What is meant by D-FF

It is a storing device.It stores only one bit at a

time.It's output is same as the input.

The difference between a latch and a flip-flop is that a latch is asynchronous, and the
outputs can change as soon as the inputs do (or at least after a small propagation delay). A flipflop, on the other hand, is edge-triggered and only changes state when a control signal goes
from high to low or low to high.
In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input
signals and forwards the selected input into a single line.[1] A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select
lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the output. [2] Multiplexers are mainly used
to increase the amount of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time
and bandwidth.[1] A multiplexer is also called a data selector.

SR Flip Flop to JK Flip Flop

As told earlier, J and K will be given as external inputs to S and R. As shown in the logic diagram
below, S and R will be the outputs of the combinational circuit.
The truth tables for the flip flop conversion are given below. The present state is represented by
Qp and Qp+1 is the next state to be obtained when the J and K inputs are applied.
For two inputs J and K, there will be eight possible combinations. For each combination of J, K
and Qp, the corresponding Qp+1 states are found. Qp+1 simply suggests the future values to
be obtained by the JK flip flop after the value of Qp. The table is then completed by writing the
values of S and R required to get each Qp+1 from the corresponding Qp. That is, the values of S
and R that are required to change the state of the flip flop from Qp to Qp+1 are written.

RACE AROUND CONDITION OCCURS WHWN BOTH THE INPUT ARE HIGH
AND THE OUTPUT THUS UNDERGOES A TRANSITION STATE.FOR EXAMPLE
CONSIDER THE INPUT VALUES IN A JK FLIP FLOP;ie;J=K=1 ,THE
OUTPUT Q0=0 IN NORMAL CASE WILL CHANGE TO 1 AND VICE VERSA.
THE REMEDY FOR RACE AROUND PROBLEM CAN BE ELIMINATED BY
USING A MASTER SLAVE J-K FLIP FLOP'S.
zener diode is used as a voltage regulatory device..
because..

the voltage across the zener diode in reverse bias is

constant after reaching certain value i.e. breakdown
voltage.
normal diodes distorts at htis breakdown voltage but the
zener still runs after this voltage and keeps the voltage
across the diode constant even the supply voltage increses..
in my view an ideal voltage souce means which is having
constant voltage irrespect of the current and having zero
internal resistance which is in series with the voltage
source
Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown both are under
reverse bias.which are responsible for such large reverse
current.
Avalanche:-It takes place due to the drift of thermally
generated minority carriers through the junction under the
influence of external field.
Zener breakdown:-It takes place due to presence of strong
electric field and presence of large reverse bias voltage

Sampling Theorem: A bandlimited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is

sampled at a rate atleast twice the maximum frequency component in it.
In signal processing, the impulse response, or impulse response function (IRF), of a dynamic
system is its output when presented with a brief input signal, called an impulse. More generally, an
impulse response refers to the reaction of any dynamic system in response to some external
change. In both cases, the impulse response describes the reaction of the system as a function of
time (or possibly as a function of some other independent variable that parameterizes the dynamic
behavior of the system).

You have this flipped, IIR filters are recursive and FIR filters are non-recursive. Also FIR
filters are linear phase and IIR filters are not; several applications are sensitive to non-linear
phase (communications, medical, etc). In implementation, IIR filters require fewer taps
(smaller order) and thusly are easier to implement and have fewer zeros. Also FIR filters are
always stable, while IIR filters can often become unstable in implementation. The previous
answer is correct about delays.
CMRR(common mode
rejection ratio) is the ratio of
differential mode gain to the
common mode gain. Actually
in differential amplifier it
should amplify the difference
of the two input signals and

reject the common signals

applied at both ends. CMRR
indicates the efficiancy of the
differential amplifier. Ideally
the CMRR value must be
infinite
Common Mode Rejection Ratio.
it is used to reduce signal to noise ratio
Which range of signals are used for terrestrial transmission?

VHF(30MHZ-300MHZ)
What is the need for modulation

NEED FOR MODULATION

1) TO REDUCE THE ANTENNA HEIGHT
2) TO MULTIPLEX THE MORE NUMBER OF SIGNALS
3) TO REDUCE THE NOISE & DISTORTIONS
4) TO NARROW BANDING THE SIGNAL
5) TO REDUCE EQUIPMENT COMPLEXITY
modulation is neede basically to
i)to increase the bandwidth of the signal
ii)to multiplex the signals
iii)to reduce the interferencemade when we transmit the
signals with nearly same frequency in the audio frequency
range (20-20k)hz.
iv)to favour the complexity of the transmission system
Which type of modulation is used in TV transmission

we use two types AM AND FM

AM is used for video and
FM is used for audio.
Vsb a part of am
Why we use vestigial side band (VSB-C3F) transmission for picture?

bandwidth of signals used for picture reception is very

large,so standard am cannot be used.if ssb were used,it
would result in half the bandwidth.but,ssb receivers being
compllex,they are not used.so vestigial transmission is used
in which a vestige or trace of the unwanted sideband is
transmitted along with the wanted sideband and carrier.

.When transmitting digital signals is it necessary to transmit some harmonics in addition to

fundamental frequenc

Yes, A one frequency signal may not be sufficient, since the

analog and digital signals may look different and the
receiver may not recognize it correctly. To improve the
shape of the signal for better communication, particularly
for high data rates, we need to add some harmonics
For asynchronous transmission, is it necessary to supply some synchronizing pulses additionally or to
supply or to supply start and stop bit

asynchronous transmission does not required any

syncronizing pulses , instead it needs start and stop bit
to acknowledge the first and last bit of the data which is
transmitted.these bits can be high or low.
In some advanced controllers which has in built UART ,
provide option to select no. of start and stop bits in the
transmission.
.BPFSK is more efficient than BFSK in presence of noise. Why

since in bfsk only audio signals are transmitted and at the

rate of 300 bits per second............
but in bpfsk along vith audio signals pitch is also
transmitted and at the rate of 600-800 bits per second.....
for dat reason bpfsk is more efficient den bfsk....
What is meant by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis

Pre-emphasis
" Improving the signal to noise ratio by increasing
the magnitude of higher frequency signals with respect
to lower frequency signals"
De-emphasis

" Improving the signal to noise ratio by decreasing

the magnitude of higher frequency signals with respect
to lower frequency signals
What do you mean by 3 dB cutoff frequency? Why is it 3 dB, not 1 dB

That's wrong.
3 dB implies 1/2 the power and since the power is

proportional to the square of voltage, the voltage will be

0,707 of the passband voltage.
sqrt(0.5) = 0.707
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