1

I.

Organization of the Human

Nervous System

Structures of the HNS

1.

Neuroglia
a) Nerve glue--Latin
b) Support cells
c) Common source of tumors

d) Very numerous (over 900 billion)

many more when compared to
neurons
1.

2.

3.
4.

4 types:
Astrocytes
a) Star shaped cells
b) Provide structural support
between neurons (exoskeleton)
c) Blood/brain barrier- separates
capillaries from neurons, form
diffusion sites
Oligodendroglia
a) Forms myelin sheath in
neurons within CNS
Schwann Cells
a) Form myelin sheath in PNS
Microglia
a) Small cells that act as
garbage men of the CNS
through the process of
phagocytosis

2. Neurons: initiate and transmit impulses

Classifying System
2 methods
A. Direction of impulse travel
a) Motor (efferent)- carries
impulses away from CNS

b) Sensory (afferent)- carries

impulses towards the CNS
c) Interneurons (associative)carries info within the CNS
B. # of processes
a) Multipolar- contain many
dendrites and only one axon.
Typically found in motor
neurons and interneurons

b) Bipolar- contain only one

dendrite and one axon.
Typically found in sensory
neurons

c) Unipolar- one process (arm

extending out from main body
of cell) composed of an
axon and dendrite fused
together
-Rare- found in fetus

3. Neuron Structures:
Organelles:
A. Nucleus- control center
a) NO MITOTIC CAPABILITY
-Occurs shortly after
birth
-Why paralysis happens

B. Mitochondria- energy
production ATP
a) 6 times more in neurons
C. Ribosomes- protein synthesis
D. Golgi bodies- excretory system
E. Endoplasmic reticulumcirculatory system
a) Smooth- no ribosomes
b) Rough- ribosomes
F. Lysosomes- digestive system

G. Cell membranemore on this one

later!!
H. Cell body

Neuron Specific Structures:

1. Axon- one and only one per
neuron
a) Can split to form axon
collaterals
b) Axon collaterals split to
form axon terminals
c) Ends of axon terminals are
called synaptic end bulb
d) Conduct impulses away from
the cell body
2. Dendrite- one or many
a) Conduct impulses towards
the cell body
3. Nissl bodies- small pieces of
Rough ER (protein synthesis)
4. Neurofibrils- fine fibers extending
throughout dendrites and axons.
Serve as internal support
(endoskeleton)
5. Myelin Sheatha) fatty, white substance
wrapped around some
axons and dendrites

b) give neurons a white

appearance, hence term
white matter
c) grey matter- cell bodies
grouped together
-Cell bodies outside
CNS- ganglia
-Cell bodies within CNSnuclei
d) Oligodendroglia and
Schwann cells wrap
themselves around
axon/dendrites in a jelly
roll fashion leaving gapsnot continuous
Node of ranvier

Cell membrane
-A double layer of phospholipids with
embedded proteins

Lipid

Remember dehydration synthesis

Amino Acid = Protein

Resting Potential: (resting= not conducting an

impulse)
-time period during which a neuron is
preparing to produce an impulse
-interior of the cell becomes more negatively
charged compared to the exterior
-neuron can only conduct when charged
-you end up with potential difference between
the interior and exterior
-looks like a battery postitive on the exterior
and negative on the interiorat this point it is
the potential difference
-voltage- difference in charges
-Na+-K+ pump (proteins)

-sodium/potassiums job is to make resting

potential
1. 3Na+ attach to the interior of pump
while 2 K+ attach to exterior
2. the pump flips after the expenditure of
energy:
ATPADP + energy
3. the sodium and potassium let go
4. repeat
-2:3 ratio makes net charge on outside
increase by 1 more each turn of the sodium
potassium pump
-outside becomes more positive because more
sodium ions are going out
-inside becomes more negative because more
is going out
than coming in (negative ions are not moving
outtoo large)
-keeps going until it reaches resting potential
(-70mV) fully charged
-doesnt stop because concentration gradient
is produced- a
region of high concentration and a region of
low
-as more positives go out you get Coulombs
Attraction and some potassium ions slip
through the lipids because they are semipermeable
-it levels out with sodium ions exiting and
potassium ions sneaking back in
Na+/K+ pump
Na/K animation
student animation
Simple explanation
How did you get the concentration gradient in
the first place?
-Na+-K+ pumpactive tansport- uses energy,
which comes from mitochondriawhich is why

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there are so many in the nerve cell because

the process is 24/7/365

End of 1st Quiz

Action Potential
4 stage process
1. initiation of an impulse
2. transmission of an impulse
along a single neuron
3. transfer of an impulse from one
neuron to the next
4. transfer of an impulse from a
neuron to an effector
(muscle or gland)
1. Initiation of an impulse
A. A stimulus (any condition in the
environment capable of producing an impulse)
causes the permeability of the cell membrane
to change with regard to Na+
B. Na+ channels (proteins) open (unwind)
forming a tunnel
C. Na+ rush inward
1. coulombs attraction
2. diffusion
passive transport
depolarization animation

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2. Transmission of an impulse along a single

neuron
A. continuous conduction:
-only occurs along unmyelinated
neurons
-occurs in a domino fashion (wave in
the stadium)
B. saltatory conduction
-occurs in myelinated neurons
- impulse skips myelinated sections of
neurons: depolarization only occurs at the
Nodes of Ranvier

Saltatory Conduction
Speed of Impulses:
3 factors:

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1. myelination- myelinated faster than

unmyelinated
2. cross section-- The greater the
diameter the faster the impulse because more
protein channels
3. temperature
Cold slower
3 types of neurons: (speed)
1. A-fibers
- largest diameter
- myelinated
- up to 130 m/sec
- sensory, motor to muscles
2. B-fibers
- middle sized
- myelinated
-10 m/sec
3. C-fibers
-small
- unmyelinated
-0.5 m/sec

3. Transfer of an impulse from one neuron to

another
Theories:
1. Reticular theory- all nerves are physically
connected to each other to form a network or
reticulum. Impulse would pass directly from
one neuron to the next.
Would produce a continuous network
once an impulse started, it would
continue forever.
2. Neuron theory: each nerve cell is a discrete
(individual) unit with the axon and dendrites
having free endings and a gap exists between
neurons
2 possibilities:

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a. electrical transmission
-since impulses are electrical
phenomenon, the
impulses jump
gap like spark plugs. This theory
would still have the problem of
continuous impulses.
b. Neurohumoral transmission
-Transfer of an impulse is
chemical process
Otto Loewi (1921) Nobel Prize
Winner
-dreamt of experiment
-2 frog hearts

Animation
-heart 1= donor
-salt water
-wire to vagus nerve
-stimulates donor with electricity- donor starts
beating slower. Heart 2 slows down a lot
later therefore chemical not electrical
transmission
-vagastuff = neurotransmitters
Along neuron- electrical
Between neurons- chemical
4 types of synapses:

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1. axo-dendritic
Between axon and dendrite of next
neuron

2. axo-somatic
Axon of one neuron and cell body of the
other

3. axo-axonal- axon of one neuron and axon of

another.

4. neuromuscular junction

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Tim Berners-Lee (from Weaving The Web: the original

design and ultimate destiny of the world wide web by its
inventor, 1999)
There are billions of neurons in our brains, but
what are neurons? Just cells. The brain has no
knowledge until connections are made between
neurons. All that we know, all that we are, comes
from the way our neurons are connected.

Synapse
(top=presynaptic membrane)

(Bottom= post synaptic membrane)

Mechanism: Neurohumoral Transmission
1. Action potential reaches synaptic end bulb
of pre-s.m.
2. AP causes permeability of the pre-s.m. to
change with regard to Ca+2. (Calcium channels
in Pre-Synaptic membrane open). Ca+2 diffuse
into the synaptic end bulb
3. increased Ca+2 concentrations on the interior
of the pre-s.m. cause vesicles to migrate
towards the pre-s.m.

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4. Vesicles fuse with the pre-s.m. and empty

contents into synaptic cleft through the
process of exocytosis
5. N.Ts diffuse into synaptic cleft towards
post-s.m. N.T.s locate receptor sites and fuse
into receptor sites in a lock and key mechanism
6. As N.T.s bind in receptor sites they act as a
stimulus for the post-s.m. If enough NTs bind
with receptors to reach threshold for the posts.m., an impulse is generated
7. Enzymes contained within the synaptic cleft
attack and catabolyze NTs
8. Catabolized NTs are reabsorbed
(endocytosis) by the pre-s.m. forming new
vesicles. NTs are reassembled, ready for the
cycle again.

Neurotransmitters

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Dales law- each neuron has only one type

of NT
About 300 different compounds have
been identified as NT

5 classes of compounds
A. Acetylcholine
B. Amines
Serotonin
Dopamine (lack of it = depression)
Norepinephrine
C. Amino Acids
Glutamate
GABA
D. Neuropeptides
E. Prions
Research being done gut feeling
2 General Types
I. Excitatory
-can either produce an impulse (creates
a situation above the threshold in the posts.m.) or facilitates the post-s.m. (creates a
situation approaching threshold in the posts.m.)
II. Inhibitory
-NTs that increase the potential difference in
the post-s.m.
-produces inhibition
1. Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential
(IPSP)
-75mV

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2. Resting Potential
-70mV
3. Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential
-65mV
4. Threshold
-59 mV
5. Action Potential
+30mV
summation- the combined effect of two or
more like NTs on a post-s.m.

integration-combined effect of 2 or more unlike

NTs

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4 possibilities
1. if E>I, but not yet at threshold EPSP
(facilitation)
2. if E>I, and reaches threshold impulse
3. if E<I IPSP
4. if E=I resting

4. Transfer of an impulse from a neuron to an

effector (muscle or gland)
-works in a chemical process just like the
transfer from neuron to neuron
-acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at
the neuromuscular junction

Sources of Inhibition:
1. Interrupt the initiation of an impulse:
Block sodium channels:

Chilean tarantulas have

neurotoxins called phrixotoxins that block sodium and potassium channels
on neurons.

2. Interrupt the transmission of an impulse:

Progressive demyelination: Multiple
Sclerosis (MS)
3. Interrupt the transfer of an impulse between
neurons:
Pain killers
4. Interrupt transfer of an impulse to muscles:
Poisons: Curare

End of Test #1!! Whew!!

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