1 Introduction

It is a well-known fact that the interior portions of the globe are very hot, the temperature rising, as observations show, with the approach to the center at the rate of approximately 1degree
C. for every hundred feet of depth. The difficulties of sinking shafts and placing boilers at
depths of, say, twelve thousand feet, corresponding to an increase in temperature of about
120 degrees C., are not insuperable, and we could certainly avail ourselves in this way of the
internal heat of the globe. In fact, it would not be necessary to go to any depth at all in order
to derive energy from the stored terrestrial heat. The superficial layers of the earth are at a
temperature sufficiently high to evaporate some extremely volatile substances, which we might
use in our boilers instead of water.
Nikola Tesla, The Problem of Increasing Human Energy With Special
References totheHarnessing of the Suns Energy,
Century Illustrated Magazine, June 1900
As the above quote demonstrates, the vision of utilizing the Earths internal heat to benefit the world
is not new. It has long been recognized that energy, in the form of heat, is constantly radiating from
the Earths surface into space. Some of that energy is solar energy that has been absorbed by soil
and rock and reradiated as infrared radiation. But on average about 1% of that energy radiating into
space is from the Earth itself. Although it may seem insignificant, in fact the amount of heat energy
the Earth contains is staggeringthere is enough heat energy in the subsurface to satisfy the energy
needs of every nation of the world many times over.
That heat energy is geothermal energy. It is remnant heat derived from the formation of the planet
four and a half billion years ago, as well as heat from the radioactive decay of naturally occurring
unstable isotopes. That heat is sufficient to power plate tectonics, which is the slow movement of
massive blocks of the Earths crust and upper mantle, and to drive mountain building processes that
occur when those blocks collide. It is also sufficient to melt rock, generate volcanoes, heat water to
form hot springs, and keep basements at a constant temperature. It is a perpetual and inexhaustible
energy resource.
With a few important exceptions, geothermal energy did not play a major role in the energy mix
associated with power generation or other applications until the latter half of the twentieth century.
At that time, growing interest in the environmental, economic, and social aspects of energy generation and use encouraged exploration of energy sources that would diminish reliance on fossil
fuels. This chapter will discuss the context of those changes and their implication for the development of geothermal energy. The chapters that follow will consider specific topics that, if taken
together, provide a comprehensive body of knowledge for informed consideration of geothermal
energy use.

The Global Energy Landscape

The Historical Role of Fuel
One of the hallmarks of the human species is the creative use of energy. Over many centuries
humanity learned through experience, insight, and experimentation that fire could be controlled and
used to our mutual benefit. And, with that ability and skill, the quality of life has rapidly improved
for an ever-growing proportion of the planets people.
1

Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

The use of fire to support life and industry is dependent upon a fuel source. The ability to access,
control, and maintain a source of fuel is a prerequisite for supporting industrial activity and economic
growth. As a result, discussions about energy have become inextricably linked with the necessity
that a fuel source exists to support energy production. When fuel is readily available and the population competing for it is relatively small, growth and development are not constrained by the fuel
source. Population growth and technological evolution, however, have changed this condition.

The Impact of Population Growth and per Capita Energy Use

Plotted in Figure 1.1 are two trends that demonstrate the nature of the challenge posed by
population growth and energy demand. One important fact is that the population of the planet
has been growing exponentially. Between 1850 and 2006, the population increased from about
1.3 billion to about 6.5 billion, an increase of five times. Current estimates are that, between the
years 2000 and 2050, the population will grow from about 6.1 billion to about 8.9 billion, an
increase of 47% in 50 years (United Nations 2004). Although this projected growth rate is slower
than it has been historically, it does demonstrate that the population of the planet will continue
to grow at a fast pace.
The other part of Figure 1.1 shows the average use of energy per person on the planet per year.
Between the years 1850 and 2006 the average per person energy consumption increased from about
4.85 109 J/person/yr to over 76.2 109 J/person/yr, an increase of more than 15 times. In other
words, not only is the population of the planet growing rapidly, the average person is using more
energy each year than they used previously.
8.0

6.0
5.0
4.0

8.0

3.0

7.0

2.0

6.0

1.0
0
1650

5.0

(b)
1750

1850
Year

1950

4.0

2050

3.0
2.0
(a)

1650

1750

1850
Year

1950

Global population (109)

Joules/person/yr (1010)

7.0

1.0
0
2050

FIGURE 1.1 (a) Population of the planet since 1700. Population estimates for 1950 through 2006 from the
U.S. Census Bureau Web site (http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/informationGateway.php). Earlier population estimates were derived from data in Grbler, 1998. (b) Energy consumption per person since 1700.
Energy consumption through 1979 is based on data from Hafele and Sassin (1977). Data for 1980 through
2006 are from the United States Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2006.

Introduction

In this situation, access to fuel becomes an important factor affecting economic, political, industrial, and social activity. Situations that disturb the free flow of fuel can have important global
impacts. Upheavals in supply of oil and oil prices, for example, such as occurred in the early 1970s
and in 2007, underscore this point.

Fuel Emissions and Environmental Considerations

An additional issue that has taken on importance concerns the environmental impact of fuel extraction and energy use. There now is little scientific debate that the use of carbon-based fuels for
energy generation has affected the atmosphere and with it the global climate (Solomon et al. 2007).
Carbon-based fuels and human activity produce gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen and methane (CH4), among others, all of which affect the ability of the atmosphere to absorb
or transmit radiation. As the abundance of these greenhouse gases increases in the atmosphere, the
transmissivity of the atmosphere to thermal energy drops. The result is an increase in the average
surface temperature of the planet. It is precisely this process that has kept the surface of Venus at a
nearly uniform temperatures of 462C (approximately 736 K or 864F). The absence of greenhouse
gases is also the reason Mars never gets above 0C.
Figure 1.2 shows the history of the annual total global CO2 emissions since 1700. Between 1850
and 2006 total emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere from human activity increased from 5.4 1010
kg/yr to 8.23 1012 kg/yr. This change represents an increase of more than 152 times. Also shown in
Figure 1.2 is the change in per capita annual emissions of CO2. For the same time period, per capita
emissions increased by more than 30 times.
Whether viewed from the perspective of economics, environmental stewardship, social stability, or
national interest, these patterns of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions have commanded
global attention. It is precisely for these reasons that the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) established the Intergovernmental
Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) to provide the world with a clear scientific view on the current
state of climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic consequences, as stated
on the IPCC Web site (http://www.ipcc.ch). It is within this context that renewable energy sources
such as geothermal energy take on significance.

8.0

1,400
Per capita emissions

1,200
1,000

6.0

800
Total global emissions

600

4.0

400
2.0

0
1650

200
1750

1850
Year

1950

Annual per capita emissions (kgs CO2)

Total CO2 emissions (kg 1012)

10.0

0
2050

FIGURE 1.2 Total global emission of CO2 per year since 1750 and the per capita CO2 emission for the
same period. (Derived from Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J., Global, Regional, and National
Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN, doi 10.3334/CDIAC/00001, 2009.)

Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

Geothermal Energy as a Renewable Energy Source

No Fuel, Few Emissions
As noted above, the historical use of energy has relied on fuel to make heat. The sources of fuel
have traditionally been wood, coal, oil, and natural gas. The changes in the use of these fuels over
time within the United States, as well as the contribution of hydroelectric and nuclear generation,
are shown in Figure 1.3. Coal, natural gas, and oil account for more than 85% of the energy used
in the United States. Although these fuels may, in combination, provide decades to several hundred
years of supply, the combination of greenhouse gas emissions and competition for the petroleumbased fuels that are implicit in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 have made problematic reliance on these energy
sources. In addition, these fuels are derived from a resource base that is not being replenished.
Instead, these resources are being extracted from geologically derived materials that took millions
of years to form. As a commodity, these fossil fuels are not renewable and will become more and
more difficult, and hence more costly, to extract.
It is for these reasons that there is growing interest in finding sources of energy that reduce reliance on fossil fuels to generate heat to produce work, and which can reduce or eliminate production
of greenhouse gases. Criteria that are generally used to establish the viability of an energy source
that would supplant or displace reliance on fossil fuels are the following:

It is sufficiently abundant to meet a significant percentage of the market demand.

It can be obtained at a cost competitive with existing energy sources.
Its use will reduce or eliminate greenhouse gas emissions.
It is self-replenishing (i.e., renewable).

These criteria can be best employed in selection of alternative energy sources by understanding how
fossil-fueled energy is used and how it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.
Figure 1.4 shows the energy-consuming sectors of the United States economy and their respective greenhouse gas emissions in 2006. Currently, the transportation sector is the single largest
4.0
3.5

Joules (1019)

3.0

Oil
United States energy consumption,
by source
Natural
gas

2.5
2.0

Coal

1.5

Nuclear

1.0
0.5
0
1650

Hydroelectric
Wood

1750

1850
Year

1950

2050

FIGURE 1.3 (See color insert following page 170.) Sources of energy in the United States since 1650. U.S.
Energy Information Administration (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/intro.html).

Introduction

CO2 emissions (kgs, 109)

4000

3000

United States,
2006

2000

1000

Residential
Commercial

Electricity
generation
Transportation
Industrial

0
Total emissions 5890 109 kgs

FIGURE 1.4 The amount of CO2 emissions from commercial, residential, industrial, and transportation
sectors of the United States economy in 2006. Those four sectors generated a total of 5890 109 kg of CO2 in
that year. Also shown is the total amount of CO2 emitted through electricity generation, which contributed to
all of those sectors. (United States Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook, 2008.)

contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Transportation relies, for the most part, on liquid fuels.
This fact places important limitations on energy sources being considered for this sector. The
other three sectors together contribute about two-thirds of the total emission of greenhouse gases.
Significantly more than half of that contribution comes from the generation of electricity that supports those sectors. Electricity generation alone accounts for nearly half of all greenhouse gas emissions. This situation reflects the fact that power generation is accomplished primarily by burning
coal, natural gas, and oil.
In combination, these facts and observations suggest that the greatest reduction in the use of
fossil fuels can be accomplished by:
Reducing the demand for electricity
Replacing fossil fuel-based electrical generation capacity with renewable energy sources
Replacing fossil fuel-based liquid fuels with other forms of portable energy sources
Geothermal energy can significantly contribute to all of these needs. In combination with other
renewable energy sources and astute conservation efforts, most of the energy needs for the world
can be satisfied using these resources.
Geothermal energy has several attributes that allow it to satisfy the criteria listed above. One
attribute is that geothermal energy requires no fuel. Since it relies on the persistent flow of heat
from the Earths interior, it can be tapped without recourse to a fuel supply infrastructure. For every
kilowatt of electrical energy displaced by geothermal energy use, the greenhouse gas emissions that
would have been produced from a fossil-fueled power plant are reduced by a minimum of 90% and,
in many cases, they are eliminated completely.

Geothermal Energy Is a Flexible Energy Resource

Another significant attribute is that geothermal heat occurs in diverse ways, making it possible
to use it for different purposes. One such application is for heating and cooling buildings. Every
square meter of land surface has heat flowing through it. Although the temperature of the upper
few meters of soil and rock fluctuate with the effects of local weather patterns and solar insolation,

Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

the temperature at depths of 310 meters is usually constant because of the flow of heat from the
interior of the Earth. That heat can be used as a source of energy for heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) buildings using ground source heat pumps (GSHP; Chapter 10). Due to their high
efficiency, GSHP use diminishes electrical demand. When combined with programs that improve
building efficiency, such applications of geothermal energy can displace a significant percentage of
electricity generation that is required to meet the HVAC load.
In many areas, modest heat flow is available to allow the use of geothermal energy for industrial
applications that currently rely on fossil fuels. These direct use applications include food processing, drying materials, agricultural activities and greenhouses, aquaculture, paper manufacturing,
and so on. Although such applications have been developed and successfully used throughout the
world, they remain relatively unknown and vastly underutilized. Chapter 11 discusses many of these
applications.
In regions where geothermal energy occurs at a higher density, as discussed in Chapters 2 and
9, temperatures are high enough to allow the generation of electrical power. Figure 1.5 shows a
comparison of CO2 emissions for fossil-fueled power generation compared to geothermal plants.
Geothermal power generation in appropriate settings can effect a very significant reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions. As discussed in Chapter 2, current geothermal power generation technology has application in specific geological settings and thus is not currently able to provide electrical
power in all settings. For this reason, its application is restricted to about 30% of the geographical
area of the United States. However, as discussed in Chapter 14, the development of new technology
that allows the drilling and use of deeper wells and geothermal reservoirs will expand deployment
of geothermal generation capabilities to most regions of every continental land mass. It is currently
anticipated that this new technology could supply a large fraction of U.S. electrical power by 2050
(Tester et al. 2006).
Deployment of geothermal energy technologies will be most effective where the attributes of
the technology are matched to the characteristics and needs of the energy sector they are designed
1200

CO2 emissions (kgs/MWh)

Coal
900
Oil
Natural
gas

600

300
Geothermal flash
0

FIGURE 1.5 CO2 emissions (in kg of CO2/MWh) for different power generating technologies. The values
for the generating systems that use fossil fuels are from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency eGrid
2000 database. The data for geothermal power technologies is from Slack (2009). Binary geothermal power
generation produces no emissions. (From K. Slack, Geothermal resources and climate emissions, Geothermal
Energy Association, Washington, DC, Draft Report for Public Review, 2009.)

Introduction

to serve. As an example, the following section discusses one such deployment venuethat of
generating electrical powercurrently the most significant use of geothermal energy.

Electrical Demand and the Characteristicsof

Geothermal Energy
Generating Electrical Power for the Grid
The modern electrical grid has evolved over the last century to reliably supply power to an
increasingly complex market. The grid is a network that links together power generators and
power users through a system of transmission and distribution lines. In principle, a sophisticated
electrical grid can allow a customer on one side of a country to purchase power from a generator
on the other side of a country, or even another country, and reliably have that power provided on
demand. For historical and economic reasons, however, power grids are commonly segmented
into regions supplied and administered by operators and regulators. Such a system allows responsiveness to local and regional needs, while reducing transmission losses, and provides a measure of security from failures in the grid that could be catastrophically transmitted through
thenetwork.
Such a system has several important characteristics and limitations. One characteristic is that the
demand or load on the grid will vary during the day. In a given region, the demand will be lowest
in the earliest morning hours and greatest at some point during the day or early evening. Seasonal
variability will influence the timing of the load and unusual weather can cause spikes in demand at
nontraditional times. Due to this variability, the concepts of baseload, peak load, and load following have evolved and play an important role in designing grid components.
Baseload is the minimum amount of power a supplier must make available to its customers.
The amount of baseload power can vary from hour to hour, depending upon region and the power
demands that exist there. Usually a utility or power administrator will have a historical record and
contractual obligations on which to establish what the baseload demand will be.
The peak load is that load placed on the grid by the immediate conditions that are being experienced at that moment that exceed the baseload. Peak load can vary from day to day and month
to month. It can be strongly affected by such things as extremes in weather or local emergencies.
The capacity to meet this temporary increase in load that exceeds the baseload is called peaking
capacity. A power provider uses historical records to estimate what the likely peak demand will
be. It is on this basis that the maximum required generating capacity in a region is determined.
Generally, a utility or other provider will design the capacity of the local or regional system to
exceed by a few percent the estimated maximum possible peak load.
Load following is the ability to respond to changes in demand for power. Load following requires
the ability to increase power output on a time scale of minutes to tens of minutes. This can be
accomplished by either having generating plants capable of relatively rapid changes in power output, or having in place contractual agreements to buy power on short notice from suppliers who can
quickly respond to demand changes.
Geothermal power plants are generally viewed as baseload power plants. In this sense they are
different from solar and wind power generating facilities, which are intermittent. Although all of
these facilities have the advantage that they do not require a fuel supply infrastructure to provide
energy, power generation from solar or wind facilities is interrupted (i.e., is intermittent) on a
diurnal and/or seasonal cycle and thus cannot provide baseload capability. In contrast, geothermal
energy never stops being supplied from the Earths interior and can thus be part of a baseload
supply system. Conversely, this also means that geothermal power is not well suited to provide
either load following capacity or peaking power, whereas solar or wind may be, depending upon

Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

the local and regional circumstances. However, research and development efforts are underway to
develop the means to manage geothermal power facilities to allow a load following and peaking
capability.

Generating Electrical Power for Local Use

Electrical power generation as described above is the primary means whereby residential, commercial, and industrial customers obtain electrical power. However, renewable energy resources readily
lend themselves to situations where power generation can be accomplished with modest generators
that supply power to a limited number of customers in a restricted area. Such distributed generation capabilities are growing in number. The compact nature of new generation binary geothermal
generators, for example, have the potential to supply a few hundred to a few thousand kilowatts of
power from a single well. Such a facility can supply power to an industrial site, a small community,
or any other type of operation that requires power at that scale without accessing the power grid.
Such facilities require minimal operational oversight and can be cost effective. These systems are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.

How This Book is Organized

Geothermal energy is a complex energy source with diverse applications. For that reason, this book
develops the fundamental scientific principles that apply to geothermal energy resources and their
use in Chapter 2 (Earth sciences), Chapter 3 (thermodynamics), Chapter 4 (hydrology), and Chapter 5
(geochemistry). Using the principles developed in those chapters, the topics of exploring for resources
(Chapter 6), assessing their properties and magnitude (Chapter 7), and drilling for the resource
(Chapter 8) are then discussed. The properties, characteristics, and operational fundamentals are
considered for each of the applications that employee geothermal energy in Chapter 9 (power generation), Chapter 10 (ground source heat pumps), and Chapter 11 (direct use applications). Chapters12
and 13 present the environmental and economic issues, respectively, associated with geothermal
applications. Chapter 14 discusses possible future developments that can significantly affect the role
of geothermal energy in the overall energy landscape.
Within each chapter, certain conventions are followed in the presentation of material. The first
time a word or phrase is used that contains important conceptual material and will appear repeatedly in the future is italicized. To assure that the material is presented with sufficient rigor that
the basic concepts and principles are precisely accurate, mathematical descriptions are used when
appropriate. It is assumed that the reader has a basic command of algebra, trigonometry, and calculus. Finally, resources that contain important information are referenced in the body of the material
in each chapter. When appropriate, Web sites are included. There is also, at the end of each chapter,
an annotated list of a few key information sources that can provide useful information beyond that
contained in the body of the chapter.

Synopsis
Growth in the human population and energy use, as well as the consequent environmental impacts
have lead to interest in finding new energy resources that are renewable and have reduced greenhouse
gas emissions. Geothermal energy is a versatile resource that can be used in many situations to meet
these goals. It requires no fuel supply and related infrastructure and can be deployed in a variety of
settings. Geothermal energy can be used to provide heat for heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) or other purposes, as well as for power generation. It has the potential to play an important
role in the transition from fossil fuels to energy sources that have minor environmental impacts.
Successful deployment of renewable energy resources, however, requires that the resource be carefully matched to the application being developed.

Introduction

Problems

1.1 What is baseload energy?

1.2 Using the data in Figure 1.1, plot the doubling time for per capita power use at 25 year
intervals. The doubling time is the time required for a value to double. Discuss the
implications of this plot.
1.3 From an environmental perspective, how does geothermal energy use differ from that
of fossil-fueled systems? What are the benefits? What are the disadvantages?
1.4 If one were to use geothermal, solar, wind, and biomass technologies together, what
would be the considerations that would have to be addressed in order to satisfy the
daily and seasonal load?
1.5 Assume that protocols are put in place to reduce global CO2 emissions to the levels in
1980. Using the data in Figures 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5, suggest, quantitatively, how this might
be achieved? What assumptions must you make to do these calculations?

REFERENCES
Boden, T. A., G. Marland, and R. J. Andres. 2009. Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions.
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of
Energy, Oak Ridge, TN, doi 10.3334/CDIAC/00001.
Grbler, A. 1998. Technology and Global Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hafele, W., and W. Sassin. 1977. The Global Energy System. Annual Reviews of Energy 2:130.
Slack, K. 2009. Geothermal resources and climate emissions. Geothermal Energy Association, Washington,
DC. Draft Report for Public Review.
Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller., eds.
2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. New York and Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Tester, J. W., B. J. Anderson, A. S. Batchelor, D. D. Blackwell, R. DiPippio, E. M. Drake, J. Garnish, et al. 2006.
The Future of Geothermal Energy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
United Nations. 2004. World Population to 2300. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division. Report ST/ESA/SER.A/236.
United States Energy Information Administration. 2008. Annual Energy Outlook 2008. U. S. Department of
Energy Report DOE/EIA-0383 (2008).

FURTHER INFORMATION
The Geothermal Energy Association (GEA; http://www.geo-energy.org/)
The GEA is a trade organization dedicated to providing timely and accurate information
about many aspects of geothermal energy. They are an excellent data and information
resource. They are particularly useful for obtaining timely information regarding topics
that have been in the media recently.
The Geothermal Resources Council (GRC; http://www.geothermal.org/)
The GRC is a membership organization dedicated to supporting geothermal energy activities of all kinds. It has the worlds most complete library on geothermal topics and is an
excellent resource for data, links to information sources and industry members.
The International Geothermal Association (IGA; http://www.geothermal-energy.org/index.php)
The IGA performs a function complementary to that of the GRC, but with a broader international focus. It is particularly useful for information concerning geothermal activities
outside the United States.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA)
The U.S. EPA maintains a Web site at which it is possible to obtain information regarding
a broad range of energy-related topics and their environmental attributes. The Web site for
Clean Energy (http://www.epa.gov/RDEE/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html) is
a good portal to begin exploration of that topic.