INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Volume 1, No 4, 2011
Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing services

Research article

ISSN 0976 4399

The effect of elevated temperature on concrete materials - A literature

review
Anand.N1, Prince Arulraj.G2
1- Asst.Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Karunya University, Coimbatore, India
2- Prof & Dean of Civil Engineering, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore, India
anand_1612@rediffmail.com
doi:10.6088/ijcser.00202010079

ABSTRACT
A review is presented based on experimental studies on the performance concrete when
exposed to higher temperature. The compiled test data revealed distinct difference in
mechanical properties of normal, high strength and self compacting concrete. Shape of
specimen (cube, cylinder, beam etc), size of specimen, magnitude of temperature load applied
on the specimen, time duration maintained for heating, reference on time-temperature curve,
rate of heating, rate of cooling, time taken for hot test after curing period, time taken for load
test after heating, heat test on stressed/unstressed member, type of cooling adopted on heated
specimen by natural cooling or cooling by spraying water etc are the parameters that
influence the test results. To understand the behavior of concrete under elevated temperature,
it is necessary that several factors be taken into account for each experiment. Strength of
concrete, type of cement, type of aggregate, water cement ratio, density of concrete,
percentage of reinforcement, cover to the reinforcement etc are some of the important factors
that affect the performance of concrete at elevated temperature.
Key words: High strength concrete, Self compacting concrete, Spalling, Coefficient of
thermal expansion, Metakaolin
1. Introduction and methods
A review of methods used by various investigators for testing concrete at elevated
temperature indicates that, the tests can be categorized into two types namely cold testing and
hot testing. In stressed tests, a preload (2040% of the compressive strength at 27C) is
applied to the specimen prior to heating and the load is sustained during the heating period.
Heat is applied at a constant rate until a target temperature is reached, and this temperature is
maintained for a time until a thermal steady state is achieved. Stress or strain is then
increased at a prescribed rate until the specimen fails. In the unstressed test, the specimen is
heated, without preload at a constant rate to the target temperature, which is maintained until
a thermal steady state is achieved. Stress or strain is then applied at a prescribed rate until
failure occurs. In unstressed residual strength test, the specimen is heated without preload at a
prescribed rate to the target temperature, which is maintained until a thermal steady state is
reached within the specimen. The specimen is then allowed to cool, following a prescribed
rate to room temperature. Load or strain is applied on the specimen at room temperature until
the specimen fails. Based on the review of literature, the experimental investigations on
strength of concrete at elevated temperature can be broadly classified into three categories as
shown in Figure 1.

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Research article

Figure 1: Classification of Temperature test

Moetaz M. El-Hawary et al (1996) studied the effect of fire exposure time and the concrete
cover thickness on the behaviour of R.C. beams subjected to fire in shear zone and cooled by
water. Eight reinforced concrete beams (1800 x 200 x 120 mm) were investigated. The beams
were divided into two groups. Group (1) consisted of four beams with a cover thickness of 20
mm and group (2) consisted of four beams with a cover thickness of 40 mm. Each group was
subjected to a temperature of 650C for different periods of time, i.e. 0, 30, 60. 120 min. The
compressive strength of the beams were determined nondestructively by using a Schmidt
hammer on the next day after exposure to fire. The beams were tested by applying two
transverse loads incrementally. Strains and deformations were measured at each load
increment. Cracking loads, crack propagation and ultimate loads were recorded for each
beam. The behaviour of the beams exposed to fire in the shear zone was found to be highly
affected by the fire exposure time and the change of the cover thickness. The salient features
of the test are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Moetaz M. El-Hawary et al
Size of the
specimen
(m)

Temperature
range

Beam
(1.8x0.12
x0.2)

650C
(furnace
temperature)

Time
duration

Timetemperature
curve

0,
30min,
60min,
120min

Furnace
temperature
curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test

Sprayed
with water
immediately

Chan et al (1999) carried out an investigation on the fire resistance of normal strength and
high-strength concrete, with compressive strengths of 39, 76, and 94 MPa respectively. After
exposure to temperatures upto 1200C, compressive strength and tensile splitting strength

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Research article

were determined. The pore structure in HSC and in NSC was also investigated. Results
indicated that HSC lost its mechanical strength in a manner similar to that of NSC. The range
between 400 and 800C was critical to the strength loss. High temperatures had a coarsening
effect on the microstructure of both HSC and NSC. On the whole HSC and NSC suffered
damage to almost the same degree, although HSC appeared to suffer a greater worsening of
the permeability-related durability. The salient features of the test are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Chan
Size of the
specimen
(m)

TimeTemperature
Time
temperature
range
duration
curve

Cube
(0.1x0.1
x0.1)

Up to
1200C

BS 4761987(Part
20)

Rate of
heating

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Peak
Natural
temperature cooling to
maintained
room
for an hour temperature

Chi-Sun Poon et al (2003) carried out an experimental investigation to evaluate the

performance of metakaolin (MK) concrete at elevated temperatures up to 800C. Eight
normal and high strength concrete (HSC) mixes incorporating 0%, 5%, 10% and 20% MK
were prepared. The residual compressive strength, chloride-ion penetration, porosity and
average pore sizes were measured and compared with silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA) and pure
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concretes. It was found that after an increase in compressive
strength at 200C, the MK concrete suffered a more severe loss of compressive strength and
permeability related durability than the corresponding SF, FA and OPC concretes at higher
temperatures. Explosive spalling was observed in both normal and high strength MK
concretes and the frequency increased with higher MK contents. The salient features of the
test are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Chi-Sun Poon
Size of the
specimen
(m)

TimeTemperature
Time
temperature
range
duration
curve

Cube
(0.1x0.1x0.1)
Up to 800C
Cylinder
(0.1x0.2)

Rate of
heating

Furnace
temperature 2.5C/min
curve

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot test
& load test

Natural
cooling

Kumar A and Kumar V (2003) carried out an investigation to find the residual strength of
reinforced cement concrete beams exposed to higher temperature for long duration. Six RCC
beams were cast with same reinforcement, length, grade of concrete and clear cover. Four
beams were exposed to fire for durations of 1 h, 1.5 h, 2 h and 2.5 h. These beams were
exposed to fire for 2.5 h and tested at room temperature failed in serviceability criteria. The
reduction in stiffness was found to increase with the increase in the duration of fire exposure.
The following conclusions were drawn by the authors from the test carried out on RCC
beams. RCC beam of grade M20 with 25 mm clear cover was unable to resist a fire exposure
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Research article

of about 2.5h as it failed in serviceability criterion. Spalling of concrete was observed at

many places, which increased further with the time. Even 2 h fire duration was found to be
critical as the beam was able to take only about 50% load of the companion beam. The
behavior of M-20 RCC beam exposed to fire of 1 h duration was found to be satisfactory as
its strength was found to be about 83% of the companion beam. The salient features of the
test are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Kumar A and Kumar V
Time
duration
TimeRate of
Size of the
Temperature
Time
Rate of
b/w hot
temperature
cooling/
specimen (m)
range
duration
heating
test &
curve
coolant
load
test
Beam(3.96x0.2
Furnace
1hr,1.5hr,2hr,
IS 3809Natural
x0.3)
temperature
2.5hr
1979
air

Min Li et al (2004) investigated on compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and

bending strength of normal and high-strength concrete after high temperature. Oil furnace
was used in this study for heating the specimens. The temperature time curve was close to the
standard curve, which conforms to Chinese standard GB/T 9978-1999. After being heated to
temperatures of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000C respectively, the mechanical properties of
HSC were found. The influence of temperature, water content, specimen size, strength grade
and temperature profiles on mechanical properties of HSC were discussed. They concluded
that the larger the specimen size, the lesser the strength loss. The salient features of the test
are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Min Li et al

Size of the specimen

(m)

Beam(0.415x0.1x0.1)
Cube (0.1x0.1x0.1)
Cube
(0.15x0.15x0.15)

TimeTemperature
Time
Rate of
temperature
range
duration
heating
curve

200 to
1000C

Chinese
standard
(GB/T
9978-1999)

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Cooled
naturally

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load
test
-

Persson (2004) made a comparison between the performance of vibrated concrete and SCC
under elevated temperature. Cylinders and columns were tested by Compressive loading with
high temperature. Polypropylene fibers were used to avoid the spalling of concrete.
Hydrocarbon and ISO 384 fire curves were used. Rate of heating was maintained at 240C
and 480C per hour. Specimens were heated in the temperature range of 20 to 800C and
specimens were slowly cooled upto room temperature and tested. It was observed from the
test results that explosive spalling took place for columns with SCC but not for columns with
vibrated concrete, even through the vibrated concrete columns were cured exactly as SCC
columns. It was found that fire spalling mainly depended on the stress in the concrete,
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Research article

cement-powder ratio and w/c ratio. Lower elastic modulus at fire temperature was observed
in SCC than in vibrated concrete. The salient features of the test are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Persson
Size of the
specimen
(m)
Cylinder
(0.1x0.2)
Prestressed
column
(2x0.2x0.2)

Temperature
range

20 to 800C

Time
duration

Timetemperature
curve

2hr &
4hr

ISO 384
fire curve &
modified
hydro
carbon
curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

240C/hr &
480C/hr

60C/hr

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test

Gai-Fei Peng et al (2006) carried out an investigation to explore the relationship between
occurrence of explosive spalling and residual mechanical properties of fiber toughened high
performance concrete exposed to high temperatures. The residual mechanical properties
measured includes compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, and fracture energy. A
series of concretes were prepared using ordinary Portland cement and crushed limestone.
Steel fiber, polypropylene fiber, and hybrid fiber (polypropylene fiber and steel fiber) were
added to enhance fracture energy of the concretes. After exposure to high temperatures
ranged from 200 to 800 C, the residual mechanical properties of fiber toughened highperformance concrete were investigated. For fiber concrete, although residual strength was
decreased by exposure to high temperatures over 400 C, residual fracture energy was
significantly higher than that before heating. Incorporating hybrid fiber seems to be a
promising way to enhance resistance of concrete to explosive spalling. The salient features of
the test are shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Gai-Fei Peng et al

Size of the
specimen (m)

Cube
(0.1x0.1
x0.1)
Beam(0.3x0.
1x0.1)

Temperatur
e range

200 to
800C

Time
duratio
n

Timetemperatur
e curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duratio
n b/w
hot test
& load
test

Furnace
temperatur
e curve

10C/min
(Target
temperatur
e
maintained
for an
hour)

Natural
cooling to
room
temperatur
e

2 days

Metin husem (2006) examined the variation of compressive and flexural strengths of ordinary
and high-performance micro-concrete at high temperature. Compressive and flexural
strengths of ordinary and high-performance micro-concrete which were exposed to high

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Research article

temperatures (200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000C) and cooled differently (in air and water) were
obtained. Compressive and flexural strengths of these concrete samples were compared with
each other and then compared with the samples which had not been heated. On the other hand,
strength loss curves of these concrete samples were compared with the strength loss curves
given in the codes. Experimental results indicate that concrete strength decreases with
increasing temperature, and the decrease in the strength of ordinary concrete is more than that
in high-performance concrete. The type of cooling affects the residual compressive and
flexural strength, the effect being more pronounced as the temperature increases. Strength
loss curves obtained from this study agree with strength loss curves given in the Finnish Code.
The salient features of the test are shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Metin husem
Size of the
specimen
(m)

TimeTemperature
Time
temperature
range
duration
curve

Cylinder
(0.15X0.3)
Beam
(0.04x0.04
x0.16)

200 to
1000C

Rate of
heating

Furnace
temperature 5.5C/min
curve

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration b/w
hot test &
load test

Air and
water

After
cooling by
air/water

Noumowe et al (2006) carried out an investigation to understand the behavior of conventional

vibrated high strength concrete and self compacting high strength concrete at high
temperature. Based on the results they concluded that, the residual mechanical properties of
self compacting high strength concretes were similar to that of conventional high-strength
concrete. The risk of spalling for self-compacting high-strength concrete was greater than that
of conventional high-strength concrete. The tests showed that severe spalling could occur
with self-compacting high-strength concrete even at a heating rate as low as 0.5C/min. The
salient features of the test are shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Noumowe et al

Size of the
specimen (m)

Temperatur
e range

Time
duratio
n

Cylinder
(0.16x0.32)
Beam(0.4x0.1x0.
1)

600C

Timetemperatur
e curve

Rate of
heatin
g

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test

ISO 834
curve
(Eurocode)

0.5C/
min

Simultan
eous
cooling

Stressed
hot test

Chang et al (2006) carried out an investigation to obtain complete compressive stressstrain

relationship for concrete after heating to temperatures of 100800 C. All concrete specimens
were standard cylinders of diameter 150 mm and height 300 mm, made with siliceous
aggregate. The heated specimens were tested at 1 month after they were cooled to room
temperature. From the results of 108 specimens with two original unheated strengths, a single
equation for the complete stressstrain curves of heated concrete was developed. Through the
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Research article

regression analysis, the relationships of the mechanical properties with temperature were
proposed to fit the test results, including the residual compressive strength, peak strain and
elastic modulus. The equation proposed is applicable to unheated and heated concrete
specimens at different temperatures. In addition, the split cylinder tests of 54 specimens were
also found and a relationship between splitting tensile strength and temperature was
established. The salient features of the test are shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Chang et al
Size of the
specimen
(m)

Temperature
range

Cylinder
(0.15x0.3)

100 to 800C

Time
duration

Timetemperature
curve

2hr &
4hr

ISO 834 fire

curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test

1 to
4.5C/min

Natural
cooling

1 month

Anagnostopoulos et al (2009) carried out an investigation to determine the influence of

different fillers on the properties of SCC of different strength classes when exposed to high
temperatures. They reported that explosive spalling occured in both the cases of SCC and
NCC when the oven peak temperature of 600C is maintained. SCC was found to spall more
compared to NCC due to lower permeability and higher moisture content. SCC with ladle
furnace slag in its composition was found to have higher compressive strength at the age of
28 days due to slags cementitious behavior, but was more susceptible to spalling effects after
fire exposure compared to other mixtures. SCC produced with glass filler had greater
rheological characteristics at fresh state condition, but did not perform well after heated at
high temperatures. SCC produced with limestone filler was found to have better performance
compared to mixtures prepared with different filler materials. The salient features of the test
are shown in Table 11.
Table 11: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Anagnostopoulos et al
Size of the
specimen
(m)
Cube
(0.1x0.1
x0.1)
Cylinder
(0.15x0.3)

Temperature
range
300C @30
min
600C@70
min

Time
duration

Timetemperature
curve

Furnace
temperature
curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test & load
test

10C
/min

24 hours

24 hours

Udaya kumar et al (2009) carried out an investigation to generate experimental data on

residual flexural strength of heated RCC beams and their strengthening using various repair
techniques. A total of 25 RCC beams were cast with similar cross sectional details, length
and grade of concrete and clear cover. Twenty beams were tested after fire exposure and the
remaining five were used as companion beams. The beams were heated in two stages. In the
first stage, two beams were kept at each temperature for 3 h between 100C and 1000C, in
increments of 100C. Beams exposed to temperature ranging between 100 and 500C were
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repaired by applying paint. The beams exposed to temperature ranging between 600 and
1000C were repaired for spalling. In the second stage, all repaired specimens were again
heated. These test specimens were tested for flexural strength after bringing them to room
temperature. The variation of flexural strength of repaired RCC beams with increase in
temperature has been studied and the flexural strength of beams before and after the repair
was compared. The salient features of the test are shown in Table 12.
Table 12: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Udaya kumar et al

Size of the
specimen (m)
Beam
(1.2x0.112x0.24)

TimeTemperature
Time
Rate of
temperature
range
duration
heating
curve
100 to
1000C

3hr

ISO 834
fire curve

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test & load
test

Cooled
naturally

Tayfun Uygunoglu and Ilker Bekir Topcu (2009) Studied the effects of aggregate type on the
coefficient of thermal expansion of self consolidating concrete produced with normal (SCC)
and lightweight aggregate (SCLC) at elevated temperature. Two types of aggregate namely
crushed limestone and pumice were used. Different combinations of water/powder ratio and
super plasticizer dosage levels were prepared for the SCC and SCLC mixtures. The total
powder content (cement and mineral additives) was constant in the experiments. Thermal test
was performed to accurately characterize the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of SCC
and SCLC aged 28 days using the dilatometer. The CTEs of SCC and SCLC were defined by
measuring the linear change in length of concrete specimens subjected to a range of
temperatures. Test temperatures were varied from 20 to 1000C at a heating rate of 5C/min.
The results, in general, showed that SCC has higher CTE than normal weight concrete and
that lightweight aggregate reduced the CTE of SCC due to their porous structure. The
aggregate type has significant influence on the thermal expansion of SCC. The salient
features of the test are shown in Table 13.
Table 13: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Tayfun Uygunoglu and Ilker Bekir Topcu

Size of the
specimen (m)
Cube
(0.07x0.07x0.07)
Cylinder
(0.15x0.3)

TimeRate of
Temperature
Time
Rate of
temperature
cooling/
range
duration
heating
curve
coolant

20 to
1000C

Furnace
temperature
curve

5C
/min

Time
duration
b/w hot
test &
load test
-

Hanaa Fares et al (2009) carried out an experimental study on the performance of selfconsolidating concrete (SCC) subjected to high temperature. Two SCC mixtures and one
vibrated concrete were tested. Mechanical and micro structural properties were studied at
ambient temperature and after heating. Compressive strength, flexural strength, bulk modulus
of elasticity, porosity and permeability of these concrete were found. For each test, the
specimens were heated at a rate of 1 C/ min upto desired target temperatures (150, 300, 450
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and 600C). In order to ensure a uniform temperature throughout the specimen, the
temperature was held constant at the target temperature for 1 h before cooling. In addition,
the specimen mass was measured before and after heating in order to determine the loss of
water during the test. The salient features of the test are shown in Table 14.
Table 14: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Hanaa Fares et al
Size of the
specimen
(m)

Temperature
range

Cylinder
(0.160.32)

150 to
600C

Time
duration

Time
TimeRate of
Rate of
duration b/w
temperature
cooling/
heating
hot test &
curve
coolant
load test

Peak
Furnace
temperature
temperature
maintained
curve
for an hour

1 C/
min

24hr

Jin Tao et al (2010) reported the results of laboratory investigations carried out to study the
effects of high temperatures ranging from room temperature to 800C on the compressive
strength of SCC and HSC. It was reported that the hot compressive strength of SCC
decreased with increase in temperature. It was found that grade of concrete had an effect on
the strength loss of concrete, especially in the temperature range below 400C.Higher grades
of SCC resulted in higher loss of strength. But this difference was found to be less in the
permanent strength loss stage. Compared with normal strength SCC, high strength SCC was
found to possess a larger compressive strength when exposed to high temperature. It was also
reported that addition of polypropylene fibers decreased the strength .However the addition
reduced the probability of explosive spalling. The salient features of the test are shown in
Table 15.
Table 15: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Jin Tao et al
Size of the
specimen
(m)
Cylinder
(0.15x0.3)

Temperature
range

200 to
800C

Time
duration

Timetemperature
curve

Furnace
temperature
curve

Rate of
heating

Rate of
cooling/
coolant

Time
duration
b/w hot
test & load
test

5C/min &
30C/min
above
500C

Hot test

Immediate
load
application

Sivaraja (2010) studied the effect of high temperature on mechanical strength properties of
five different self-compacting concrete mixes. Initially five different SCC mixes such as
normal concrete, SCC (Self Compacting Concrete) with Fly ash, SCC with silica fume, SCC
with rice husk ash and SCC with 20% quarry sand and were designed. The fresh concrete
properties such as filling ability and passing ability were ascertained. Specimens were
subjected to high temperature up to 500C and 1000C for 1 hour in hot furnace. Mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of rupture were
obtained by conducting respective tests as per Indian Standards. Results of specimens
subjected to high temperature were compared with the conventional specimens. The salient
features of the test are shown in Table 16.
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Table 16: Salient Features of Test Carried out by Sivaraja

Size of the
specimen
(m)

Temperature
range

Time
duration

Cube
(0.15x0.15
x0.15)
Cylinder
(0.15X0.3)
Beam
(0.5x0.1x0.1)

500 and
1000C

Peak
temperature
for hour

TimeRate of
Rate of
temperature
cooling/
heating
curve
coolant

Furnace
curve

5C
/min

Natural
cooling

Time
duration
b/w hot test
& load test

After
natural
cooling

2. Conclusions
From the literature review, concrete specimens subjected to fire load can be broadly classified
into three types namely Stressed, Unstressed, Unstressed residual strength tests. It is reported
in the literature that behaviour of Normal strength concrete, high strength concrete and self
compacting concrete were different when exposed to high temperature. Many parameters
influence the test results and affect the performance of concrete specimens exposed to high
temperature. Analytical modeling of concrete elements exposed to thermal loads was the
missing phenomenon in the review of literature. Since the test methods were costly and
difficult to carry out, it is necessary to develop analytical modeling. Special attention has to
be paid to the material properties for analysis and evaluation of the residual strength of
structural elements exposed to accidental fire loading. Further examinations are needed in
order to document material properties for design purposes and for the evaluation of residual
strength of structural elements exposed to fire. Literature reveals that researchers adopt
different procedures for the application of heat load as well as for testing the specimens.
Hence there is a need to carry out an extensive investigation to find out the effect of the
variations in the testing procedures.
3. References
1. El-Hawary. M.M., Ragab. A.M., Abd El-Azim. A and Elibiari. S., Effect of fire on
shear behaviour of R.C beams, Computers & Strucrures 65(2), pp. 281-287, 1997
2. Chan Y. N., Peng, G. F and Anson M., Residual strength and pore structure of highstrength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures ,
Cement and Concrete Composites, pp 23-27, 1999.
3. Chi-Sun Poon, Salman Azhar, Mike Anson and Yuk-Lung Wong., Performance of
metakaolin concrete at elevated temperatures , Cement and Concrete Composites, pp
83-89, 2003.
4. Kumar.A and Kumar.V. Behaviour of RCC beams after exposure to elevated
temperatures, IE(I) Journal CV, 84, November 2003, pp 165-170

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5. Min Li, Chun Xiang Qian and Wei Sun., Mechanical properties of high-strength
concrete after fire Cement and Concrete Research, pp 1001-1005, 2004.
6. Persson. B., Fire resistance of self-compacting concrete, SCC, Materials and
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