally-operating companies delivering a mix of goods and services.
Research limitations/implications
The present study provides a starting-point for further research in the international
manufacturing sector.
Originality/value
Moreover, the framework has proven to be useful in improving the European structure of
the case company. This is a notable and promising side-effect of the exploratory study, at
least from a managerial point of view.
Keywords: Multinationals, Service operations, Location, Decision making, Case studies
Example of a structured abstract for a general review

Prioritising for healthy schools activities:
an initial review exercise
Fenella Starkey and Judy Orme
Health Education
Vol. 100 No. 4
General review
Purpose
This paper focuses on one aspect of Health Promotion Service Avon's Schools for Health
Project 1997/98, which is the development, implementation, analysis and evaluation of an
initial review questionnaire completed by teachers, non-teaching staff, parents and pupils.
This provided a baseline audit tool in 13 schools.
The initial review questionnaire covered topics within the areas of environment, school
ethos, staff and pupil wellbeing, curriculum and community.
Findings
Benefits arising from the initial review exercise identified by schools included: giving all
school members the chance to put their views across; engaging people in the project and
raising awareness of the school's involvement in the project; and giving legitimacy to
concerns raised informally by staff.
The importance of ensuring that any questionnaire given to non-teaching staff and pupils
is "jargon-free" and "user-friendly" was highlighted by some of the teachers involved.
Originality/value
Helped schools to identify areas for development via the project.
Keywords: Schools, Evaluation, Health, Education, Assessment
Example of a structured abstract for Emerald Emerging Markets Case

Studies
Subject area of the case
Strategy
Student level and proposed courses the case can be used on
This case has been used previously in strategy modules on MBA courses at China
European Business Schools and Yonsei University, Korea.
Brief overview of the case
Oracle Corporation (Oracle), the second largest independent software company in the
world, was the first software multinational company (MNC) tapping into the China
market. In 1991, it established its first branch office in China, Beijing Oracle Software
System Company Ltd. (Oracle China). As a first mover in the rapidly developing Chinese
software market, Oracle maintained a fairly strong growth in the 1990s by adopting a
flexible localization strategy. As China played an increasingly important role in the AsiaPacific region, or even globally, Oracle decided to place close attention to the emerging
market and take measures to tighten the screws on Oracle China. Soon, Oracle Greater
China was added as a new level to the managerial hierarchy. In 2002, Oracle launched the
Golden China Initiatives, and Soon Choo Loke, the former Regional Managing Director
of Oracle South Asia who was well known for his cast-iron will and tough working style,
was appointed Regional Managing Director of Oracle Greater China.
Expected learning outcomes
This case is the basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate either effective or
ineffective handling of an administrative situation. From this case MBA students will
learn how to make strategic decisions based on market insight information.
List of supplementary materials
Teaching notes and exercise for class based discussion
Keywords
Oracle, China, strategic, decision

How not to write an abstract: examples of poor abstracts

What is an abstract? One of the best ways of learning to write good abstracts is to look at
other people's mistakes. Review the three abstracts below, and compare your reactions to
our own comments.
Abstract 1
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) is an area which is rapidly expanding amongst
Higher Education institutions as the power of available hardware rises facilitating new
and innovative HE teaching and learning environments. The University Institute of
recently allocated funds to stimulate a learning technology program which was generally
intended to impinge on all 4 Faculties within the insititution. Each faculty was asked to
bring forward, software development schemes and bids for equipment and other,
necessary resources such as human resources, consumables, etc. The purpose of this
paper is to describe the experience of a team of academics in the Department of French,
School of Modern Languages within the Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Studies
at the University Institute of in the development of a Computer-assisted learning software
program. Funding was made available from a central source to develop and implement a
software program to assist French language learners to acquire vocabulary in "an
innovative and measurably effective manner". The software was implemented and tested
on a cohort of level 2 students who had, in general, studied French for 8 years, and staff
and students were consulted with regards to their reactions.
Permission to use this article is granted by Professor Gabriel Jacobs at the University of
Swansea
Comments on Abstract 1
Half the abstract is taken up with unnecessary background information about the funding.
The full title of the department is unnecessary detail. All this is very wordy, and doesn't
relate to what the paper is about. The "purpose" statement could be rephrased: "This
paper describes the evaluation of a piece of software designed to assist the acquisition of
French vocabulary with a group of level 2 students". There needs to be more description
of the methodology how many students? How was the testing done? What, precisely,
was evaluated? What were the findings, and what are the implications of the findings?
The language used is vague what is meant by "other, necessary resources such as
human resources, consumables, etc.", what was "demonstrably efficient" about the style
of learning? What was the nature of the consultation with staff and students? There are
also a number of grammatical errors, e.g. commas in the wrong places (substantiate,
software development). "Mock posh" language is used, i.e. the reference to academics
(don't need to use this word unless differentiating from administrators). In short, the
abstract contains much information which is of only marginal importance, and merely
repeats, almost word for word, what is in the body text; the syntax and punctuation is
often defective, verbose and trying too hard to write in an "academic" manner. True of
much of the paper.
Abstract 2
Reviews the manufacturing and processing challenges involved in the later stages of the
manufacture of large area full frontal wire mesh coating and describes some of the
techniques employed by CSW Packaging Solutions.
This abstract is far too short and does not provide enough information about the paper. It
describes the purpose of the paper and its main subject but gives us nothing on what was
done (method) or on results. Specifically, it could have listed the "techniques" mentioned,
provided some of the key criticisms and then gone on to implications for practice, i.e.
recommendations.
Abstract 3
In this article, research as "mass media" (Lerhmann) is appraised. "Videocy" or videoed
research results are examined. A form of video research with its roots in action research,
Cabalistic methodology and oral anthropology is reported on. The counterparts it
produces, wherein disclosure loops are used to produce an effect similar to the
fractalizations of reality, achieves a powerful simulation of reality. But is it a
"responsible" form of (research) practice?
We are given the paper's purpose but nothing about the methodology and it doesn't
explain the scope of the study. It's too short and last but not least, it leaves us with a
question!! No summary or results or conclusions are given. An abstract shouldn't be like
an advertisement or cliff hanger in a TV serial. The language is abstruse, it's not long
enough, and out of context it's fairly meaningless.


How To Write Effectively

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How To Write Effectively

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How to write effectively

How to... write a book chapter

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How do book chapters and journal articles differ?

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/book_chapter.htm?

The publishing process

The submission process

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/book_chapter.htm?

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/book_chapter.htm?

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/book_chapter.htm?

How to... collaborate on writing an article

Writing articles from large collaborative projects

Writing articles from large collaborative projects

Working in a multi-disciplinary environment

number of publications, e.g. five

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Smaller scale collaborations and working with PhD students

Smaller scale collaborations with one other researcher

Smaller scale collaborations with one other researcher

what your research approach is: having different approaches can be a

Collaboration with PhD students

Student: First draft, literature review, findings

Collaboration with practitioners

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/collaborate.htm?

Writing the article: planning, communicating and working on

roles and responsibilities

Conference calls: an excellent way of getting a group of dispersed people

Writing the drafts

Organizing the mechanics of draft-writing is as important as deciding who does what. It

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Who comes first? Settling the order of the contributors

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/collaborate.htm?

How to... write more simply

Developing a coherent argument

Developing a coherent argument

Good introductions and conclusions

Establish the importance of the research area.

Some things to avoid

Don't use undefined terms

Use analogies with care

Avoid faulty logic

Make explanations coherent

Make effective transitions

Likewise, in the same way, similarly, in comparison

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Using the paragraph effectively

What makes a paragraph?

Implicit links: making ideas develop

The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

Keywords can be repeated in several sentences

Using linking words and phrases.

Here's the example again, with our notes in square brackets.

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Using the paragraph effectively

What makes a paragraph?

Implicit links: making ideas develop

generated by observation are quantitative or qualitative in nature depends on whether the

Keywords can be repeated in several sentences

Using linking words and phrases.

Here's the example again, with our notes in square brackets.

Printed from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/simply.htm?part=2 on

Writing clear sentences

Use the active voice rather than the passive voice