12/13/2015

Infrastructure:Tunnelling|MagazineFeatures|Building

Infrastructure:Tunnelling
8December2015|ByCiaraWalker,NigelHayward
Significantinvestmentinrail,waterandenergyinfrastructurewilldriveastrongpipelineintunnellingforthenext
decadeacrosstheUK.Thedesignandengineeringoftunnelscanmitigatetheirimpactandoptimiseconstruction

FitouttakingplaceinCrossrailThamesTunnel

01/Introduction
TheUKhasaproudtunnellingheritage,includingtheworldsfirstsubaqueoustunnel,builtundertheriverThamesin
1843.ThegoodtunnellingconditionsnorthoftheRiverThames(LondonClay)haveallowedmanymasstransit
tunnelstobebuiltsince1863.However,themoresandyandgravellygroundtotheeastandsouthofLondonhas
traditionallybeenmoredifficulttoworkin,explainingthewideruseofsurfacerailelsewhere.
Thedesignandconstructionoftunnelsandundergroundinfrastructurewillcontinuetobekeytosustainable
development,balancingthedemandsofagrowingurbanisedpopulationandthedesiretopreservetheenvironment.
Atunnelisaoneoffsolution,relyingonavarietyoftunnellingmethodsoptimisedagainsttheconstraintsimposed
bythegroundconditionsandtunnelsfunction,aswellaschallengessurroundinglogisticsandlandacquisition.
Puttingeffectivecontractandprocurementstrategiesinplaceisessentialtoeffectivelymanagerisksassociated
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withtunnelling,andthelongleadintimeforthemachineryinvolved.
Infrastructureprojectswillturntotunnellingwhenitpresentsthemostcosteffectivewayofachievingdesired
outcomes.However,tunnellingprojectsimposesignificantimpactsonthelocalenvironment,particularlyinbusy
metropolitanareas,whichmustbemitigatedthroughpreplanningandinnovation,makingtunnellingsafer,and
reducingtheimpacts.
Tunnellingiswidelyusedacrossamultitudeofsectors,includingtransport,water,andsoon.TheUKtunnelling
industryrequiresaconsistent,predictableandlongtermpipelineofworktomaintaincapacityandinvestmentand
withalargenumberofpotentialprojects,includingHS2andCrossrail2,prospectsarecurrentlyverybright.

02/Whenisatunneltherightsolution?
Tunnellingisonlyusedwhenitisthebestwayofachievingthedesiredsocioeconomicbenefitsfroman
infrastructureproject.Awiderangeoffactorsdeterminetheviabilityofatunnel,includingengineeringfeasibility,
environmentandeconomicimpacts,publicconsultationandlandacquisition.
Forexample,theNorthernLineExtension(NLE)deliversbenefitsofincreasedmasstransitaccesstotheNineElms
andBattersearegenerationareageneratingacostbenefitratioofnearly10:1.
Thereisaruralurbandivideinthedriversbehindmajortunnellingprojects.Inurbanspaces,tunnellingwilloften
deliverimmediatebenefittothelocalpopulation,beitimprovedtransportorincreasedpowercapacity.
Bycontrast,inruralenvironments,tunnelsaremostlyusedtominimisetheimpactofinfrastructurethatwillhavea
directbenefitelsewhere,suchastheNationalGridNorthWestCoastConnectionTunnel,acrossMorecambeBay,
usedtoreroutetransmissioncables.
Insummary,whiletunnelsincitiesincreasebenefitthroughincreasedaccessibility,ruraltunnelsmitigatethewider
impactsofnationalinvestment.
Ruralandurbanspacesthereforehavestrong,butdifferentdriversforthechoiceoftunnelling:inruralenvironments
thereisplentyofspacefornecessaryinfrastructure,butlimitationssurroundingitsenvironmentalimpacts,whereas
inurbanenvironments,spacelimitationsareoftenasignificantchallengeaffectingbothdesignandconstruction.In
bothcases,abalancedsolutiondeliveringsocial,environmentalandeconomicbenefitsmustbeachieved.
Otherdriversoftheneedforatunnelasopposedtoabovegroundinfrastructureinclude:
Keepinginfrastructureawayfromthepopulation(highvoltagepower,forexample)
Environmentalpreservation
Topographicreasons(tunnellingbelowmountainousregionssuchasthePennines,ortocrossbodiesofwater
forexample,ChannelTunnel).
Duetohighinitialcostsandtheextendedlifeoftunnelledinfrastructure,benefitsdoneedtobesustainedoveran
extendedperiodoftimetopasstheviabilityhurdle.
Ifdemandfortheassetisneitherpredictablenorsustainableovertime,thenclearlyinvestmentwillbemuchmore
difficulttojustify.

03/Designandengineering
Tunnelsareoneoffprojectsusingwellestablishedsolutionsadaptedtothegeology,theroutetaken,tunnel
function,groundwaterconditions,andmanyotherfactors.
Therearemanyfactorsthatneedtobeconsideredwhendesigningandconstructingatunnelincluding:
Thealignmentandclearanceswithotherundergroundstructures
Thegeologyanditsimpactonroute
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Theconstructionmethod
Drainageandliningrequirements
Functionalelementsofthetunnel,suchassafetyprovisions,servicebuildings,ventilation,lighting,andsoon
Operationandmaintenanceprocedures
Durability,especiallyforsewagetunnelsorimmersedtunnels
Disciplinesinvolvedinthedesignofatunnelarewiderangingandincludegeotechnical,examininggroundconditions
andpredictinggroundmovement,environmentalsciencestoassessandmitigatewiderimpactsoftunnelling,and
soilandrockmechanicsaswellasspecialistskillsinaeraulics,hydraulicsandsafety.
Tunnelling
technique

Whatisit?

Whenisitused?

Conventional
tunnelling

Constructionundergroundofanyshapebuiltby
cyclicprocessofexcavationwithdrillandblastor
mechanicalexcavationandplacementoflining(e.g.
sprayedconcretelining).

Smallertunnelrunsandirregular
undergroundspacesincluding
interconnectingtunnels,stationplatforms.
Extendedtunnelconstructioninhardrock

Boredtunnels
usingTunnel
Boring
Machines
(TBMs)

Differenttypesofmachinetosuitdifferentgeology
andgroundwaterconditionsHardRock:Main
Beam,Shield,etc.SoftGround:SlurryShield,Earth
PressureBalanceetc.

Extendedcontinuoustunnelrunningthrough
reasonablyconsistentgeology.
Lengthoftunnelrunsmaybedeterminedby
geologicalconditions.

Surface
tunnelling(cut
andcover)

Builtinatemporaryorpermanentopentrenchin
surface,thenusuallycovered.eg.Metropolitanline

Shallowtunnels

Subaquatic
tunnelling

Immersedtunnelconstructedinatrenchusing
prefabricatedsections,thenbackfilledtoprovide
protection

Whencrossinganarrowbodyofwateror
whencombinedwithabridge

Routedesignoptimisation
Tunneldesignrequiressignificantpayoffsbetweenthebestengineeringsolutionandotherconsiderations.Route
optimisationisconcernedwiththedesignofasolutionwhichrepresentsthebestbalanceofutility,costand
programme,riskandwiderimpacts,whichinclude:
Geologywhichdeterminesthedepthandtherouteofthetunnel,passingthrough,asfarasispracticable,the
safestandeasiesttunnellinggeology.Anexamplecouldbechangingthelayoutofastationtoavoida
geologicalfault.
HydrologicalconditionsGroundwaterpressureisasignificantdeterminantoftheselectionofthetunnelling
method,andthestructuraldesignofthetunnelincludingthesupportrequiredoncethetunnelisconstructed.
Functionwhichdeterminesthesizeandconfigurationoftunnelbores,therouteanddepthandthecomplexity
oftunnelinterfaces.ForexampletheThamesTidewayTunnelistunnelledtoafallwhichmeansthattheeast
endis30mdeeperthantheWest,aswellashavingawiderboretoaccommodatelargerwatervolumes.
Otheraspectsoffunctionaffectingdesignincluderailalignmentsandeventheperformancerequirementsof
liningsandsoon.
LandtakeMinimisingtheextentofabovegrounddevelopmentduringandafterconstructionwhichmay
requirecompulsorypurchaseanddemolitionincreasingcostandthewiderimpactofthedevelopment.
SpacelimitationsWhereexistingundergroundinfrastructure,andallowableclearanceswilldetermineboththe
routeandthedepthoftunnels.Theimpactofexistingundergroundstructuresisasignificantfactorincities
likeLondon.Complexutilitydiversionscouldberequired,accesstofavourablegeologicalconditionsblocked,
andtunnelsforceddeeperunderground.Potentialobstaclesincludeexistingmasstransittunnels,utilities,
buildingfoundations,andsoon.Somecities,suchasHelsinki,areleadingthewayinplanningtheuseof
undergroundspacethroughanundergroundmasterplan,facilitatingrouteoptimisationinanincreasingly
congestedundergroundenvironment.
SpaceproofingEnsuringthatallrequiredfunctionscanbeaccommodatedwithintheplannedtunnelvolume.
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Thisisaparticularchallengewithstationdesign,whichinvolvesreconcilingthefunctionalspaceneedsofa
largenumberofstakeholdersandresolvingmanycomplexphysicalinterfaces.
Constructionoptimisation
Constructionoptimisationisconcernedwithmakingbestuseoffixedresourcessuchastunnelboringmachinesand
conveyorsaswellasthescarceabovegroundworksitesavailableincrowdedcitylocationsdeliveringthebest
combinationofprogramme,costandrisk.
Geologydeterminesthetunnellingmethodtobeused,whichinturnhasasignificantimpactoncostand
programme.Differentgroundconditionsmayrequiredifferenttunnellingtechniqueswhichwilldeterminethe
numberandlengthoftunnellingdrives.
Tunnellingmethodincludestheimpactoftransitionsbetweendifferentgeologies,whichmaybe
accommodatedusingasingletypeofmachineusingtheshieldmethod.Optimisingthetunnellingprocess
involvesbalancingthecostsofthemethodsagainsttheirrelativeefficiency,giventheconstraintsofthe
groundandgroundwaterconditions.
Logistics,suchasfixedcostsassociatedwithconveyorsandventilatingplant,togetherwithvariablecosts
associatedwithmuckdisposalanddeliveryoftunnelliningswillallbeinfluencedbythenumberofabove
groundaccesssites,togetherwithaccesstononroadtransportation.
Innovation
Innovationindesignandtunnellingtechniqueshashadakeyroleinmanagingtherisksandimpactsassociatedwith
tunnelling,aswellasincreasingthesafetyofworkingconditionsforoperatives.
Keydevelopmentsinclude:
Useofsensorsformonitoringandinstrumentationthatimprovestheaccuracyofgroundmovementprediction
andmonitoring,bothduringthetunnellingprocess,andoncethetunnelisbuilt.Remotemonitoringhasalso
decreasedmanpowerrequiredtomonitorgroundmovements.
Improvedanalysisanddesigntoolsincludingadvancesinfiniteelementmodelling,providingaverydetailed
analysisofstressfactorsandhowtheyinteractandgivingstakeholdersadditionalassuranceofsafety.
GreateruseofBIM,usedfordesigndevelopmentandcoordination,planningofconstructionandlogistical
challengesandbetterunderstandinginterfacesandclashes.WideruseofBIMisalsoincreasingsafetyin
tunnellingthroughbettervisualisationoftheworkfaceandworkfaceaccess.
Aworkerwithatunnelboringmachine
Riskmitigationandmanagementintunnelling
Tunnellingincongestedurbanenvironmentshasthepotentialtocreatemassivedamageanddisruptionastheresult
ofanaccident,aswellashighlevelsofnuisancetoneighbouringusesbothduringconstructionandoperation.
Environmentalimpactassessmentsarenaturallyakeyaspectofthepermittingprocessdrivinganearly
commitmenttodetaileddesignsothatfullimpactsareunderstoodandmitigationsassuredaspartoftheapprovals.
Highpriorityareasofmitigationinclude:
Healthandsafetyrisksarepresentintunnellingenvironmentswhichinvolvetheuseofcomplexfastmoving
machineryinconfinedspaces.Healthandsafetycultureiswelldevelopedsoinordertopushtowardszero
harmclientsareadoptingbehaviouralchangeprogrammestopromoteahealthandsafetyculturefromthe
bottomup.TheEPIC(EmployeeProjectInductionCentre)safetytrainingusedbyclientsincludingThames
TidewayTunnel(TTT)isagoodexampleofthis,usingscenariostoincreaseworkerawarenessofthe
impactsofpoorsafetypractice.
Noiseandvibrationassociatedwithconstructionworks,ventilation,conveyorsroadtrafficandsoonthrough
tothelocationofworksitesandlimitationsonworkinghours.
Groundmovementresultingfromtunnellingandassociatedsettlement,mitigatedbydetailedmodellingand
design,precisiontunnellingandintensivemonitoring.
Lossofvisualamenityrequiringsensitivedesignofportalsandotherelementsofabovegroundinfrastructure.
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Impactsonexistingoccupierseitherrestrictingaccessoruseofsitesorrequiringcompulsorypurchaseand
relocation.
Effectsonpublicservicesandutilitiesincludingthetimingandimpactofservicesdiversionsandawider
impactontheoperationandresilienceofnetworks,includingblockadesandclosure.
Effectsonhistoricandarchaeologicalassets.
Longtermchangestogeology,hydrologyandwaterresources.

04/Economicsandprocurementoftunnelling
Costdriversfortunnelling
Keycostdriversfortunnellingworksarerelatedtogeology,designandmethod:
Geologyandgroundconditionswillpartiallydeterminethetunnellingmethodandwillintroducerisksand
constraintsassociatedwiththeconstructionmethod.Obstructionsandotheraspectsofgroundconditionswill
alsoimpactonthedetaileddesignofthetunnelsolution.
Keydesignfactorsincludetunneldiameter,depthandconstraintsongeometrysuchasamaximumradiusor
gradient.Itmaynotbepracticaltooptimisethetunnelalignmentduetoobstructionsandinterfaceswithother
elementsofthetunnelnetwork.Otherdesignrelatedcostsincludethoseassociatedwithworkareasatthe
tunnelhead.
Methodistheareawherethereisthegreatestopportunitytooptimiseoutturncostsbasedonthebest
balancebetweenprogrammeandtimerelatedcosts.Onlargerprojects,programmescanbeacceleratedby
increasingthenumberoftunnelbores,orthroughthefairlystandardpracticeof24hourworkingbothof
whichwillchangethebalanceoffixedcostsassociatedwithinvestmentinplantandlogistics.Othervariables
includedisposalandtransportcostsaswellastheresidualvalueoftunnellingplant.
Table2setsoutindicativetunnellingcostsforboredtunnelsusingeitheraSlurryTBMoranEarthPressureBalance
(EPB)TBMsourcedfromtheHS2programme.
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Principalcostelement

Infrastructure:Tunnelling|MagazineFeatures|Building

Description

Cost
SlurryTBM16m
EarthPressureBalanceTBM
18m

Tunnelboringmachine
(TBM)

Purchasecostonlyoperatingcostelsewhere

Tunnellingsupport

Fixedcost:Forinstance,slurrytreatmentplant,gantry Fixed:SlurryTBM45meach
cranes
EPB35meach
Timerelatedcost:TBMoperation
Timerelated:1.1mperweek
SlurryTBM25,000perroute
metre
EarthPressureBalanceTBM
22,000perroutemetre

Tunnelconstruction

Comprisesexcavation,wasteconveyance,costof
linings,liningstransportandinstallation

Disposalofexcavated
materials

Commercialtipdisposal:4,500
Costsforsustainablereuseordisposal.Assumesno perroutemetre
contamination.
Sustainableplacement:3,000
perroutemetre

Tunnelportals

Approximately30mwidestructurestoboredtunnel
headwalls

Tunnelshafts

Forventilationandemergencyinterventionaccess,as
10m30meach
wellasoperationandmaintenance

Mechanicalandelectrical
systemsintunnels

Systemsfortunneloperationonlynofitoutrelated
totunnelfunction.

20m65meachdependingon
topography

4,000perroutemetre

Logistics
Logisticshasacriticalimpactonprogrammeandtheimpactoftheprojectonitsneighbours.Themostsignificant
aspectsoflogisticsinvolvegettingmachineryintopositionandsupplyingmaterialsincludingliningsandremovalof
spoil.Insomeinstances,tunnelboringmachineswillneedtobeassembledinaccessshaftsintroducingfurther
constraintsintowheretunneldrivescanberunfrom.Therearestrategiesforavoidingroadcongestion,withCrossrail
usingraildeliveriesandtheLeeTunnelusingtherivertosaveabout80,000lorryjourneys.Muckdisposalisalsoa
consideration.CrossrailhascreatedanewnaturereserveintheThamesEstuarywiththeirexcavationwaste.
Significantchallengesarelikelytobeencounteredwhentunnellingincitycentres,wheretheabovegroundfootprint
maybeveryrestricted.Forexample,therecentBondStreetStationexpansionhasaccessthroughtwo9mdiameter
shaftstothetunnellingsite20mbelow.SitesforCrossrailandThamesTidewayarealsoconstrainedbyavailable
sites,whichinevitablyplacesalimitontherateatwhichtunnellingworkscanbeundertakenextendingthe
programmeandincreasingoverallprojectcosts.
Contractstrategy
Contractstrategyisanimportantconsideration,duenotonlytotheinherentriskinvolvedintunnellingbutalsothe
extensiveupfrontcostsassociatedwithdesign,plantpurchaseandlogistics.Contractsintunnellingtendtobe
designandbuild,basedonareferencedesignprovidedbytheclientteam,whichisadoptedbythecontractor.The
referencedesignwilltypicallybeabout3040%completebutwillbethebasisformostoftheapprovalsand
licences.NECcontractsareoftenusedastheyallowforaclearallocationofriskbetweencontractorandclient.Itis
standardpracticetoincludeageotechnicalbaselinereportdefiningthegroundconditionsacceptedbythecontractor.
Deviationsfromexpectedconditionsmayformthebasisofacompensationevent.
Ingeneral,theNECOptionCvariantisused,enablingreadyvaluationofthecontractorsexpenditureandthebasis
forapain/gainincentivisation.Withthetargetcostapproach,effectiveprojectcontrolsincludingearnedvalue
analysisareessentialtoprovideassurancethatdeliveryperformanceisontarget.
Procurement
Tunnellingprojectstypicallyhavelongleadintimes.Evenafterprocurement,ittypicallytakesninemonthsto
manufactureandafurtherthreeplusmonthsforsiteassemblyandsetupofatunnelboringmachine.Giventhe
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needforspecialistskills,itisessentialtounderstandcapacityinthemarketandhowtostructuretheworks
contractsandcommunicateanypreferenceforjointventures.
Thiscanbedonebyengagingthesupplychainatanearlystage.
Earlymarketengagement,willtypicallyinvolveareviewofthepackagingstrategyaswellastheenvisagedcontract
strategyandriskallocation.Earlyengagementalsoenablescontractorstoformjointventureswithsuitable
experience.Thepackagingstrategymaybestructuredtotakeaccountofcapacityaswellastheimpactsofgeology
basis.ForexampleonTTT,therearethreemaintunnellingcontractsofareasonablesize,eachawardedtoa
differentjointventure.Bysplittingtheworkscontractsup,TTTsecuredbettercompetition,reducedlevelsofriskper
contractandalsoaccessedspecialistskillsfordifferentgroundconditions.Earlyengagementandaconsidered
contractstrategyareessentialtosecuringtherightmixofcapacity,ontheappropriatebalanceofriskandreward.
Thoughtunnellingskillstendtobeaglobalresourcepooltherearestillsomeshortagesofdesignersandcivil
structuralengineers,meaningthatcontractorsoftenhavetopayapremiumfortheseskills.
Tomitigatethis,theUKhasestablishedEuropesonlydedicatedtunnellingandundergroundconstructionacademy,
withcapacitytotrainupabout200tunnellingstaffatatime.Longterminvestmentissettocontinue,withtheUK
governmentcontributing1.1moffunding,tomatch1.7mofindustryinvestmentincreatingalegacyofengineering
jobsandskills.

TunnelboringmachineatLeeTunnel

05/LeeTunnelCaseStudy
TheLeeTunnelistheUKwaterindustryslargestprojectsinceprivatisationin1989andcurrentlythedeepesttunnel
builtinLondon,deliveredatatotalcostof635m.TheprojectwillstopthepollutionofthenearbyriverLee,which
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currentlyreceivesanoverflowofsewageandstormwaterwhenthecapacityofLondons19thcenturysewage
systemisexceededduringstorms.ItisthefirstoftwotunnelstobebuiltasapartofThamesWatersLondon
TidewayImprovementsystem.
Everyyearsome39mtonnesofsewagemixedwithrainwaterflowthroughCSOs(combinedseweroverflows)into
theThamestheThamesTidewayImprovementprogrammeisdesignedtominimisetheseoverflowsaswellas
improvingsewageworks.Thefirststagewasanupgradetoallsewagetreatmentworks,thesecondisthe
constructionoftheLeeTunnel,andfinallythethirdistheTTT,whichwillrun25kmfromActontoAbbeyMillswhere
itwillconnecttotheLeeTunnel.
TheLeeTunnelisdesignedtoconveyandstoresewageandstormwaterfromAbbeyMillspumpingstation
CombinedSewageOutfallinEastLondontotheBecktonsewagetreatmentworks.Itneedstobedeepenoughto
meettheThamesTidewayTunnelatitslowestpoint,75mbelowgroundlevel.TheprojectconstructedbytheMVB
JVhasposedunprecedentedchallengesindealingwithhighgroundwaterpressuresinthedeepestsections,where
thegroundwaterpressureisupto8bar,eighttimestheairpressurefoundatsealevel.
Oneofthegreatestinnovationsontheprojectwastheconstructionoffiveshafts,thelargesteversunkinthe
capital,withtheUKsdeepestdiaphragmwalls.Theseshaftsareaworldfirstinthebuildingofinnerliningstoa
diaphragmwallashuge,standalone,concretechimneys,enablingtheshaftstowithstandthehugewaterpressure
actinguponthem.Thelargestshaftis38minternaldiameterwithwalls98mdeep.LessonstakenfromtheLee
TunnelwillbeadoptedbythelargerTTTproject.Furtherinnovationsminimisedthesteelcontentandcarbon
footprintofthetunnel,aswellassignificantlyimprovingitsdurabilityoveritsfulllifetime.
TTTtunnellingstartsin2017,withThamesTidewayprojectcompletionin2023,andtheprojectwillmakegooduse
ofthebenchmarkingandinnovativetechniquessourcedfromtheLeeTunnel.

06/Conclusion
TheUKsstrongpipelineandcontinueddemandfortunnelswillsupportcapacityintheindustryforthenextdecade
atleast.Whentunnellingisthemostcosteffectivewaytoachievedesiredsocioeconomicoutcomes,projectswill
moveforwardwhileseekingtominimisethecostsandsignificantimpactsonthelocalenvironment.Thiscanbe
achievedinoptimisingtheroute,andconstruction,basedongroundandgroundwaterconditions,andthefunctionof
thetunnel,aswellaslookingtouseinnovativemethodstoincreasesafety.Earlyengagementofthesupplychain
andtransparencysurroundingprocurementandcontractsareessentialtoensuringcapacityadaptstothefuture
pipelineandUKtunnellingcontinuesfromstrengthtostrength.

Acknowledgements
WewouldliketothankRichardStoodley,MartynCourt,AndrewMerry,CarlosDeFreitas,IanHughes,Mark
Shaw,DougClayton,WynRobertsandChrisPikeofArcadisfortheircontributiontothispiece.

MarketplaceRecommendations

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