Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
BRIJMOHAN REGAR
MBA AGRIBUSINESS
MANAGEMENT
Submitted by
Brijmohan Regar
MBA Agribusiness 2008-2010
This is to Certify that this report is prepared based on the summer internship project
undertaken by me in ASTIF from 10/06/2009 to 24/07/2009, under the prestigious guidance
of Dr. SUNIL SARAN (Sr. Vice Chairman) ASTIF, AMITY UNIVERSITY UTTAR
PRADESH, NOIDA in partial fulfilment of the requirement for award of degree of Master
of Business Administration (Agri. business).
Date ___________________
Dear Sir,
This is to certify that Mr.Brijmohan Regar a student of (Semester & Programme) MBA
(AB), 2nd Semester of your University has undergone a summer internship project with us
under my guidance from 10/06/2009 to 24/07/2009. The project entitled “Identification of
Appropriate Postharvest Technologies for Improving Market Access and Incomes for
Small Horticultural Farmers in and South-Asia.” has been completed by the student to my
entire satisfaction.
Seal of Company
73
9. Conclusion
10. Limitations 74
11. Recommendations 75
12. Appendices 76-82
13. Bibliography 83
First of all, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to MISS. SWATI SHARMA (Faculty)
ABS, Jaipur, for giving me opportunity to do research under her profound guidance.
Because of her inspiring guidance, motivation, positive criticism, continuous
encouragement and untiring supervision this work could be brought to its present shape.
Secondly I acknowledge our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. Sunil Saran (Head
of the organization) for giving us invaluable opportunity to make this project report and
there after providing me constant guidance. I would be thankful to Dr. N. P. Singh
(Director Amity Centre for extension services), Dr. Kuldeep Singh (soil scientist) and Dr. s.
k. roy (Horticulture scientist) for their constant help, guidance and encouragement during
this project, which has been a great learning experience. I also want acknowledge my
colleagues who provide me with time support and inspiration needed to prepare this
project.
I would also like to thank all the members of wholsellers, retailors and farmer who spent
their valuable time to cooperate with me.
I would like to thank all of them who in one way or the other have helped me.
BRIJMOHAN REGAR
India continues to rank as the second largest producer of fruits in the world with an annual
production of 43 million tonnes from an area of 4 million hectares and contributes to more
than 9 per cent of global fruit production.
It also holds analogous status in vegetable production by being the world's second largest
producer with 80.26 million tonnes, next only to China and accounting for about 9.3 per
cent of the world's vegetable production.
Most losses of fresh produce occur between leaving the farm and reaching the consumer.
Losses during this period have been estimated to be about 20% of the total crop. These
losses may be caused by complete wastage of the product or by lower prices due to a
reduction in quality. The cost of these losses is also important as the value of the product
increases several fold from the farm gate to the final consumer, so in dollar terms
postharvest losses are even more significant
COMPANY PROFILE
The production, processing, and distribution of refrigerated and frozen foods continue to achieve new
levels of technological sophistication. To serve the needs of the food industry, warehousing/distribution
specialists must offer the same degree of sophistication plus the scientific background, experience, and
access needed to unravel the complexities of quality maintenance in food preservation. The World
Food Logistics Organization supplies this strategic element to the frozen food chain.
of the world. Founded in 1943 as The Refrigeration Research Foundation (TRRF), the
foundation took its initial support from contributions from refrigerated warehouse
professionals. The name was changed in 1995 to The Refrigeration Research and
Education Foundation (TRREF), to better reflect the increasingly important education
functions of the foundation. In 1999 the name was changed again to more clearly depict
the broad scope of the organization’s work. The foundation then became known as the
World Food Logistics Organization.
WFLO also supports a wide variety of research projects in food science, over 140 in the
past 57 years, on such subjects as food packaging, tempering parameters, temperature
control during transportation, mobility threshold temperatures, refrigeration technology,
and shelf life determination, as well as a computer program for determining freezing
times.
WFLO publishes periodicals and manuals, such as the Commodity Storage Manual, which
contains critical information on the handling and storage of more than 200 different food
products. CSM descriptions cover temperature, humidity, freezing points, storage periods,
shelf life, diseases, disorders, canning, drying, preparation, and processing. Questions
which are not specifically addressed in the CSM can be referred to the WFLO inquiry
service and channeled to a food scientist specializing in the particular commodity.
The WFLO Information Center comprises both physical and virtual materials on
handling temperature-sensitive products, operating a public refrigerated warehouse, and
other related topics. WFLO continues to invest in this important resource, which will
WFLO members have special expertise in the safe and proper handling and storage of
foods throughout what is now called “the cold chain.” WFLO offers an international
education and consultancy program to assist government agencies, companies, and
industries in implementing safe and improved food distribution. WFLO has provided
major support in establishing professional associations of refrigerated warehouse
professionals in China, Japan, and Vietnam and has been recognized by the US
Department of Agriculture for assisting in missions in Brazil, China, the Dominican
Republic, the Philippines, Thailand, and other emerging markets.
INDIA DIVISION
10, Sunder Nagar
New Delhi-110003 India
akhanna@gcca.org
Over view of wflo
Core Partners
Core Partners of the Global Cold Chain Alliance (GCCA) are organizations that are managed
from headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia, USA and supported by the same staff. Members of
Core Partner organizations have direct access to all GCCA services.
International Association of Refrigerated Warehouses (IARW)
IARW excels as the leading association in the world that promotes and supports excellence and
professionalism in the controlled-temperature warehouse and logistics industry by increasing
the knowledge, effectiveness, and image of association members for the benefit of their
customers and society.
Supporting Partners
Supporting Partners are food processors, retailers, and other food companies who desire to have
a corporate relationship with GCCA and its international members and partners. This
relationship empowers them to participate in, and prosper from, the rapid growth of the cold
chain in all regions of the world. Become a Supporting Partner.
• Advance Food Company
• Alexia Foods, Inc.
• Amy's Kitchen
• ConAgra Foods
• Dreyer's/Edy's Grand Ice Cream
• FoodProcessing-Technology.com
• Gorton's Seafood
• Hatfield Quality Meats Inc.
• High Liner Foods, Inc.
• Kellogg's
• Maersk Sealand
• McCain Foods USA, Inc.
• Menu Inspirations
• Perdue Farms
• Pinnacle Foods Corp.
• Ruiz Food Products
• USA Poultry & Egg Export
• White Wave, Inc.
• Wild Flavors, Inc.
Strategic Partners
Trade Press
• The Cold Link
• Food and Drink Quarterly
• Food Logistics
• Fresh Digest
• Frozen Food Age Magazine
• Frozen Food Digest
• Journal of Commerce
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This project was under WFLO (World Food Logistic Organization) which is funded by Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation America. This organization dedicated to the proper handling and
storage of perishable products and the development of systems and best practices for the safe,
efficient, and reliable movement of food to the people of the world. The critical purpose to start
this Project to reduce the post harvest losses and give awareness to farmers to reduce the Post
harvest Losses, which was affecting the farmers at a broad level and they was mute witness for
this losses. The main aim to start this activity was to enhance the productivity as well as
production by decreasing the postharvest losses.
In this training period I briefly studied various types of post harvest losses at wholesell, retailer and
farm levels..Our main objective was to explore the current scenario of quantity and quality losses
of fruits and vegetables after the harvest. For that I have conducted survey at wholesell, retail and
farm level in U.P.region.
For data collection I have used questionnaires and personnel interviews as some shopkeepers and
farmer were not able to answer in writing.
Three different questionnaires were used for wholesalers, retailers and farmers. .In these I have
included 29 questions for farmers, 28 questions for
Wholesalers and 28 questions for retailers. Sample size is 150 total respondents with equal of
farmers, wholesalers and retailers. Various bar graphs and pie charts were used to analyses the
data.
It is found from the research that customers are not much aware about farm gate price and
retailer’s prices so more campaigning is required. Also some other retailers get double price to
customer comparison to farm gate price so there is lot of space between farmers and retailers.
• Iconsider my proud privilege to express deep sence of gratitude to prof. Dr.Kuldeep Singh
for his admirable and valuable guidance , keen interest , encouragement and constructive
suggestions during the course of the project.
•
• I would also like to thanks farm workers, farm owners, dealers, sales person for their valuable
advice, guidence and their service received during completing this work.
• Last, but not the least, I sincerely thank all the members of my department for their immense
support and assistance extended during the course of this project and in making it a valuable
experience.
Company Vision
• The Global Cold Chain Alliance will be the recognized authority in forging a universally
strong cold chain where every product retains quality and safety through each link.
• Company Mission
• The Global Cold Chain Alliance unites partners to be innovative leaders in the
temperature-controlled products industry.
Company Story
• The International Association of Refrigerated Warehouses (IARW) and the World Food
Logistics Organization (WFLO) have an impressive history of serving the food industry
through the twentieth century and the impressive development of refrigeration in the
movement of food products.
• Moving towards and into the twenty-first century, many of these organizations’ members
had found a need to adapt business models in response to an acceleration of changing
global conditions. This response represented an increased integration of the cold chain
industry. This had, in turn, initiated closer relationships among all players in the supply
chain. Developments such as dedicated distribution facilities and public refrigerated
warehouse (PRW) investment in trucking assets bore witness to this trend.
• Three strong influences were changing this industry:
• Increasing integration in the business models of our members—from warehousing to
logistics providers. Refrigerated warehouses have invested in trucking assets and perused
varied arrangements and structures with customers.
• Recognition of international business structures. As we did more work in emerging
economies, we saw that a single company would operate all aspects from food production
to food delivery. In many countries, the third party provider is a developing concept.
• Need for core competencies—maintaining proper temperatures and instilling best
practices. The cold chain had to take on the development of all links from post harvest
handling/processing to retail.
• Discussions on these issues formalized late in 2005 when IARW and WFLO began to
garner support for a bold new initiative from partner organizations the International
• To study the sorting, grading & packaging system in over all supply chain
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION:
PRESENT STATUS
India ranks second in fruits with annual production of 48.57 million tones,
accounting for about 10.3% of total fruit production.
Second largest producer of vegetables next to China, with an estimated
production of about 93.92 million tonnes, 13.5 % of the world.
Among fruits, the percentage of world share in banana is 29%, mango 44% and
papaya 30%.
In vegetable production, India is one of the largest producers of cauliflower
sharing 34% of the world and pea 38% of the world share.
It is estimated that fruit production will touch 98 million tonnes by the year 2020-21 with
vegetable production of 220 million tonnes.
In fact horticultural crops covering only 6.1% of the area under cultivation,
contribute as much as 18.8% of the country’s gross domestic product.
Current scenario
India is the fruit and vegetable basket of the world. India being a home of wide variety of fruits
and vegetables holds a unique position in production figures among other countries. Over 90% of
India's exports in fresh products goes to west Asia and East European markets. However, it needs
to augment its food and processing industry at a mega scale, according to an agriculture
consultant.
Total vegetable production in India before independence was 15 million mt and since
Independence for decades the growth rate was stabilized around 0.5%. The impetus on vegetable
research and policy intervention to promote vegetable crops witnessed a sudden spurt in growth
rate of 2.5%, a hike of five times during the last decade. Major vegetables grown in India are
Potato, Onion, Tomato, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Bean, Egg Plants, Cucumber and Garkin, Frozen
Peas, Garlic and okra.
The potential technological interventions with improved gene pool and precise management can
take growth rate to nearly 6% per annum. The area under vegetables increased from 5.59 MH in
1991–92 to 6.76 MH during 2004–05. The production in this period increased from 58.53
million mt to 101.43 million mt. During the period, productivity of vegetables increased from
10.5 mt/ hectare to 15.0 mt/hectare. While West Bengal continues to be the leading State in area
and production, the productivity is higher in Tamil Nadu followed by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
India's exports of Fresh Fruit and Vegetable has increased from Rs. 1658.72 Crores (USD
Million 374.68) in 2005-06 to Rs. 2411.66 Crores (USD Million 534.97) in 2006-07.
India ranks fifth in the world in cropped area under cultivation and production of potatoes. India
produces 41% of world's mangoes, 23%bananas, 24% cashew nuts, 36 % green peas and 10%
onion The total export value of the main exporting fruit crop from India is mango. Exports of
mangoes, grapes, mushrooms have started going to the United Kingdom, Middle East, Singapore
and Hong Kong. and among vegetable, onion occupies first position Potatoes and green
vegetables like okra, bitter gourd, green chillies have good export potential.
India is 2nd largest onion growing country in the world. Indian onions are famous worldwide for
their pungency. The Gulf countries are the main importers of the onion bulb, and neighboring
Pakistan and China are India's main competitors in the global market. India's Export of Onion
has increased from Rs. 708.15 Crores (USD Million 159.96) in 2005-06 to Rs.1163.30 Crores
(USD Million 258.05) in 2006-07. Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, U.A.E, Pakistan and Nepal
are the Major market of Indian Onion.
Mango, called the king of fruits in India, accounts for 40 percent of the national fruit production
of 22.168 million tonnes a year. It occupies 42 percent of the country's 24.87 million hectares
land under fruit cultivation. India exported 79,060.88 MT of fresh mangoes with the value of Rs.
141.93 Crores (USD Million 31.48) in 2006-07. The major varieties of mangoes exported
include Dashehri, Alphonso, Kesar, Banganpalli, Kesar, Dusheri, Langra, Chausa, Mallika and.
Swarnrekha. The major markets for Indian mangoes are U.A.E, Bangladesh, U.K, Saudi Arabia
and Nepal. India is estimated to account for about 60 percent (9.5 million tonnes) of the world's
• To study the sorting, grading & packaging system in over all supply chain
Grading
Grading is done according to the size of the fruits. The damaged, sun-burnt and crackedfruits are
sorted out before packing. In the past, our farmers did not grade their produce. Many a times, it
was not paying also.. However, in recent years, with rapid urbanization, consumers prefer the
produce of an uniform and good quality. So, farmers are compelled to grade their produce. They
have experienced that grading brings in more money as compared to ungraded produce. By
grading the produce, one can send the produce to different markets. Lower quality produce can
be sold in the small, local market.
As indicated earlier, it is very important aspect in export. One has to strictly observe the grades
and standards fixed by a particular country
Storage
The fruits cannot be stored at room temperature for more than a few days. It loses its
bright red colour and turns brown within 2 – 3 days after harvesting. Mature litchi fruits
can be stored for a period of 8 to 12 weeks at the temp. of 1.6 to 1.70C and relative
humidity ranging between 85 to 90%.
Packing
Horticulture commodities (fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals) are highly perishable. Therefore,
proper postharvest technology is needed to prolong their shelf life.
Benefits of Packaging
Packaging Method
Tomato is the world’s largest vegetable crop and known as protective food both because of its
special nutritive value and also because of its wide spread production. Tomato is one of the most
important vegetable crops cultivated for its fleshy fruits. Tomato is considered as important
commercial and dietary vegetable crop. Botanical name of tomato is Lycopersicon esculemtun
and belongs to family Lycopersicae. Tomato is protective supplementary food. As it is short
duration crop and gives high yield, it is important from economic point of view and hence area
under its cultivation is increasing day by day. Tomato is used in preserved products like ketch-
up, sauce, chutney, soup, paste, puree etc.
Importance in Diet
Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid, essential amino acids and dietary
fibers. Tomato is known as productive as well as protective food. It is a rich source of vitamin A
and C, it also contains minerals like iron, phosphorus. Tomato contains Lycopene and Beta-
carotene pigments.
The estimated area and production of tomato for India are about 3,50,000 hectares and 53,00,000
tons respectively. In Maharashtra area under tomato cultivation is 43,600 hectare. The average
productivity of tomato in our country is merely 158q/ha while its productivity in USA is
588q/ha, in Greece 498q/ha, in Italy 466q/ha and 465q/ha in Spain.
Ten most promising States of the country for tomato crop have been identified and utilized for
further study on various aspects of tomato crop. Bihar State is at leading position followed by UP
and Orissa in terms of area under tomato crop. The maximum production and productivity have
been shown by UP followed by Karnataka, Punjab, West Bengal and Assam. However,
Maharashtra has increased area under tomato crop significantly as about 110% increase from
years 90-91 to 95-96 and Bihar, UP with 72%, 44% respectively. Punjab is able to obtain about
114% increase in production for a considered period.
About 8.3% increase has been achieved by UP followed by Assam (75%) and Karnataka (72%)
in terms of the tomato production. An increase of about 90% in area has been observed for
Maharashtra for the period 90-91 to 91-92 while studding proportionate increase in successive
years followed by Bihar (48%) and Karnataka (33%). Only two States has shown more than 15%
increase namely UP (24%) and Punjab (19%) from 91-92 to 92-93, while West Bengal,
Karnataka and Punjab show increase in the next period with 25%, 21%, 17% respectively.
However, the proportionate increase of about 72%, 46%, 31% have been observed in tomato
production from 90-91 to 91-92 for Maharashtra, Punjab, Assam respectively. UP, Bihar and
Karnataka have improved their production figures for the period 91-92 to 92-93. Only
Maharashtra State exhibits consistent increase for remaining periods.
This significant achievement in tomato production is possible due to by development of high
yielding varieties/hybrids, breeding for biotic and abiotic stresses, resistance and heterosis
breeding.
2. Tomato is one of the mostly widely grown solanaceous vegetable crops grown worldwide
under outdoor and indoor conditions.
4. Tomato is well fitted in different cropping systems of cereals, grains, pulses and oilseeds.
6. Tomatoes are nutritionally valuable for their high pro-vitamin A and vitamin C content
and rank number one in their nutrient contribution to human diet.
7. Numbers of processed items are prepared on large scale for consumption as well as for
export purpose.
History
Previously Tomatoes were grown only in season-wise, but the picture has been changed since
last three years. Now days Tomatoes are grown round the year.
Climatic Requirements
Tomato is a warm season crop, it requires warm and cool climate. The plants cannot withstand
frost and high humidity. Also light intensity affects pigmentation, fruit colour, fruit set. The plant
is highly affected by adverse climatic conditions. It requires different climatic range for seed
germination, seedling growth, flower and fruit set, and fruit quality. Temperature below 100C
and above 380C adversely affects plant tissues thereby slow down physiological activities. It
thrives well in temperature 100C to 300C with optimum range of temperature is 21-240C. The
mean temperature below 160C and above 270C are not desirable. The plant doesn’t withstand
frost, it requires low to medium rainfall, and does well under average monthly temperature of 21
to 230C. Avoid water stress and long dry period as it causes cracking of fruits. Bright sunshine at
the time of fruit set helps to develop dark red coloured fruits.
Temperature Requirement
Soil Requirement
Tomatoes do very well on most mineral soils, but they prefer deep, well drained sandy loams.
Upper layer of soil should be porous with little sand and good clay in the subsoil. Soil depth 15
to 20cm proves to be good for healthy crop. Deep tillage can allow for adequate root penetration
in heavy clay type soils, which allows for production in these soil types.
Tomato is a moderately tolerant crop to a wide pH range. A pH of 5.5- 6.8 is preferred. Though
tomato plants will do well in more acidic soils with adequate nutrient supply and availability.
Tomato is moderately tolerant to acid an soil that is pH of 5.5. The soils with proper water
holding capacity, aeration, free from salts are selected for cultivation.
Soils extremely high in organic matter are not recommended due to the high moisture content of
this media and nutrient deficiencies. But, as always, the addition of organic matter to mineral
soils will increase yield.
Choice of seeds
After seed production, diseased, broken seeds are discarded. The seeds for sowing should be free
from inert matter. Early germinating, bold, uniform in shape and size, seeds are selected for
sowing. Hybrid seeds from F1 generation are advantageous for sowing as it gives early and high
yield uniform fruity, resistant to adverse environmental conditions.
Fertilizers
As the fruit production and quality depends upon nutrient availability and fertilizer application so
balance fertilizer are applied as per requirement. The nitrogen in adequate quantity increases fruit
quality, fruit size, color and taste. It also helps in increasing desirable acidic flavor. Adequate
amount of potassium is also required for growth, yield and quality. Mono Ammonium Phosphate
(MAP) may be used as a starter fertilizer to supply adequate phosphorus during germination and
seedling stages. Calcium availability is also very important to control soil pH and nutrient
availability. Sandy soils will require a higher rate of fertilizer, and more frequent applications of
these fertilizers due to increased leaching of essential nutrients. The seedlings are sprayed with
starter solution of micronutrient. Before planting farm yard manure @ 50 ton per hectares should
be incorporated. Normally tomato crop requires 120kg Nitrogen (N), 50kg Phosphorus (P2O5),
and 50kg Potash (K2O). Nitrogen should be given in split doses. Half nitrogen and full P2O5 is
given at the time of transplanting and remaining nitrogen is given after 30 days and 60 days of
transplanting.
Soil and tissue analyses should be taken throughout the growing and production season to insure
essential nutrients are in their proper amounts and ratios. Tissue analysis of a nutritionally
sufficient plant will show the following nutrient status:
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium Sulphur
% 4.0-5.6 0.30-0.60 3.0-4.5 1.25-3.2 0.4-0.65 0.65-1.4
Irrigation
Tomatoes have been observed to withdraw water from depths up to 13 feet in a well structured
soil. Tomato plants require adequate moisture throughout their growth period. First irrigation is
required soon after seedlings are transplanted. Frequent water is necessary in root zone when
plants are small. In summer irrigation at intervals of 3-4 days and 10-15 days water is necessary
to maintain wet soil. Erratic moisture conditions can cause radial and concentric cracking on
fruit.
Generally interculturing operations like hand hoeing, weeding, mulching, staking is followed in
tomato. Implements like hand-hoe, khurpi, land leveller etc. are used.
Due to staking there is better growth of tomato plant and branches, increased fruit bearing, and
improved quality of fruits. Cultural operations like fruit picking, spraying, weeding, fertilisers
application and earthing up etc. for staking can be done by two methods. In first type, at each
plant sticks of 1.5-2meter length and 2.5cm thickness are placed and plant of tomato is staked as
it is growing. In second type, a network of wire and bamboo is form and with the help of sutali
(small rope) branches of plant is spread. Secondary branches should be cut upto 30 cm and from
30 cm height keeping two main branches plant should be allow to spread on this network.
Intercropping
Weeds
Black nightshade, which is in the same family as tomato, and perennial weeds in general are hard
to control. Mechanical control of nightshade is the only effective control once the tomato crop is
in the field. Rotation and other long-term IPM practi ces are discussed in Weed Management.
Experiments in New York tested different five weed control strategies in tomato:
• cultivation until July
The highest yields were found in plots kept weed-free by cultivation until August 1. Plots kept
weed-free with herbicides yielded 38 percent less than those cultivated only until August 1.
Pest Management
Agriculture has witnessed diverse changes in recent years. Employment of sophisticated tools
can produce amplified productivity. Also use of organic manures can produce efficient retrieval
of lost nutrients. In any crop cultivation, pest control seems to be daunting task to be carried out
by the cultivators. Use of proper pest control methods can eliminate the pests completely from
Control measure
Spraying of cypernethrin at the rate of 3-4 ml or for Phosphamidon (85 SL) 5 ml per 10 liter of
water at the interval of 8-10 days.
2. Tomato fruit eating catre piller/tomato fruit borer
Control measure
Spraying of monocrotophos (36 SL) 5 ml/ 10 litre of water at the interval of 8-10 days.
Trichograma and campoletic cloride as a predator and heliocil as biological control.
3.Aphids
It can be control by spraying dimethoate (30 E.C.) 10 ml/10 litre of water.
(Caution:-This is a general information and you are requested to read the product information carefully
before use and you should consult a expert if you have any doubt or questions.)
• Mature green fruit:- Fruits are bulk packed in ventilated containers for
shipment. Those picked to be shipped are picked at the mature green stage and sprayed
with ethylene 48 hours prior to shipping. Immature green tomatoes will ripen poorly and
be of low quality. However, tomatoes harvested at the mature green stage will ripen into
a product indiscernible from vine-ripened fruit. A simple way to determine maturity is to
slice the tomato with a sharp knife. If seeds are cut, the fruit is too immature for harvest
and will not ripen properly.
• Pink colour fruits :- For Local sale of tomatoes may be vine ripened to a
firm ripe or a full red color before harvesting.
• Vine-ripened tomatoes should be harvested at the breaker stage to ensure the
best quality. Fruit at the breaker stage, which have some interlocular gel and a pinkish red
color on the inside, are sure to be mature. Such fruit can be handled and shipped better
than that which has more color, and it will often bring a higher price than less mature
tomatoes. If tomatoes are to be vine-ripened, fields should be harvested often and
thoroughly to narrow the range of ripeness.
• Fully ripe :-Processing tomatoes are picked fully ripe.
Harvesting every day may be desirable during the peak of the season. Remove all diseased,
misshapen, and otherwise cull tomatoes from the vines as soon as they are discovered. Remove
discarded tomatoes from the field to avoid the spread and buildup of diseases and insect pests.
Means of Transportation
Tomatoes are highly perishable in nature hence quick means of transportation is necessary.
Tomatoes are transported by road through tractors, trucks and also by rail and air to distant
markets. Village produce is transported to the near by towns and city market only by road. The
cargo services are also available for transportation. Processed tomatoes are having high export
potential hence transported to different countries like USA, Saudi Arabia and Japan etc.
Washingtomatoes
Ethylenetreatment
In Hawaii, some green picked tomatoes are treated with ethylene to enhance and promote
ripening uniformity. Some growers have moved to ethylene treatment to overcome the irregular
ripening caused by the sweetpotato whitefly. However, preliminary research conducted at the
University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources did not show
improved ripening uniformity with ethylene treatment, instead it indicated the need to improve
harvesting techniques and training of the harvesting crew to pick fruit at the same stage of
physiological maturity. Optimum ripening is obtained when the ripening rooms are maintained at
68F and 90-95 relative humidity at ethylene concentrations of 150 ppm. Ethylene is normally
applied with on-site catalytic generators or with flow-through systems.
Storage
Tomatoes should be stored at temperatures above 55F (13C). To delay ripening of tomato at a
particular stage they can be held in a room below 68F (20C). Chilling injury occurs below 50F
(10C).
Packaging
Mature greens are sold in 25 lb bulk-packed cartons. Fruits are packed in each carton based on
fruit number per row and column in a two layered tomato package. Pink and vine-ripe tomatoes
are packed in two-layer lug or tray packs. Cherry tomatoes are packed in flats holding 12 1-pint
boxes. Plum tomatoes are preferably packed in quart boxes, 8 per carton. To avoid bruising don's
stack more than two layers high. Also pack the fruit stem up, to protect the shoulders.
1. INTRODUCTION
The lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn) an important sub-tropical evergreen fruit crop belonging to
family Sapindaceae, is believed to have originated in China, where it has been grown in Southern
Guangdong state for thousand of years. It is highly specific to climatic requirements and
probably due to this reason its cultivation is restricted to few countries in the world. In India,
lychee was introduced in the 18th century through Burma, and from there, it spread to many
countries. India and China account for 91 percent of the world lychee production but it is mainly
marketed locally. In India, 428,900 metric tonnes of lychee is produced annually from 56,200
hectares. Lychee being exacting in climatic requirement is confined to a few states with 74
percent of production recorded in Bihar. In this state, lychee is the livelihood for millions of
people as it provides both on-farm and off-farm employment. Small and marginal farmers get
additional income from lychee plants in their homesteads. Thus, lychee cultivation is the
livelihood security for a large population, especially in the state of Bihar.
The lychee tree is handsome, dense, round-topped and slow growing with evergreen leaves
having 6-9 elliptic oblong and lanceolate abruptly pointed leaves. Colour of leaves varies from
light green to dark green. Greenish white or yellowish flowers are borne in clusters. Fruits are
round or heart shaped having thin, leathery skin. The colour of fruits varies with cultivar, and is
red or rose or pinkish. The edible portion or fruit is the aril, which is immediately beneath the
skin. Flavour of the aril varies with cultivar, which is distinctive. Seeds are bold but in some
cultivars seeds are partially developed, due to failure of pollination, referred to as ‘chicken-
tongue’ seed. The trees with small seeded fruits are prized because of the greater portion of pulp.
Considering the importance of this fruit crop in the region, efforts are made to provide
technological support through research and promoting production, post-harvest management and
marketing, including export, through development programmes. Lychee has also been identified
as an important crop for export. Currently, Indian export of lychee remains quite small due to
expanded domestic market. The product for export and distant domestic markets is typically
packed in 2 kg cartons after pre-cooling and sulphuring. Domestic marketing generally receives
lychee in 10 kg wooden cages or 15 to 18 kg baskets. The growing of lychee in different states
under various climatic conditions has advantages in terms of earliness and extended harvest.
With a narrow genetic base, under given climatic conditions, fruits are available only for 3-4
weeks. However, due to the spread of cultivation over a wide range of climate there is possibility
for extending the cropping period from the first week of May to the first week of July. Evidently,
with an expanding market, there is ample potential for increasing area and production with
In India, lychee ranks 7 in area and 9 in production among fruit crops (Table 1), but in
th th
value terms, it ranks sixth. At national level banana and mango are the most important
fruit but in Bihar state, lychee is considered to be the most important fruit as it
contributes significantly to its total fruit production.
PRODUCTION OF LITCHI
PRODUCTION YIELD
YEAR AREA HEC.
TONs. TON/HEC.
1970 1330 5320 4
1975 1876 8629 4.5
1980 2522 11349 4.5
1985 2702 16212 6
1990 6045 36270 6
1995 7088 44643 6.29
1998 7288 44653 6.12
1999 7467 43804 5.86
2000 7467 61000 8.02
2001 7517 74000 10
2002 7667 53000 6
2003 7667 75000 9.7
PRODUCTION OF FRUITS
INFRASTRUCTURE/PROCESSING UNIT
NAME OF AREA OF
SR.NO. LOCATION CAPACITY ACTIVITY
UNIT OPERATION
Litchi
Litchika Bela- Squash,Litchi
1 Mushahari 500 Tons
International Muzaffarpur Canning &
Litchi Honey
Shyama
Ratwara Bandra block,Muraul Squash &
2 Agro- 200 Tons
Muzaffarpur block Canning
industry
Premier Food Squash &
3 Khabra Road Mushahari,saraiya,kanti 200 Tons
Products Canning
Thakur Litchi Squash &
4 Bochahan Bochahan block 200 Tons
Industry Canning
Radha
Krishna Pasturised
5 Muzaffarpur Muzaffarpur 500 Tons
Implex Pvt. Litchi Juice
Ltd. Muz.
Cultivation of litchis
Soil
• Litchis grow very well, especially in sandy soil in the cooler subtropical areas.
• However, the trees also grow and produce well in clay soil in warmer areas.
• Litchis are well adapted to different soil types.
Water supply
• Because of the varying root distribution in different soils (deep in sandy soils, shallow in
clay soils) water is very important for the optimum development of the plant.
• In sandy soils short irrigation cycles with small quantities of water are usually effective.
• In clay soils water is available for longer periods, but it is important that the soil does not
become too wet or too dry.
Drainage
Cultivars
Litchis were originally imported from China, India, Taiwan and Florida, USA. Cultivars grown
in South Africa are divided into the following groups:
Mauritius group
This group is usually planted locally as well as abroad and produces satisfactory yields and fruit
of good quality, e.g. H.L.H., Mauritius, Muzaffarpur, Late Large Red, Hazipur, Saharanpur and
Rose-Scented.
Chinese group
These trees produce very poor yields, but the fruit is of excellent quality and has a high
percentage of chicken-tongue seeds. Cultivars include Haak Yip, Shang Shou Huai, Kontand,
Glutinous Rice and Three Months Red.
Madras group
These trees bear colourful red fruit, but fruit quality is poor. Cultivars include Kafri, Shorts
Seedless, Johnstone's Favourite, Emmerson, Durbhanga, Maries, Mooragusha, Madras 19,
Hazipur/Saharanpur, Red McLean, Brewster and Bedana.
Tree quality
A good air-layer tree has a single erect stem. The first scaffold branches should branch
horizontally at a height of about 200 mm. Any acute forks that branch lower than 200 mm should
be avoided.
In grafted trees the graft-union height should be about 200 mm from the ground so that the first
scaffold branches can branch at 300 mm. The graft union must be strongly attached and
nurserymen must remove the grafting strip so that girdling cannot occur.
Soil sampling
A representative soil sample should be taken for analysis. A soil sample must represent a
homogeneous area where there are no visible soil differences. If there are colour or texture
differences the land should be subdivided and separate samples of the different parts should be
taken. Use a spade to take the samples.
How deep?
Take soil samples up to 300 mm below the soil surface.
Take subsoil samples from 300 to 500 mm below the soil surface.
How many?
A sample should consist of not less than 10 subsamples.
The area represented by the sample should not exceed 3 ha.
Where?
The samples must be taken evenly over the entire area.
Results
The results will provide valuable information on the type and quantity of fertilisation that should
be applied before planting. Remember to incorporate the required quantity of lime about 6 to 12
months before planting if a large quantity is required and phosphate about 3 months
before planting.
Soil preparation
Examine the soil for suitability in respect of depth, drainage and compacted layers. It should
preferably be 1 to 2 m deep.
Prepare the soil according to the results of the soil analysis, especially when large quantities of
lime are required.
If the soil is suitable for litchi production, it must be prepared well in advance.
Before planting, the soil must be tilled as deep and as thoroughly as possible so that it will not be
necessary to make the planting holes too big.
If the soil is very acid, heavy lime applications may be necessary. Two-thirds of the
recommended quantity of lime must be scattered over the planting area, mixed with the topsoil
and then ploughed in as deep as possible, at least 9 to 12 months before planting. Calcium (lime)
moves very slowly downwards into the soil and must therefore be worked in to the depth of the
root zone.
A cover crop can then be planted and ploughed in about 6 months later to improve the organic
matter content of the soil. The remaining lime (one third) and all the required phosphate must be
scattered and incorporated at the same time. The trees can be planted 3 months later.
If a lighter lime application (2_4 t/ha) is required, the lime can be worked into the soil at least 3
months before planting and phosphate 1 month before planting.
Planting
Remember that litchi trees have a long life and become large.
• Trees should be planted far apart to eliminate competition and to prevent branches of
adjoining trees from growing into each other.
• The entire outer area of the tree must be exposed to sunlight and air movement.
Leaf analysis
Leaf analysis is the only technique according to which sensible fertilisation can be applied to a
specific planting. The following aspects are important:
The correct time for sampling is from mid-September to mid-November.
The correct leaf must be sampled (see figure).
The first leaf sample of a specific planting must be accompanied by a soil sample.
A leaf and soil sample must represent a planting of not more than 3 ha.
The sampling method is important:
- Select about 20 healthy trees, well distributed throughout the planting.
- The trees must be of homogeneous appearance and representative of the average trees in the
planting.
- Sample 4 leaves per tree.
- Do not take samples from obviously good or weak trees.
Fertilisation
DO NOT FERTILISE NEWLY- TRANSPLANTED TREES TOO SOON . FERTILISER SHOULD ONLY BE APPLIED
ABOUT 1 YEAR AFTER TRANSPLANTING. THE APPLICATIONS MUST BE VERY LIGHT AND BROADCAST
EVENLY , BUT NOT AGAINST THE STEMS OF THE TREES . IRRIGATE AFTER APPLYING FERTILISER.
Time of application
Quantity of fertiliser per tree per year according to age (g)
LAN 28 % Potassium
Age years Superphosphate
N chloride
1 200 250 50
2-3 500 250 100
4-5 1 000 250 200
6-7 1 500 500 300
Nitrogen (N)
First year
- divide the nitrogen fertiliser into 8 equal monthly applications of 25 g each and
apply during summer (September to April).
- divide the nitrogen fertiliser into 5 equal applications and apply during summer
(September to April).
- half of the nitrogen fertiliser is applied immediately before flowering and the
remainder just after harvesting.
Phosphate (P)
Potassium (K)
Half of the potassium fertiliser is applied just before flowering and the remainder
after harvesting.
Spray the trees from soon after planting with 100 g borax or 75 g Solubor/100 l
water every 2 years.
Organic fertiliser
Kraal or chicken manure can be used as additional fertiliser at 2 or 1 kg respectively per mature
(10 years) tree, spread evenly in the drip area. However, if no other fertiliser is available, kraal
manure can be applied as follows:
Water requirements
• Litchi trees need regular watering and therefore it is essential that enough
water must be available from the flowering stage until after the
February/March flush following the harvest.
• Because the edible portion of the litchi fruit has a water content of 86 %, the
availability of water remains important during the development period.
• A water shortage will delay development of the fruit and adversely affect the
size, mass and quality of the litchis.
• Irrigation must continue after harvesting to ensure that a normal growth flush occurs
during February/March, just before the beginning of the dormant period.
• During dormancy (April to July) irrigation should be reduced, but the tree should not
suffer drought.
• Young trees that are not producing yet are irrigated throughout the year.
Disorders
Pericarp Browning
Browning of the pericarp occurs at ambient temperatures of 20-30°C within 24 hours of harvest.
Water
loss (desiccation) of litchi results in brown spots on the bright-red shell (pericarp). Under severe
conditions or prolonged exposure, the spots enlarge and coalesce until the surface is completely
brown. Packaging in polymeric films reduces water loss and browning severity.
Insect pests
• Important pests include bark borers, litchi moth and fruitflies.
• Consult your nearest extension officer about ways to control these insects.
Harvesting
Litchi tree comes to bearing at the age of 3 to 4 years with proper care and management. The
flowering
starts from later part of January or early February and fruits ripen in April and May when the
atmospheric temperature is high. Harvesting in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab is usually done in May
and
June, however in Bihar it is harvested in early May.
Maturity of the fruits is indicated by the red colour with a fruit size of minimum 25mm diameter.
Besides
colour the maturity of the fruit is indicated when tubercles become somewhat flattened and the
shells
become smooth. Litchi fruits should be harvested fully-ripe because they do not continue to ripen
after
harvest. The fruits for local market should be harvested at the full ripe stage as indicated by the
attractive skin colour while for distant market the fruit is harvested slightly early, when they have
just
• The stage of maturity at which fruit is harvested is one of the most important factors that
determine the ultimate quality at the point of sale.
• Litchis do not develop further after picking. The fruit must therefore remain on the tree
until quite ripe.
• Litchis harvested too early have an unattractive colour and have a sour taste.
Packing
Litchis are packed as loose fruit and all unnecessary twigs or stems must be
removed to ensure neat packing.
Litchi processing
At around 2 lac MT of production, Bihar accounts for almost 75 % of
national production of this delicious fruit.
Most sought after produce of the State in both national and international
market, Lithci offers an unparalleled range of processing opportunities.
This highly perishable fruit requires a specific climate and soil condition,
found in the area around Muzaffarpur district which remains focal point of
litchi production in the country.
The Brand “ Muzaffarpur Litchi” commands a special respect in the fresh as
well as processed fruit segments
Ranjan Kedia, promoter of Radha Krishna Impex, the country’s largest litchi exporter said the
modalities have been worked out and a formal application will now go from Apeda to the
USFDA. Permission is expected by the end of year.
“Currently, we only export processed litchi to US. Now, we shall be in a position to export fresh
litchi as well. We will use sulphur dioxide as a post-harvest fumigant and this will prevent
blackening of skin and will improve shelf life,” said Kedia.
At 250,000 tonnes of litchi production, India is the second biggest producer after China. Bihar
accounts for nearly 80 per cent of the produce. India exports around 1,300 tonnes of fresh and
processed litchi, mainly to Europe and Asian countries.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
SUGGESTION
1. Cooling facility should be provide in fruit and vegetable market..
2. Aware to farmer for litchi processing technology.
3. Proper market information provide to farmer .
4. Transportation facility should be provide to farmer in hill areas.
5. Awareness of pre harvest treatment to the farmers in litchi and okra
crop.
References:
www.wflo.org.in
www.gcca.org
www.gcca.in
www.science direct.com
www.google.com
www.FAO.com