FINGERPRINTS

History

The first systematic attempt at personal identification was

devised by a French police expert, Alphonse Bertillion.
The Bertillion system relied on a detailed description of the
subject, combined with full length and profile photographs and
a system of precise body measurements called anthropometry.
In 1892 Francis Galton published his classic textbook Finger
Prints.
At Galtons insistence, the British government adopted
fingerprinting as a supplement to the Bertillion system.
The next step was the creation of classification systems
capable of filing many thousands of prints in a logical and
searchable sequence.

History

Dr. Juan Vucetich devised a classification system still used in

most Spanish-speaking countries, while Sir Edward Henry
devised another classification system used in most Englishspeaking countries.

Dr. Juan Vucetich

In 1892, two children were found brutally murdered in their home in

Argentina. The 27-year-old mother, Francisca Rojas, also had her throat cut.
Police looked into her neighbor Pedro Ramn Velzquez., but he had an alibi,
having been out with several friends at the time of the murders.
A bloody print was found on a door post. Remembering the training he
received from Juan Vucetich, Police Inspector Alvarez removed the section of
the door with the impression and then requested Rojas be fingerprinted.
He compared the impression on the door to that of Rojas and matched it to
her. When confronted with this evidence, Rojas broke down and confessed to
the murders. Rojas' boyfriend had been overheard saying he would marry her
"except for those two brats".
As a result of the Rojas murders, Argentina became the first country in the
world to abolish anthropometry and file its criminal records based solely on
fingerprint classification. Vucetich's classification system is still used in many
South American countries today.
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History

In 1903, when the Bertillion system could not distinguish

between two men (one Will West and the other William West),
it was fingerprinting that clearly distinguished them.
After the Will West incident, the use of fingerprinting by the
New York City Civil Service Commission in 1901, and the
training of American police by Scotland Yard representatives at
the 1904 Worlds Fair, fingerprinting began to be used in
earnest in all major U.S. cities.

Will West or
William West?

When a man named Will West entered the Leavenworth Prison

System, in 1903, he was booked into the prison, as all other
inmates. His face was photographed, and his Bertillion
measurements were taken. Upon completion of this process, it
was noted that another inmate, known as William West, who
was already incarcerated at Leavenworth, had the same name,
Bertillion measurements, and bore a striking resemblance to Will
West.
The incident called the reliability of Bertillion measurements
into question, and it was decided that a more positive means of
identification was necessary. After 1903, many prison systems
began to use fingerprints as the primary means of identification.
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Fingerprint Principles
Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin
ridges found on the palm side of the fingers
and thumbs.
The basic principles underlying the use of
fingerprints in criminal investigations are that:

(1) a fingerprint is an individual characteristic because no

two fingers have yet been found to possess identical ridge
characteristics;
(2) a fingerprint will remain unchanged during an individuals
lifetime; and
(3) fingerprints have general ridge patterns that permit them
to be systematically classified.

Fingerprint ridge characteristics.

A fingerprint exhibit illustrating the matching ridge

characteristics between the crime-scene print and an
inked impression of one of the suspects fingers.
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Principle One

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Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two

identical fingerprint patterns in the worlds population is
extremely small.
Besides theoretical calculations, of the millions upon millions
of individuals who have had their prints classified, no two
fingerprints have been found to be identical.
The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its
general shape or pattern, but by the careful study of its
ridge characteristics, known as minutiae.
It is the identity, number, and relative location of these
minutiae that imparts individuality to a fingerprint.
There are as many as 150 minutiae on the average finger.

Types of minutiae

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Principle One

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After a three year study, it was determined that no

valid basis exists for requiring a predetermined
minimum number of friction ridge characters which
must be present in two impressions in order to
establish positive identification.
In a judicial proceeding, an expert must demonstrate
a point-by-point comparison in order to prove the
identity of an individual.

Principal Two

The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, while the

dermis is the inner layer of the skin.
The dermal papillae is the layer of cells between the
epidermis and dermis, that is responsible for
determining the form and pattern of the ridges on
the surface of the skin.
Once the dermal papillae develop in the human fetus,
the ridge patterns will remain unchanged throughout
life except to enlarge during growth. Thus, a
fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
individuals lifetime.
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Cross-section of human skin.

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Principle Two

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Each skin ridge is populated with pores leading to

sweat glands from which perspiration is deposited on
the skin.
Once the finger touches a surface, perspiration, along
with oils that may have been picked up by touching
the hairy portions of the body, is transferred onto
that surface, leaving the fingers ridge pattern (a
fingerprint).

Principle Three

All fingerprints are divided into three classes on the basis

of their general pattern: loops, arches, and whorls (L.A.W.)

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Principle Three

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A loop must have one or more ridges entering from

one side of the print, recurving, and exiting from the
same side.

Principle Three

If the loop opens toward the little

finger, it is called an ulnar loop.
If the loop opens toward the thumb,
it is called a radial loop.

Delt
a
L Radial Loop
R - Ulnar Loop
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L Ulnar Loop
R - Radial Loop

Principle Three

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All loops must have one delta, which is the ridge point at
or directly in front of the point where two ridge lines
(type lines) diverge.

Principle Three

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Whorls are divided into four groups: plain, central

pocket loop, double loop, and accidental.
All whorl patterns have type lines and a minimum of
two deltas.
A plain whorl and a central pocket loop have at least
one ridge that makes a complete circuit.

Principle Three

Draw a line between the two deltas in the plain and

central pocket whorls. If some of the curved ridges
touch the line, it is a plain whorl. If none of the
center core touches the line, it is a central pocket
whorl.

Plain
Whorl

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Central
Pocket
Whorl

Principle Three

The double loop is made up of two loops combined

into one fingerprint.
An accidental either contains two or more patterns,
or is a pattern not covered by the other categories.

Delta

Delta

Double Loop Whorl

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Accidental

Principle Three

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Arches, the least common of the three general

patterns, are divided into two distinct groups: plain
arches and tented arches.
The plain arch is formed by ridges entering from one
side of the print, rising and falling, and exiting on the
opposite side (like a wave).

Principle Three

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The tented arch is similar to the plain arch except

that instead of rising smoothly at the center, there is a
sharp upthrust or spike, or the ridges meet at an
angle that is less than 90 degrees.
Arches do not have type lines, deltas, or cores.

Latent Prints

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Once the finger touches a surface, body perspiration

and/or oils present on the finger ridges are transferred to
that surface, leaving an impression.
Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye
and are commonly referred to as latent or invisible
fingerprints.

Visible Prints

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Visible (patent) prints are made when fingers

touch a surface after the ridges have been in
contact with a colored material such as blood,
paint, grease, or ink.
Plastic prints are ridge impressions left on a
soft material, such as putty, wax, soap, or dust.
Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime
scene normally presents little problem to the
investigator, because these prints are usually
distinct and visible to the eye.

Latent Prints

Once located, the crime scene investigator can

develop the print in the most appropriate fashion.
Latent prints deposited on hard and nonabsorbent
surfaces (e.g., glass, mirror, tile, and painted wood) are
preferably developed by the application of a powder.
Whereas prints on porous surfaces (e.g., papers,
cardboard, and cloth) generally require treatment
with a chemical.

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Porous Surfaces

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Types of Evidence
Paper items
Cardboard
Unfinished wood
Examiners use various chemical methods to visualize
latent prints on porous surfaces, such as iodine
fuming, ninhydrin, and Physical Developer.

Porous Evidence

Processing Techniques

1,2-Indanedione (IND)
Ninhydrin (NIN)
1,8-Diazafluoren-9-One (DFO)
Oil Red O (ORO)
Iodine Fuming (IF)

NIN
IND

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ORO

IF

Detecting Prints

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Ninhydrin reacts chemically with trace amounts of

amino acids present in latent prints to produce a
purple-blue color.

Non-Porous Evidence

Types of Evidence

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Plastic
Glass
Metal
Non-adhesive side of tape

Non-Porous Evidence

Processing Techniques

Cyanoacrylate Ester

Powders

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Black, magnetic, fluorescent

Fluorescent Dye Stain

Superglue (SG)

Rhodamine 6G (R6G)
RAM

Amido Black

Detecting Prints

Powders, available in a variety of colors, can be

applied with a brush or magnetic wand, and adhere to
perspiration and/or body oils of the print.
Super Glue fuming develops latent prints on
nonporous surfaces, such as metals, electrical tape,
leather, and plastic bags.

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Development occurs when fumes from the glue adhere to

the print, usually producing a white latent print.

Detecting Prints

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Super Glue is approximately 98 to 99 percent

cyanoacrylate ester, a chemical that actually interacts
with and visualizes a latent fingerprint.
Super Glue fuming can be accomplished by using
either a fuming chamber (for up to six hours) or a
handheld wand that heats a small cartridge containing
cyanoacrylate.

Amido Black

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Detecting Prints

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The high sensitivity of fluorescence serves as the

underlying principle of many of the new chemical
techniques used to visualize latent fingerprints.
Fingerprints are treated with chemicals that would
induce fluorescence when exposed to lasers, or highintensity light sources (alternate light sources) such
as quartz halogen, xenon arc, or indium arc light
sources.

Detecting Prints

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Once the latent print has been visualized, it must be

permanently preserved for future comparison and for
possible use as court evidence.
A photograph must be taken before any further
attempts at preservation are made.

Transporting Prints

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If the object is small enough to be transported without

destroying the print, it should be preserved in its entirety.
Prints on large immovable objects that have been
developed with a powder can best be preserved by
lifting with a broad adhesive tape.
Then, the tape is placed on a properly labeled card that
provides a good background contrast with the powder.

Digital Imaging

Digital imaging is the process by which a picture is

converted into a digital computer file.
With the help of digital imaging software, fingerprints,
which are often not in perfect condition, can now be
enhanced for the most accurate and comprehensive
analysis.

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Comparison

3 Levels of Detail:

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Level 1: Overall Ridge flow, pattern types

Level 2: Ridge paths, minutiae
Level 3: Size and shapes of pores and ridges,
incipient ridges, scars

Comparison- Level 1

Overall ridge flow, pattern

Arches: plain & tented (5%)

Whorls: plain, central pocket loop, double loop, accidental (30-35%)
Loops : radial & ulnar (60-65%)

Exclusions can occur at this level

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Comparison-Level 2

Individual ridge path, minutiae

Different degrees of rarity in minutiae

Identification occurs at this level

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Comparison-Level 3

Ridge shape - ridge width and shape, pores, edge contour,

incipient ridges, creases, scars

Can support IDs

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Evaluation

Look at all the information between the latent print and

known print

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Quality and quantity of similarities or differences to render a

conclusion

Verification

All latent print identifications are

independently examined by another
competent latent print examiner (ACE)

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Verification/2nd Verification
Blind Verification

IAFIS

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AFIS

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The heart of AFIS technology is the ability of a

computer to scan and digitally encode fingerprints so
that they can be subject to high-speed computer
processing.
AFIS aids in classifying and retrieving fingerprints by
converting the image of a fingerprint into digital
minutiae that contain data showing ridges at their
points of termination (ridge endings) and their
branching into two ridges (bifurcations).
When the search is complete (a computer can make
thousands of comparisons per second), the computer
produces a list of file prints that must be examined by a
trained fingerprint expert.

IAFIS

Not only fingerprints, but corresponding criminal histories;

mug shots; scars and tattoo photos; physical characteristics like
height, weight, and hair and eye color; and aliases.
The system also includes civil fingerprints, mostly of individuals
who have served/are serving in the U.S. military or have been
or are employed by the federal government.
In the summer of 2014, IAFIS was replaced by Next
Generation Identification program (NGI) which provides
automated fingerprint and latent search capabilities, electronic
image storage, and electronic exchange of fingerprints to more
than 18,000 law enforcement agencies and other authorized
criminal justice partners 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
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Comparison

ACE-V

Analysis
Comparison
Evaluation
Verification
https://mlbl13.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/latent-comparison.jpg

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Questions?

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