HORMONES OF THE PANCREAS

 The pancreas secretes:

 Digestive enzymes
 Four hormones
○ Insulin
○ Glucagon
○ Somatostatin
○ Pancreatic polypeptide
 Insulin and glucagon are involved in CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
 Somatostatin is involved in LOCAL REGULATION OF INSULIN AND GLUCAGON
SECRETION
 Pancreatic polypeptide affects GASTROINTESTINAL SECRETION
-Pancreatic Polypeptide
 Contains 36 amino acids
 Produced by the F cells of the pancreas
 Secretion is INCREASED during:
 High-protein diet
 Fasting
 Exercise
 Acute hypoglycemia
 Secretion is DECREASED by somatostatin and intravenous infusion of glucose
 Function: UNKNOWN
-Insulin
 A protein secreted by the β cells of the islets of Langerhans
 Has been isolated and crystallized
 Crystalline insulin
 Contains a small amount of ZINC
 Small amounts of CHROMIUM are needed for the synthesis of insulin
 Amount of chromium in the body decreases with age
 It increases the rate of oxidation of glucose
 Facilitates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver and muscles
 Increases the synthesis of fatty acids, protein, and RNA
 Decreases blood sugar to its normal fasting level
 HYPERGLYCEMIA
 If the islets of Langerhans are underactive or degenerated = little or no insulin is
produced
 Associated with diabetes mellitus
 DIABETES MELLITUS
 Blood sugar level is increased
 Glucose appears in urine
 Ketone bodies are formed accompanied by acidosis
 Insulin can NOT cure diabetes
 It is NOT taken ORALLY
 Given by subcutaneous injection
  must be given 2 or 3 times a day to a patient with diabetes mellitus
 PROTAMINE ZINC INSULIN
 Insulin is combined with protamin
 Utilized much more slowly
 Effective for more than 24 hrs.
 One injection daily
 Insulin is degraded primarily in the LIVER and KIDNEYS
 Enzyme: glutathione insulin transhyroxylase
 1 ml sterile solution contains 100 units of insulin
 1 unit of insulin can reduce the blood sugar level of a normal 2-kg RABBIT after a 24-hr
fast from 120 to 45 mg per 100ml
 Certain HYPOGLYCEMIC SUBSTANCES lower the blood sugar level
 Effective in adult diabetes and NOT juvenile diabetes
 Function: stimulates the β cells of the islets of Langerhans to produce insulin
 Examples:
 Glyburide (Micronase)
 Troglitazone (Rezulin)
 Metformin (Glucophage)
 Have many side effects
-Glucagon
 Former name: HYPERGLYCEMIC GLYCOGENOLYTIC FACTOR (HGF)
 Gave the hyperglycemic effects from CRUDE INSULIN
 Has been isolated and crystallized
 A polypeptide containing 29 amino acids in a single chain
 Has a different arrangement of amino acids than insulin
 Contains NO disulfide bridges
 Contains methionine and tryptophan (absent in insulin)
 Does NOT contain cysteine, proline, and isoleucine (present in insulin)
 Formed in the α cells of the islets of Langerhans
 Significant amounts also come from the A cells in the stomach and other parts of the GIT
 Causes an increase in the sugar content of the blood
 Stimulates PHOSPHORYLASE ACTIVITY in the liver
 Increases the formation of cAMP
 Activates phosphorylase
 Increases the glucose content of the blood
 Causes hyperglycemia
 Stimulates the formation of glucose from amino acids (gluconeogenesis)
 Increases the release of potassium ions from the liver
 Increases the breakdown of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
 Has been used to treat:
 Hypoglycemic effects due to an overdose of insulin
 Insulin shock
 Used in the diagnostic test for glycogen storage disease
HORMONES OF THE THYROID GLAND
 THYROID GLAND
 H-shaped
 Consists of one lobe on each side of the trachea with a piece of tissue connecting
the two lobes
 Weight: approximately 25 to 30 g in adults
 Filled with many small follicles that contain COLLOID
 Contains the thyroid gland’s hormones
 The only endocrine gland in the body that is capable of storing appreciable
amounts of hormones
 Contains IODINE à necessary for the proper functioning of the body
 2 forms of iodine in the body:
 Iodide ions and thyroid hormones
 HORMONES of the thyroid gland:
 Regulate the metabolism of the body
 Affect the growth and development of the body
 Methods for evaluating activity
 old and indirect (replaced already)
 Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
 Protein-bound iodine (PBI)
 Butanol-extractable iodine (BEI)
 New, direct and stable
 Radioimmunoassay methods
 COLLOID of the thyroid contains
 THYROGLOBIN / THYROGLOBULIN
 A glycoprotein
 Liberates the principal thyroid hormones; TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
and THYROXINE (T4)
 T3 is the major active form of the thyroid hormone and is 3 to 5 times as biologically
active as T4.
 Mono- and diiodothyronine are formed but quickly deiodinated in the bloodstream
 CALCITONIN (THYROCALCITONIN)
 Produced in the C cells in the thyroid gland
 Regulates calcium ions in the blood
 Prevents calcium ion concentration from rising above the required level
 Pure calcitonin
 1st isolated in 1968; structure was determined shortly thereafter
 This is a polypeptide containing a single chain of 32 amino acids
  Produces its effect by inhibiting the release of calcium ions, from the bone to the
blood
 Its release is stimulated by high levels of Ca2+ in the blood
 MEDULLARY THYROID CARCINOMA
 A disorder of the C cells of the thyroid
 Causes an abnormally high production of calcitonin
 HYPOTHYROIDISM
 A condition in which the thyroid gland does not manufacture sufficient thyroxine
for the body’s needs
 Usually caused by a lack of iodine in the diet
 May also be due to a disease of the thyroid gland or to its congenital absence
 Symptoms:
 Sluggishness
 Weight gain
 Slower heartbeat
 Reduced metabolic rate
 Loss of appetite
 Remedy: use iodized salt; use of synthetic thyroid hormones
 CRETINISM
 The thyroid gland is absent or fails to develop in an infant
 CRETIN
 Name of the individual with this condition
 Has greatly retarded growth (physically and mentally)
 Usually abnormal dwarves with coarse hair and thick dry skin
 Obese with protruding abdomens
 Underdeveloped mentally and sexually
 Remedy: give thyroid hormones
 If thyroid gland atrophies after an individual reaches adulthood:
 Same symptoms of cretinism appear
 but Individual remains adult in size
 MYXEDEMA
 Development of thick, coarse, dry skin
 Cured by admission of thyroxine
 People are sluggish, have lower pulse and metabolic rate and lower
body temperature and are frequently anemic. They are also very
sensitive to cold.
 SIMPLE GOITER
 aka COLLOID GOITER or ENDEMIC GOITER
 A condition in which the thyroid gland enlarges
 Due to lack of iodine in the diet
 The decreased production of thyroid hormones causes an increased production of
TSH, which overstimulates the thyroid gland
  Accompanied by a definite increase in the amount of colloid material in the
thyroid gland
 Neck size increases
 HASHIMOTO’S DISEASE
 A type of hypothyroidism in which all aspects of the thyroid function may be
impaired
 Caused by an attack on the thyroid gland by the body’s own immune system
 HYPERTHYROIDISM
 Occurs when the thyroid gland produces excess thyroxine
 Symptoms:
 Increased metabolic rate
 Bulging of the eyes (exophthalmos)
 Nervousness
 Loss of weight
 Rapid, irregular hearbeat
 Elevated body temperature
 Also called GRAVE’S DISEASE, BASEDOW’S DISEASE or
EXOPHTHALMIC GOITER
 May also be due to a tumor in the thyroid gland (TOXIC ADENOMA or
PLUMMER’S DISEASE)
 Control or cure:
 Surgical removal of part of the thyroid gland
 Oral administration of radioactive iodine
 Use of antithyroid drugs
 Hypertrophy of the endocrine glands à toxic adenomas with a malignant
potential if not treated promptly.

HORMONES OF THE PARATHYROID GLAND

 There are 4 small parathyroid glands attached to the thyroid gland
 Reddish brown in humans
 Total weight: 0.05 to 0.3 g
 Early experimental Thyroidectomies (removal of the thyroid glands) inadvertently
removed the parathyroid glands, causing the death of animals
 Parathyroid hormone:
 Influences the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the body
 A polypeptide chain with 84 amino acids
 CANNOT be stored in the parathyroid gland
 Synthesized and secreted continuously
 Administration of VIT. A decreases parathyroid hormone
 HYPOPARATHYROIDISM
 Caused by the surgical removal of the parathyroid glands
 Symptoms:
 Muscular weakness
  Irritability
 Tetany
 There is a decrease in the calcium content of the BLOOD PLASMA
 Death à due to convulsions
 Calcium content in URINE decreases
 Phosphate content of the PLASMA increases
 Treatment: (relieve the symptoms)
 Vitamin D
 Calcium salts
 Or both
 There is a decrease in the calcium content of the BLOOD PLASMA
 Death à due to convulsions
 Calcium content in URINE decreases
 Phosphate content of the PLASMA increases
 Treatment: (relieve the symptoms)
 Vitamin D
 Calcium salts
 Or both
 HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
 An increase in the production of hormones by the parathyroid glands
 Usually caused by a tumor of those glands (parathyroid adenoma)
 Symptoms:
 Decalcification of bones
 Deformation and fractures of the bones
 Nausea
 Polyuria
 Deposits of calcium occur in soft tissues
 Renal stones frequently occur
 Calcium content of the BLOOD PLASMA is high and the phosphate content is
low
 Extra calcium in the blood is obtained from the bones
 Urine calcium, phosphate and cAMP are increased
 Treatment:
 Surgical removal of the tumor of the parathyroid glands