How did correlation research develop?

Statisticians first developed the procedures for calculating the correlation statistics in the
late 19th century (Cowles, 1989). Karl Pearson presented the familiar correlation formula we
know today in a paper before the Royal Society in England in November 1895 (Cowles, 1989).In
presenting ideas about correlations, Pearson not only expressing the formula for a correlation,
but he also presented concepts familiar to quantitative researchers nowadays, such as the
importance of sample size, the value of precise measurement, and the use of unbiased samples.
Not only that, Pearson was only one of the several several British biometricians around
the turn of the century who refined and extended ideas about correlations. In 1897, Yule
(Pearsons student) developed solutions for correlating two, three, and four variables. With
Pearson, Yule also advanced the theory of regression and the ability to predict scores using
information based on correlating correlation coefficients.
After the turn of 20th century, and for almost 50 years, refinements in educational research
design centered on experimental procedures rather than correlation designs. However, Fisher
(1935) pioneered significance testing and ANOVA, important statistical ideas for studying the
difference between observed and predicted scores in correlation analysis. In 1963, Campbell and
Stanley provided new idea to correlation research, with their classical treatise on experimental
and quasi-experimental designs. At last, they included correlation research as one of the designs,
even though they saw it as a less rigorous and valid design than experiments.
During the 1970s and 1980s, with the use of computers, improved knowledge about the
measurement scales, and the need to study complex associations among many variables,
quantitative researchers started the correlation studies. Besides that, correlation researchers
sought control through statistical procedures. Hence, with computers, they could statistically
remove the effects of a large number variables to examine the relationship among a small set of
variables. For example, they could explore the combination of variables (eg. Gender, age, and
SAT scores) and an outcome (e.g., college grade point average). For simple regression, the
analysis of the variability of a single dependent variable by a single independent variable.
Whereas, for multiple regression is to analyze the collective and separate effects of two or more
independent variables on a dependent variable emerged.

What are the types of correlational designs?

There are two primary correlation designs which are explanation and prediction. For the
explanatory design, many authors refer it as relational research (Cohen & Manion,
1994,p.123).This is because one of the basic objective of this form of correlation research is to
explain the association between or among variables. Hence, an explanatory research design is a
correlational design in which the researcher is interested in the extent to which two variables (or
more) co-vary, that is, where changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other. And
also, explanatory designs consist of a simple association between two variables or more than
two.
There are some features in explanatory design. First, for the investigators, they can
correlate two or more variables. Normally, they report the correlation statistical test and mention
the use of multiple variables. The researchers collect data at one point in time means the
evidence for the procedure will be found in the administration of instruments in one sitting to
students. Besides that, the investigators usually analyze all participants as a single group which
means that the researcher collects scores from only one group and does not divide the group into
categories of scores. In other words, in correlational research, the investigators take participants
as they are.
Other than that, the researcher obtains at least two scores for each individual in the group.
For instance, for each individual in a study of optimism and appropriate health behaviors score.
The correlation statistical test (or an extension of it) in the data analysis will be reported by the
research. In addition, the researcher includes reports about the strength and the direction of the
correlation test to provide additional information. Finally, the researcher makes interpretations or
draw conclusions from the statistical test results.
However, for the prediction design, mostly the researchers seek to anticipate outcomes by
using certain variables as predictors. For instance, principals need to identify teachers who will
be successful in their schools. To select teachers who have a good chance of success, the
administrators can identify predictors of success using correlational research. Therefore,
prediction studies are good they help anticipate of forecast future behavior.

The purpose of a prediction research design is to identify variables that will predict an
outcome or criterion. In other words, a predictor variable is a variable used to make a forecast
about an outcome in correlational research. In the meanwhile, the outcome being predicted in
correlation research is called criterion variable. Normally, only one criterion variable in the
typical educational study is predicted.
There are few characteristics in prediction research. First of all, the authors typically
include the word prediction in the title. It might also be in the purpose statement or research
questions. Furthermore, the researchers typically measure the predictor variable(s) at one point in
time and the criterion variable at a later point in time. Generally, the authors forecast
performance. They usually state this intent in the purpose statement or in the research questions.
In other words, a prediction study will report correlation using the correlation statistical test, but
it may include advanced statistical procedures.