Biochemistry

study of the substances found in living organisms, and of the chemical reactions
underlying life processes.

Living organisms maintain themselves by constantly processing molecules to

provide building blocks for new living materials and energy to sustain them.

They need energy for movement, cell repair, growth and reproduction. Energy
drives the chemical reactions that underlie all these activities.
Oxygen

symbol O, colorless, odorless, tasteless, slightly magnetic gaseous element. On

earth, oxygen is more abundant than any other element.

Oxygen comprises 60 percent of the human body. It is a constituent of all living

tissues; almost all plants and animals, including all humans, require oxygen, in the free or
combined state, to maintain life.
Water
the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of
living organisms is water.

Protoplasm, the basic material of living cells, consists of a solution in water of

fats, carbohydrates, proteins, salts, and similar chemicals.

Blood in animals and sap in plants consist largely of water and serve to transport
food and remove waste material.

Water also plays a key role in the metabolic breakdown of such essential
molecules as proteins and carbohydrates. This process, called hydrolysis, goes on
continually in living cells.

It acts as a catalyst in many important chemical reactions.

Water is one of the best-known ionizing agents Because most substances are
somewhat soluble in water, it is frequently called the universal solvent.

Water acts as a solvent, transporting, combining, and chemically breaking down

these substances.

Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 )

colorless, odorless, and slightly acid-tasting gas, sometimes called carbonic acid
gas, the molecule of which consists of one atom of carbon joined to two atoms of oxygen

It is used by green plants in the process known as photosynthesis, by which

carbohydrates are manufactured
The presence of carbon dioxide in the blood stimulates breathing. For this reason, carbon
dioxide is added to oxygen or ordinary air in artificial respiration and to the gases used in
anesthesia.

Acids and Bases

two classes of chemical compounds that display generally opposite

characteristics.

Acids taste sour, turn litmus red, and often react with some metals to produce
hydrogen gas.

Bases taste bitter, turn litmus blue, and feel slippery.

When aqueous (water) solutions of an acid and a base are combined, a

neutralization reaction occurs.
Salt
sodium chloride (NaCl)

a vital constituent of the human body.

The sodium and chloride of salt, along with potassium, are electrolytes, which
help the kidneys regulate the body's fluid levels and the balance of acids and bases.

Salt is used to enhance the flavor of foods and to preserve foods.

It typically enters the diet from processed foods, or from adding salt to food
during preparation, cooking, and at the table.

Salt contains no calories, proteins, or carbohydrates, although unrefined salt does

contain traces of other minerals.

Electrolyte is an ion needed by cell: any ion in cells, blood, or other organic
material.
Electrolytes help to control fluid levels in the body,
maintain normal pH levels, and
ensure the correct electric potential between nerve cells that enables the
transmission of nerve signals.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the human bodys key source of energy, providing 4 calories of
energy per gram.

When carbohydrates are broken down by the body, the sugar glucose is produced;
glucose is critical to help maintain tissue protein, metabolize fat, and fuel the central
nervous system.

Foods rich in complex carbohydrates, which provide vitamins, minerals, some

protein, and dietary fiber and are an abundant energy source, should make up roughly 50
percent of our daily calories.
Proteins

Dietary proteins are powerful compounds that build and repair body tissues, from
hair and fingernails to muscles.

In addition to maintaining the bodys structure, proteins speed up chemical

reactions in the body, serve as chemical messengers, fight infection, and transport oxygen
from the lungs to the bodys tissues.

Although protein provides 4 calories of energy per gram, the body uses protein for
energy only if carbohydrate and fat intake is insufficient. When tapped as an energy
source, protein is diverted from the many critical functions it performs for our bodies.

A man of average size should eat 57 grams of protein daily.

To support their rapid development, infants and young children require relatively
more protein than do adults.

A three-month-old infant requires about 13 grams of protein daily, and a fouryear-old child requires about 22 grams.

Once in adolescence, sex hormone differences cause boys to develop more muscle
and bone than girls; as a result, the protein needs of adolescent boys are higher than those
of girls.

Lipids
diverse group of fatty substances found in all living organisms.
Lipids are distinguished from other classes of organic compounds in that they do
not dissolve in water but are soluble in alcohol, ether, or other organic solvents.
Forms of Lipids

Phospholipids limit the passage of water and water-soluble compounds through

the membrane, enabling the cell to keep its contents separate from the outside
environment.

Fats and oils, which are composed of triglycerides, serve as stored energy reserves
in plant and animal cells.

Other important lipids are the waxes, which form protective coatings on the
leaves of plants and the skins of animals, and

the steroids, which include vitamin D and several key hormones.

Fats
Fats, which provide 9 calories of energy per gram, are the most concentrated of
the energy-producing nutrients, so our bodies need only very small amounts.

Fats play an important role in building the membranes that surround our cells and
in helping blood to clot.

Once digested and absorbed, fats help the body absorb certain vitamins.

Fat stored in the body cushions vital organs and protects us from extreme cold and
heat.

Saturated fatty acidsfound in foods ranging from beef to ice cream, to

mozzarella cheese to doughnutsshould make up no more than 10 percent of a persons
total calorie intake each day.

Saturated fats are considered harmful to the heart and blood vessels because they
are thought to increase the level of LDLs and VLDLs and decrease the levels of HDLs.

Monounsaturated fatsfound in olive, canola, and peanut oilsappear to have

the best effect on blood cholesterol, decreasing the level of LDLs and VLDLs and
increasing the level of HDLs.

Polyunsaturated fatsfound in margarine and sunflower, soybean, corn, and

safflower oilsare considered more healthful than saturated fats.

However, if consumed in excess (more than 10 percent of daily calories), they can
decrease the blood levels of HDLs.

Cholesterol, like fat, is a lipidan organic compound that is not soluble in water.
In order to travel through blood, cholesterol therefore must be transported through
the body in special carriers, called lipoproteins.

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) remove cholesterol from the walls of arteries,

return it to the liver, and help the liver excrete it as bile, a liquid acid essential to fat
digestion.

For this reason, HDL is called good cholesterol.

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) are

considered bad cholesterol.

Both LDLs and VLDLs transport cholesterol from the liver to the cells.

As they work, LDLs and VLDLs leave plaque-forming cholesterol in the walls of
the arteries, clogging the artery walls and setting the stage for heart disease.

Almost 70 percent of the cholesterol in our bodies is carried by LDLs and

VLDLs, and the remainder is transported by HDLs.

For this reason, we need to consume dietary fats that increase our HDLs and
decrease our LDL and VLDL levels.

Nucleic Acid

extremely complex molecules produced by living cells and viruses.

Nucleic acids are complex molecules produced by living cells and are essential to
all living organisms.

These acids govern the bodys development and specific characteristics by

providing hereditary information and triggering the production of proteins within the
body.

DNA

This computer-generated model shows two strands of deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA) and the double-helical structure typical of this class of nucleic acids.

The genetic blueprint for each cell and ultimately the blueprint that determines
every characteristic of a living organism.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

genetic material of certain viruses and, in cellular organisms, the molecule that
directs the middle steps of protein production.

In RNA viruses, the RNA directs two processesprotein synthesis and

replication

. In cellular organisms, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), carries the information

that determines protein structure. But DNA cannot act alone and relies upon RNA to
transfer this crucial information during protein synthesis (production of the proteins
needed by the cell for its activities and development).

In 1953 American biochemist James D. Watson and British biophysicist Francis Crick
published the first description of the structure of DNA. Their model proved to be so
important for the understanding of protein synthesis, DNA replication, and mutation that
they were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine for their work.

Genetic Mapping
This gel scan showing the arrangement of chromosomes within a cell allows
experts to take a closer look at the genetic makeup of each individual. With the
completion of the human genome project in 2003, geneticists compiled a map identifying
and locating every gene in the human body.

Chromosome

This photomicrograph shows a specialized type of giant chromosomes called

polytene chromosomes. Polytene chromosomes occur in many species of two-winged
flies. They are formed when the strands of DNA within normal chromosomes undergo
numerous rounds of replication without separating from one another.
Vitamins and Minerals

Both vitamins and minerals are needed by the body in very small amounts to
trigger the thousands of chemical reactions necessary to maintain good health.

Many of these chemical reactions are linked, with one triggering another.

If there is a missing or deficient vitamin or mineralor linkanywhere in this

chain, this process may break down, with potentially devastating health effects.
Fat-soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A

Green vegetables, milk products, liver

Component of light-sensitive pigments in eye, epithelial tissue maintenance

Night blindness, permanent blindness, extremely dry skin

Vitamin D
Dairy products, eggs, cod liver oil; ultraviolet light
Calcium absorption, bone formation
Rickets (bone deformities)

Vitamin E
Margarine, seeds, green leafy vegetables
Protects fatty acids and cell membranes from oxidation, antioxidants

Possibly anemia

Vitamin K
Green leafy vegetables
Blood clotting. It helps in producing the enzyme prothrombin, which is needed to
form fibrin for blood to clot.

Uncontrolled bleeding
Water-soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Organ meats, pork, grains, legumes

Carbohydrate metabolism, nerve and heart function

Beriberi (weakened heart, edema, nerve and muscle degeneration)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Milk products, liver, eggs, grains, legumes
Energy metabolism
Eye irritation, inflammation and breakdown of skin cells

Vitamin B3 (Niacin or Nicotinic Acid)

Liver, lean meats, grains, legumes
Oxidation-reduction reactions in cellular respiration
Pellegra (skin and gastrointestinal disorders, nerve inflammation, mental
disorders)

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Milk products, liver, eggs, grains, legumes
Energy metabolism
Fatigue, loss of coordination

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Whole-grain cereals, vegetables, meats
Amino acid metabolism
Convulsions, irritability, kidney stones

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Red meats, eggs, dairy products
Nucleic acid production
Pernicious anemia, neurological disorders

Biotin
Meats, vegetables, legumes
Fat synthesis and amino acid metabolism
Depression, fatigue, nausea

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Citrus fruits, green leafy vegetables, tomatoes

Collagen formation in teeth, bone, and connective tissue of blood vessels; may
help in resisting infection

Scurvy (breakdown of skin, blood vessels, and teeth)

Folic Acid
Whole-wheat foods, green vegetables, legumes
Nucleic acid metabolism
Anemia, diarrhea
Minerals

Calcium

Milk, cheese, dried legumes, vegetables

Bone and teeth formation, blood clotting, and nerve transmission

Rickets, osteoporosis, convulsions

Chlorine
Foods containing salt; some vegetables and fruits
Fluid regulation between cells or cell layers
Acid-base imbalance in body fluids (very rare)
Potassium
Bananas, leafy vegetables, potatoes, cantaloupe, milk, meats
Acid-base balance and fluid balance maintenance, nerve transmission
Muscle cramps, mental confusion, loss of appetite, irregular cardiac rhythm
Sulfur
Fish, poultry, meats
Acid-base balance maintenance and liver function
Disorders unlikely if body gets small amounts needed
Fluorine
Drinking water, tea, seafood
Bone structure maintenance, decay-resistant teeth
Osteoporosis; tooth decay
Iodine
Salt-water fish, shellfish, dairy products, vegetables, iodized salt
Component of thyroid hormone
Enlarged thyroid (goiter)
Iron
Lean meats, eggs, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, legumes
Hemoglobin formation in blood; energy metabolism
Anemia