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Less Maintenance cost 1 To high responsibility To reduce the fatigue of workers To reduce
the work load To increase the efficiency of the vehicle To reduce man power To achieve
high safety 1. CHAPTER-1 1. INTRODUCTION Automation can be achieved through computers,
hydraulics, hydraulics, robotics,etc., of these sources, hydraulics form an attractive medium.
Automation plays animportant role in automobile. Nowadays almost all the automobile vehicle
is beingatomized in order to product the human being. The automobile vehicle is being
atomizedfor the following reasons:
2. 2. CHAPTER-2 2. LITERATURE SURVEY2.1 PNEUMATICS: The word pneuma comes from Greek
and means breather wind. The wordpneumatics is the study of air movement and its
phenomena is derived from the wordpneuma. Today pneumatics is mainly understood to
means the application of air as aworking medium in industry especially the driving and
controlling of machines andequipment. Pneumatics has for some considerable time between
used for carrying out thesimplest mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more
important role in thedevelopment of pneumatic technology for automation. Pneumatic systems
operate on a supply of compressed air which must be madeavailable in sufficient quantity and
at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. Whenthe pneumatic system is being adopted
for the first time, however it wills indeed thenecessary to deal with the question of compressed
air supply. The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means
usingreciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a
certainpressure and delivered the air at a high pressure. Compressor capacity is the actual
quantity of air compressed and delivered and thevolume expressed is that of the air at intake
conditions namely at atmosphere pressureand normal ambient temperature. The
compressibility of the air was first investigated by Robert Boyle in 1962 andthat found that the
1.

product of pressure and volume of a particular quantity of gas. The usual written as PV = C (or)
PV = P2V2 2
3. 3. In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressured which for free is about 14.7Psi and is
of courage capable of maintaining a column of mercury, nearly 30 inches highin an ordinary
barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the mostlyused system now a
days.2.2 SELECTION OF PNEUMATICS: Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of
manual effort bymechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost
mechanizationparticularly for sequential (or) repetitive operations. Many factories and plants
alreadyhave a compressed air system, which is capable of providing the power (or)
energyrequirements and the control system (although equally pneumatic control systems may
beeconomic and can be advantageously applied to other forms of power). The main advantage
of an all pneumatic system are usually economic andsimplicity the latter reducing
maintenance to a low level. It can also have out standingadvantages in terms of safety.2.3
PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR: Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air,
which must be madeavailable. In sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of
the system. Whenpneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills indeed
thenecessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply. The key part of any facility
for supply of compressed air is by means usingreciprocating compressor. A compressor is a
machine that takes in air, gas at a certainpressure and delivered the air at a high pressure.
Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered and thevolume
expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere pressureand normal
ambient temperature. Clean condition of the suction air is one of the factors,which decides the
life of a compressor. Warm and moist suction air will result in 3
4. 4. increased precipitation of condense from the compressed air. Compressor may beclassified
in two general types: 1. Positive displacement compressor. 2. Turbo compressor Positive
displacement compressors are most frequently employed forcompressed air plant and have
proved highly successful and supply air for pneumaticcontrol application. The types of positive
compressor 1. Reciprocating type compressor 2. Rotary type compressor Turbo compressors
are employed where large capacity of air required at lowdischarge pressures. They cannot
attain pressure necessary for pneumatic controlapplication unless built in multistage designs
and are seldom encountered in pneumaticservice.2.4 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS: Built for
either stationary (or) portable service the reciprocating compressor is byfar the most common
type. Reciprocating compressors lap be had is sizes from thesmallest capacities to deliver
more than 500 m/min. In single stage compressor, the airpressure may be of 6 bar machines
discharge of pressure is up to 15 bars. Dischargepressure in the range of 250 bars can be
obtained with high pressure reciprocatingcompressors that of three & four stages. Single stage
and 1200 stage models are particularly suitable for pneumaticapplications , with preference
going to the two stage design as soon as the dischargepressure exceeds 6 bar , because it in
capable of matching the performance of single stagemachine at lower costs per driving powers
in the range . 4
5. 5. CHAPTER-3 3. FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS The various factors which
determine the choice of material are discussed below.3.1 Properties: The material selected
must posses the necessary properties for the proposedapplication. The various requirements to
be satisfied can be weight, surface finish,rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack
from chemicals, service life, reliabilityetc. The following four types of principle properties of
materials decisively affect theirselection a. Physical b. Mechanical c. From manufacturing point
of view d. Chemical The various physical properties concerned are melting point,
ThermalConductivity, Specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity,
electricalConductivity, Magnetic purposes etc. The various Mechanical properties Concerned
are strength in tensile, compressiveshear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue
resistance, impact resistance, elasticlimit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity, hardness,
wear resistance and slidingproperties. 5

6. 6. 3.2 Manufacturing Case: Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or
surface qualitiesobtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may demand the
use ofspecial materials.3.3 Quality Required: This generally affects the manufacturing process
and ultimately the material. Forexample, it would never be desirable to go for casting of a less
number of componentswhich can be fabricated much more economically by welding or hand
forging the steel.3.4 Availability of Material: Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It
then becomes obligatory forthe designer to use some other material which though may not be
a perfect substitute forthe material designed. The delivery of materials and the delivery date
of product should also be kept inmind.3.5 Space Consideration: Sometimes high strength
materials have to be selected because the forces involvedare high and the space limitations
are there.3.6 Cost: As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays
animportant part and should not be ignored. Some times factors like scrap utilization,
appearance, and non-maintenance of thedesigned part are involved in the selection of proper
materials. 6
7. 7. Dynamic Compressors 7 Positive Displacement Compressor Rotating Plates4.1.1AIR
COMPRESSOR: The main function of the air compressor is to compress the air up to the
requiredpressure. The maximum capacity of the compressor is 103105 to 12 3105 N/m2. This
is atwo stages or two-cylinder reciprocating air compressor. The two cylinders are for lowand
high compression. The air pressure is measured at various places by the use ofpressure
gauges. V-belt and pulley are used to drive the compressor. Compressors can be broadly
classifieds into two groups. They are: Vehicle model frame Wheel arrangement Bearing
with bearing cap Flow control valve Connecting hoses Cylinder Direction Control Valve
Air compressor CHAPTER-4 4. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION4.1 MAJOR PARTS: The major
parts PNEUMATIC THREE AXIS MODERN TIPPER are describedbelow:
8. 8. 4.1.1.1Positive Displacement Compressor: Successive volumes of air isolated and then
compressed to a higher pressure.There are essential two forms of positive displacement
compressor, reciprocating androtary.4.1.1.2Dynamic Compressors: These are rotary continuous
machines in which a high speed rotating elementaccelerates the air and converts the resulting
velocity head into pressure. Positive displacement compressors work on the principle of
increasing the pressure ofa definite volume in an enclosed chamber. Dynamic (turbo)
compressor employs rotatingvanes or impellers to impart velocity and pressure to the flow of
the air being handled.The pressure comes from the dynamic effects such as centrifugal
force.4.1.2 PRESSURE GAUGE: Pressure gauge is used for measuring the outlet pressure of air
from thecompressor. The gauge used is Bourdon type pressure gauge. The maximum capacity
ofthis gauge is 10 3105 to 12 3105 N/m2. The gauge is fitted at the outlet of the
aircompressor.4.1.3 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES:4.1.3.1 Pneumatic valves: The pneumatic
cylinder is regulated and controlled by pneumatic valves. Thesevalves are actuated manually,
mechanically, electrically, pneumatically, and by variouscombined mode of actuation. 8
9. 9. 4.1.3.2Need of Valves: DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES To control the to and fro motion
ofcylinder, the fluid energy has to be regulated, controlled and reversed with apredetermined
sequence in a pneumatic system. Similarly one may have to control the quantity of pressure
and flow rate togenerate the desired level of force and speed of actuators. To achieve these
functions,valves are used. Valves are fluid power elements used for controlling and regulating
theworking medium. The main functions of the valves are: Start and stop the fluid energy
Control the direction of flow of compressed air Control the flow rate of the fluid Control the
pressure rating of the fluidAlthough various types of valves are available, they are mainly
classified as below: Direction control valves Direction control check valves Flow control
valves Pressure control valves The main purpose of a valve in a pneumatic circuit is to
control outputs. Valvescan be divided into a number of groups according to what they
control.4.1.3.3 Directional control valves: Directional control valve on the receipt of some
external signal, which might bemechanical, electrical or a fluid pressure pilot signal, charges

the direction of or stops, orstarts the flow of fluid in some part of the pneumatic/hydraulic
circuit. 9
10. 10. Rotary actuators are used to move an object in a circular path. Rotary actuators are the
fluid power equivalent of an electric motor. 10 Linear actuators can be divided into two
types.They are: 1. Single acting cylinders 2. Double acting cylinders A single acting cylinder is
powered by fluid for the movement of the piston in onedirection with it being returned in the
other direction by an internal spring or an externalforce, a double acting cylinder is powered by
fluid in both directions. Linear actuators are used to move an object or apply a force in a
straight line. 4.1.3.4 Pressure Control Valves: These are used to control the pressure in part of
the pneumatic/hydraulic circuit.4.1.3.5 Flow Control Valves: These are used to control the rate
of flow of a fluid through the valve. A directional control valve on the receipt of some, external
signal, which might bemechanical, electrical or a fluid pilot signal, changes the direction of
stops, or starts theflow of fluid in some part of the pneumatic/hydraulic circuit. They can be
used to carryout such functions as: 1. Controlling the direction of motion of an actuator 2.
Selecting alternative flow paths for a fluid. 3. Stopping and starting the flow of fluid.Carrying
out logic functions such as AND, OR, NAND4.1.3.6 Actuators: An actuator is a device that is
used to apply a force to an objectFluid power actuators can be classified into two groups:
11. 11. 4.1.4 PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS: Cylinders are the one, which offers the rectilinear motion to
mechanical elements.Cylinders are classified as light, medium, and heavy duty with respect to
theirapplication.4.1.4.1Single Acting Cylinders: In this type, the cylinder can produce work only
in one direction. The returnmovement of the piston is effected by a built in spring or by
application of an externalforce. The spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position
with a sufficientlyhigh speed. Types of single acting cylinders: Diaphragm cylinder Rolling
diaphragm cylinder4.1.4.2Double Acting Cylinder: The force exerted by the compressed air
moves the piston in two directions ina double acting cylinder. They are used particularly when
the piston is required toperform work not only on the advance movement but also on the
return. In principle, thestroke length is unlimited, although buckling and bending must be
considered before weselect a particular size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke length.
We use cylinders that are double acting type (i.e.) the compressed air can bepassed to either
end of the cylinder. These cylinders are made up of cast iron. 11
12. 12. 4.1.5 SEALS:4.1.5.1 Air Seal: Air seal is used to prevent the leakage of air pressure from the
cylinder. Normallyit is made up of neoprene rubber. If there are any air leakages in the system,
it will reducethe efficiency.4.1.5.2Wiper Seal: Wiper seal is provided at the entrance of the
cylinder to avoid dust materials fromthe environment. It is made up of neoprene
rubber.4.1.5.3O Ring: The O rings are fitted into the grooves of piston to maintain perfect
seal betweenthe piston and the cylinder wall. They are mostly made up of neoprene
rubber.4.1.6 CYLINDER TECHNICAL DATA:Barrel: It is made of cold drawn aluminimum honed to
25mm.Piston Rod: M.S. hard Chrome platedSeals: Nitrile (Buna N) ElastomerEnd Covers: Cast
iron graded fine grained from 25mm to 300mmPiston: Aluminium.Media: Air.Temperature
Range: 0^c to 85^cCushions: Adjustable standard on 400mm bore and above. 12
13. 13. 4.1.7 CONNECTORS: In our system there are two types of connectors used; one is the hose
connector andthe other is the reducer. Hose connectors normally comprise an adapter
(connector) hosenipple and cap nut. These types of connectors are made up of brass or
Aliminium orhardened steel. Reducers are used to provide inter connection between two pipes
or hoses ofdifferent sizes. They may be fitted straight, tee, V or other configurations.
Thesereducers are made up of gunmetal or other materials like hardened steel etc.4.1.8 FLOW
CONTROL VALVE: In any fluid power circuit, flow control valve is used to control the speed of
theactuator. The floe control can be achieved By varying the area of flow through which theair
in passing. When area is increased, more quantity of air will be sent to actuator as a result
itsspeed will increase. If the quantity of air entering into the actuator is reduced, the speedof
the actuator is reduced. 13

14. 14. 4.1.9BEARING WITH BEARING CAP: The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts
because if hammered thebearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upof steel material and
bearing cap is mildsteel. Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines
inorder to minimize friction and power loss. While the concept of the ball bearingdates back at
least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has becomeremarkably sophisticated.
This technology was brought to its p resent state o f perfection onlyafter a long period of
research and development. The benefits of such specializedresearch can be obtained when it is
possible to use a standardized bearing of theproper size and type. However, such bearings
cannot be used indiscriminately without a carefulstudy of the loads and operating conditions.
In addition, the bearing must beprovided with adequate mounting, lubrication and
sealing.4.1.10 WHEEL ARRANGEMENT: The wheels are fitted to the body of the vehicle with the
help of end bearing and bearing caps. The wheels are made up of fiber material.4.1.11 TIPPER
BODY: The tipper body is made up of mild steel sheet metal. This frame is look like a small
model trailer.4.1.12 ROTATING PLATES: The rotating plates are fixed in the bottom the trailer
body, so that the cylinder willrotates in the required side. The plates are made up of mild steel
materials. 14
15. 15. CHAPTER-5 5. BATTERY5.1 INTRODUCTION: In isolated systems away from the grid,
batteries are used for storage of excesssolar energy converted into electrical energy. The only
exceptions are isolated sunshineload such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for
storage. In fact for smallunits with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only
technically andeconomically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and
batteriesare high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with
respectto available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the
storageof solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties: (1)
Low cost (2) Long life (3) High reliability (4) High overall efficiency (5) Low discharge (6)
Minimum maintenance (A) Ampere hour efficiency (B) Watt hour efficiency We use lead acid
battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel forlighting the street and so about
the lead acid cells are explained below. 15
16. 16. 5.2 LEAD-ACID WET CELL: Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid
cell is the type mostcommonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (HSO).
In theapplication of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the
loadcurrent to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of2.1V,
but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V batteryand six for a
12-V battery. The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be
recharged.The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output
voltage,as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive
chargeand discharge currents shortened the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an
automobilebattery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the
highestoutput voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.5.3
CONSTRUCTION: Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a
groupof plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the
electrolyte,consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is
a gridor framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the
activematerial, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell,
aforming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process,the
active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo). The negativeelectrode is
spongy lead (pb). 16
17. 17. 17
18. 18. Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. Theelectrolyte is put
in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from theplates. With
maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normalservice. Some types are
sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for addingwater. The construction parts of

battery are shown in figure (6).5.4 CHEMICAL ACTION: Sulfuric acid is a combination of
hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the celldischarges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode
combines with hydrogen ions toform water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate.
Combining lead on the negativeplate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the
net result of discharge isto produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead
sulfate on theplates. As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids,
retardingcirculation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on
theoutside terminals of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte andsulfating
on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary. On charge, the external
D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. Thereversed direction of ions flows in the
electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemicalreactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive
plate reactive with the water and sulfateions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This
action re-forms the positive platesand makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.
At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to reactwith
hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negativeplate to react
with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to fulloutput, with lead
peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, andthe required
concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. 18
19. 19. The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is ChargePb + pbO + 2HSO 2pbSO + 2HO
Discharge 19
20. 20. 20
21. 21. On discharge, the pb and pbo combine with the SO ions at the left side of theequation to form lead
sulfate (pbSO) and water (HO) at the right side of the equation.One battery consists of 6 cell, each have an
output voltage of 2.1V, which are connectedin series to get an voltage of 12V and the same
12V battery is connected in series, to getan 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof
iron casing box.5.5 CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES: Always use extreme caution when
handling batteries and electrolyte. Weargloves, goggles and old clothes. Battery acid will
burn skin and eyes and destroycotton and wool clothing. The quickest way of ruin lead-acid
batteries is to discharge them deeply and leavethem stand dead for an extended period of
time. When they discharge, there is achemical change in the positive plates of the battery.
They change from lead oxide whencharge out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in
the lead Sulfate State for afew days, some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide
when the battery isrecharged. If the battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the
positive platewill remain lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become sulfate no longer
storeenergy. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular
basiscan fail in less then one year. Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they
aregetting charged. Use a hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acidbatteries.
If batteries are cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specificgravity reading will
be lower than it should because the electrolyte at the top of thebattery may not have mixed
with the charged electrolyte. Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least
four times a yearand top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged
batteries.Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you add water at this
time,and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess. 21
22. 22. Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tightenor
remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause ahydrogen
explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you. On charge, with reverse current through
the electrolyte, the chemical action isreversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the
right side of the equation re-formthe lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO ions
combine with H ions from thewater to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.5.6 CURRENT
RATINGS: Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currentsthey can supply for a
specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintainedabove a minimum level, which is
1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours(A.h.) based on a specific discharge time,

which is often 8h. Typical values forautomobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h. As an example, a
200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, usedon 8h discharge. The battery
can supply less current for a longer time or more current fora shorter time. Automobile
batteries may be rated for cold cranking power, which isrelated to the job of starting the
engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperatureof 0 degree F. Note that the amperehour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s
(1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs.One ampere-second is equal to one
coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or7.2*10^5C. To put this much charge back into
the battery would require 20 hours with acharging current of 10A. The ratings for lead-acid
batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80F.Higher temperature increase the
chemical reaction, but operation above 110F shortensthe battery life. 22
23. 23. Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-hour
capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1 F below normaltemperature
rating. At 0F the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour batteryrating. In cold
weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery untofull charge. In
addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in thedischarged
condition.5.8 CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY: The requirements are illustrated in figure. An
external D.C. voltage source isnecessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging
voltage must be morethan the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the
cell e.m.f. so that the chargingvoltage can produce current opposite to the direction of
discharge current. Note that thereversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery
VB and charging source VGwith + to + and to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is
reversed because thebattery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher than
VB. In thisexample, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-12=3V.
Acommercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,rectifying
input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries. Float charging
refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are alwaysconnected to each other for
supplying current to the load. In figure the charger providescurrent for the load and the current
necessary to keep the battery fully charged. Thebattery here is an auxiliary source for D.C.
power. It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-chargecircuit.
The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driverby a belt from
the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the crankingpower. Once the engine is
running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessaryfor the car to be moving. A
voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the outputat approximately 13 to 15 V. 23
24. 24. The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the chargecontroller
so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery areconnected in series. It
is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show avariation of 0.05 specific
gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge,bringing the battery to a gassing or
bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel typebatteries. With proper care, lead-acid
batteries will have a long service life and work verywell in almost any power system.
Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid batterylife will be very short. 24
25. 25. CHAPTER-6 6. D.C MOTOR6.1 INTRODUCTION: The electrical motor is an instrument, which
converts electrical energy intomechanical energy. According to faradays law of Electro
magnetic induction, when acurrent carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical forcewhose direction is given by Flemings left hand rule.
Constructional a dc generator and a dc motor are identical. The same dc machinecan be used
as a generator or as a motor. When a generator is in operation, it is drivenmechanically and
develops a voltage. The voltage is capable of sending current throughthe load resistance.
While motor action a torque is developed. The torque can produce mechanical rotation. Motors
are classified as serieswound, shunt wound motors.6.2 Principles of operation: The basic
principle of Motor action lies in a sample sketch. Movement of Conductor N S Magnetic flux
current carrying Conductor 25

26. 26. The motor runs according to the principle of Flemings left hand rule. When acurrent
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field is produced to move theconductor away from
the magnetic field. The conductor carrying current to North and South poles is being removed.
In theabove stated two conditions there is no movement of the conductors. Whenever a
currentcarrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The field due to the current in
theconductor but opposes the main field below the conductor. As a result the flux densitybelow
the conductor. It is found that a force acts on the conductor to push the conductordownwards.
If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of the flux linesoccurs below the
conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards. As stated above the coil side A will be
forced to move downwards, where as thecoil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces
acting on the coil sides A and Bwill be the same coil magnitudes, but their directions will be
opposite to one another. InDC machines coils are wound on the armature core, which is
supported by the bearings,enhances rotation of the armature. The commutator periodically
reverses the direction ofcurrent flow through the armature. Thus the armature rotates
continuously. 26
27. 27. An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets tocreate
motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamentallaw of all
magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends
marked north and south, then theNorth end of one magnet will attract the South end of the
other. On the other hand, theNorth end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other
(and similarly south willrepel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling
forces create rotationalmotion. In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in
the motor, thearmature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent
magnet(the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not
tosave power).6.3 Electromagnets and Motors: To understand how an electric motor works, the
key is to understand how theelectromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric
motor. You canunderstand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario.
Say that you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wirearound a nail and
connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have aNorth and South pole
while the battery is connected. Now say that you take your nailelectromagnet, run an axle
through the middle of it, and you suspended it in the middle ofa horseshoe magnet as shown
in the figure below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end
of thenail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: 27
28. 28. The North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of thehorseshoe
magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet. The South end of the
electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nailwould move about half a turn and
then stop in the position shown. You can see that this half-turn of motion is simple and obvious
because ofthe way magnets naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric
motor is tothen go one step further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of motion
completes, thefield of the electromagnet flips. The flip causes the electromagnet to complete
another half-turn of motion. Youflip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the
electrons flowing in thewire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the
electromagnet flipped atjust the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the
electric motor wouldspin freely.The Armature: The armature takes the place of the nail in an
electric motor. The armature is anelectromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or more
poles of a metal core. Thearmature has an axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In
the diagram aboveyou can see three different views of the same armature: front, side and endon. In the end-on view the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more obvious. You
can seethat the commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle. These plates
providethe two connections for the coil of the electromagnet. 28
29. 29. 6.4 The Commutator and brushes: The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is
accomplished by twoparts: the commutator and the brushes. The diagram at the right shows

how the commutator and brushes work together tolet current flow to the electromagnet, and
also to flip the direction that the electrons areflowing at just the right moment. The contacts of
the commutator are attached to the axle of the electromagnet, sothey spin with the magnet. Th
brushes are just two pieces of springy metal or carbon thatmake contact with the contacts of th
commutator.Putting It All Together:When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a
complete electric motor: In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier
to see thecommutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through
thehorizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the North pole of
the electromagnet is always above the axleso it can repel the field magnets North pole and
attract the field magnets South pole. If you ever take apart an electric motor you will find that it
contains the samepieces described above: two small permanent magnets, a commutator, two
bru