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6.1
What are the three main metallurgical stages that a sheet of a cold-worked metal such as
aluminum or copper goes through as it is heated from room temperature to an elevated
temperature just below its melting point?
The three main stages are recovery, recrystallization and grain growth.
6.2
6.3
6.4
When a cold-worked metal is heated into the temperature range where recovery takes
place, how are the following affected: (a) internal residual stresses, (b) strength, (c)
ductility, and (d) hardness?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
6.5
6.6
When a cold-worked metal is heated into the temperature range where recrystallization
takes place, how are the following affected: (a) internal residual stresses, (b) strength, (c)
ductility, and (d) hardness?
Smith
101
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
6.7
6.8
What are five important factors that affect the recrystallization process in metals?
Five important factors affecting the metal recrystallization process are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.9
What generalizations can be made about the recrystallization temperature with respect to
(a) the degree of deformation, (b) the temperature, (c) the time of heating at temperature,
(d) the final grain size, and (e) the purity of the metal?
(a) In order for recrystallization to occur, the metal must possess a minimum degree of
deformation. The greater the extent of deformation above this required minima, the
lower the temperature required for recrystallization.
(b) Increasing the temperature decreases the time required for complete recrystallization.
(c) Increasing the rate of heating raises the recrystallization temperature.
(d) The final grain size depends primarily upon the original extent of deformation; the
greater the degree of deformation, the lower the annealing temperature required for
recrystallization.
(e) With decreasing metal purity, the recrystallization temperature rises. Thus, solidsolution alloying additions increase the recrystallization temperature.
6.10
Smith
102
1
6900 min
Q
1
= exp
600 min
8.314 J/mol K 523 K 558 K
ln(11.5)
= 169, 255 J/mol = 169.3 kJ/mol
1.443 105
Dividing,
1
12 min
1
Q
= exp
200 min
8.314 J/mol K 413 K 361 K
ln(0.06) = (4.195 105 )Q
Q=
2.813
= 67, 056 J/mol
4.195 105 mol/J
Q may now be used to determine the time required at 100C (373 K):
12 min
1
67, 056 J/mol 1
= exp
t2
8.314 J/mol K 413 K 373 K
t2 =
6.12
12 min
= 97.4 min
e2.094
Smith
103
Dividing,
1
80 h
Q
1
= exp
6h
8.314 J/mol K 523 K 573 K
6.13
2.59
= 129, 048 J/mol=129 kJ/mol
2.007 10 5 mol/J
6.14
6.15
6.16
Smith
104
6.17
Describe the simple impact test that uses a Charpy V-notch sample.
In the Charpy V-notch test, a heavy hammer attached to a pendulum is released from a
known height, and during its downward swing, strikes and fractures a notched specimen.
The energy absorbed by the specimen, a measure of toughness, is calculated based upon
the change in potential energy of the pendulum.
6.18
How does the carbon content of a plain-carbon steel affect the ductile-brittle transition
temperature range?
As the carbon content of the steel increases, the ductile-brittle transition temperature
range increases in terms of both the width of the range and the temperature values.
6.19
Determine the critical crack length for a through crack contained within a thick plate of
7075-T751 aluminum alloy that is under uniaxial tension. For this alloy KIC = 22.0
ksi in. and f = 82.0 ksi. Assume Y = .
K IC = Y f a
1K
a = IC
Y f
Determine the critical crack length for a through crack in a thick plate of 7150-T651
aluminum alloy that is in uniaxial tension. For this alloy KIC = 25.5.0 ksi in. and f =
400.0 ksi. Assume Y = .
K IC = Y f a
1K
a = IC
Y f
1 25.5 MPa m
4
=
= 4.12 10 m
(400.0 MPa)
For an internal through crack, the critical length is ac = 2a = 8.24 10-4 m = 0.824 mm.
6.21
The critical stress intensity (KIC) for a material for a component of a design is 23.0
ksi in. What is the applied stress that will cause fracture if the component contains an
internal crack 0.13 in. long? Assume Y = 1.
The applicable crack length is a = ac = (0.13 in.)/2 = 0.065 in. Substituting,
f =
Smith
K IC
Y a
105
6.22
What is the largest size (mm) internal through crack that a thick plate of aluminum alloy
7075-T651 can support at an applied stress of (a) three-quarters of the yield strength and
(b) one-half of the yield strength? Assume Y = 1.
From Table 6.1, for 7075-T651, K IC = 24.2 MPa m and YS = 495 MPa.
3
3
(a) Given f = YS , we calculate, f = (495 MPa) = 371.25 MPa. Assuming Y = 1,
4
4
the crack length is,
2
1K
1 24.2 MPa m
3
a = IC =
= 1.35 10 m = 1.35 mm
Y f (1)(371.25 MPa)
Thus, for an internal through crack, ac = 2a = 2.70 mm
1
1
(b) Given f = YS = (495 MPa)= 247.5 MPa, and assuming Y = 1,
2
2
1K
a = IC
Y f
1 24.2 MPa m
3
=
= 3.04 10 m = 3.04 mm
(1)(247.5
MPa)
A Ti-6Al-4V alloy plate contains an internal through crack of 1.90 mm. What is the
highest stress (MPa) that this material can withstand without catastrophic failure?
Assume Y = .
The applicable crack length is a = ac = (1.90 mm)/2 = 0.95 mm. And from Table 6.1,
K IC = 55.0 MPa m. Substituting,
f =
6.24
K IC
Y a
55.0 MPa m
(9.5 104 m)
= 568.0 MPa
Using the equation K IC = f a , plot the fracture stress (MPa) for aluminum alloy
7075-T651 versus surface crack size a (mm) for a values from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm. What
is the minimum size surface crack that will cause catastrophic failure?
In order to generate the required plot, we must first calculate the fracture stress for values
of a ranging from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm using the given relation:
f =
Smith
K IC
a
106
f =
This relation is used to calculate and plot the following values of fracture stress versus
crack size.
Problem 6.24:
Fracture Stress vs. Surface Crack Length
Crack
Length, a
(mm)
Fracture
Stress, f
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.0
965.4
682.7
557.4
482.7
431.8
364.9
321.8
305.3
(MPa)
1000
800
600
0.76, 495
400
200
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
The minimum surface crack length, for catastrophic failure, would correspond to a
fracture stress equal to the materials yield stress value. Thus, from Table 6.1,
YS = 495 MPa. Substituting,
2
1 K
1 24.2 MPa m
3
a = IC =
= 0.76 10 m = 0.76 mm
f 495.0 MPa
This point has been included in the plot generated for fracture stress vs. surface crack
size. One may deduce that for crack lengths above the minima of 0.76 mm, the alloy will
fracture catastrophically. Whereas, for values of a less than 0.76 mm, the alloy will yield
and fracture at 495 MPa in the normal manner.
6.25
Determine the critical crack length (mm) for a through crack in a thick 2042-T6 alloy
plate that has a fracture toughness KIC = 23.5 MPa m and is under a stress of 300 MPa.
Assume Y = 1.
Smith
107
K IC = Y f a
1K
a = IC
Y f
1 23.5 MPa m
3
=
= 1.95 10 m = 1.95 mm
(1)(300.0
MPa)
6.27
What two distinct types of surface areas are usually recognized on a fatigue failure
surface?
The two distinct types of surface areas typically observed on a fatigue failure surface are:
a smooth region of beach marks created by rubbing action between the crack surface
areas; and a rough region which is formed through the fracture process.
6.28
6.29
What is a fatigue test SN curve, and how are the data for the SN curve obtained?
A fatigue test SN curve is a plot of the fatigue stress to which a specimen is subjected
versus the corresponding cycles, or stress reversals, up to and including the point of
failure. The number of cycles is plotted on a logarithmic scale while the fatigue strength
is plotted on either a linear or logarithmic scale, depending on the data. The SN data is
typically obtained by repeatedly subjecting a rotating specimen to reverse or fluctuating
bending while counting the cycles until destruction occurs. However, specimens may
also be subjected to reversed or fluctuating axial stresses, torsional stresses, or combined
stresses in testing.
6.30
How does the SN curve of a carbon steel differ from that of a high-strength aluminum
alloy?
In an SN curve for a carbon steel, the stress at failure levels off as the number of cycles
exceeds the metals endurance limit of approximately 106 cycles. Whereas the SN curve
for a high strength aluminum alloy continues to gradually decrease as the number of
cycles is increased above 106.
Smith
108
6.31
A fatigue test is made with a maximum stress of 25 ksi (172 MPa) and a minimum stress
of -4.00 ksi (-27.6 MPa). Calculate (a) the stress range, (b) the stress amplitude, (c) the
mean stress, and (d) the stress ratio.
(a) The range of stress is r = max min = 25 ksi (4 ksi) = 29 ksi (199.8 MPa).
4 ksi
= 0.16.
(d) The stress ratio is R = min =
max 25 ksi
6.32
A fatigue test is made with a mean stress of 17,500 psi (120 MPa) and a stress amplitude
of 24,000 psi (165 MPa). Calculate (a) the maximum and minimum stresses, (b) the stress
ratio, and (c) the stress range.
Given m = 17.5 ksi (120 MPa) and a = 24 ksi (165 MPa),
(a)
max = 41.5 ksi (285.9 MPa), min = -6.5 ksi (44.8 MPa)
6.33
(b)
R=
(c)
Describe the four basic structural changes that take place when a homogeneous ductile
metal is caused to fail by fatigue under cyclic stresses.
For a homogeneous ductile metal subjected to fatigue, four stages of structural changes
are observed:
1. Crack initiation: Plastic deformation causes the onset and early development
of fatigue damage.
2. Slipband crack growth (Stage I): Slipband intrusions and extrusions are
created on the surface of the metal while damage along persistent slipbands
Smith
109
occurs within the sample. As a result, cracks form at or near the surface and
propagate along planes subjected to high shear stresses.
3. Crack growth on planes of high tensile stress (Stage II): The slow crack
growth of Stage I is replaced by rapid crack propagation as the crack direction
shifts to a direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress.
During this stage, striations are formed.
4. Ultimate ductile failure: The crack achieves an area sufficient to cause the
rupture of the sample by ductile fracture.
6.34
Describe four major factors that affect the fatigue strength of a metal.
The four primary factors which affect the fatigue strength of a metal are: stress
concentration, surface roughness, surface condition and environment.
6.35
1 35 MPa m
=
= 0.01602 m = 16.02 mm
(1.3)(120 MPa)
a f ( m / 2)+1 a0 ( m / 2)+1
[ (m / 2) + 1] A m m / 2Y m
= 1.18105 cycles
6.36
Same as Prob. 6.35 with tensile stress of 70 MPa. If the initial and critical crack lengths
are 1.25 mm and 12 mm in the plate and the fatigue life is 2.0 106 cycles, calculate the
maximum tensile stress in MPa that will produce this life. Assume m = 3.0 and A = 6.0
10-13 in MPa and meter units. Assume Y = 1.2.
The maximum tensile stress is calculated as:
m =
Smith
a f ( m / 2)+1 a0 ( m / 2)+1
[ (m / 2) + 1] A m / 2Y m N f
110
3
+1
3
+1
(0.012 m) 2 (0.00125 m) 2
= 3.318 106
3 =
3
13
1.5
3
6
2 + 1 (6.0 10 )( )(1.2) (2.0 10 )
= 149 MPa
6.37
Same as Prob. 6.35. Compute the final critical surface crack length if the fatigue life must
be a minimum of 7.0 105 cycles. Assume the initial maximum edge surface crack
length of 1.80 mm and a maximum tensile stress of 160 MPa. Assume m = 1.8 and A =
7.5 10-13 in MPa and meter units. Assume Y = 1.25.
The final critical crack length can be using the equation for fatigue life,
Nf =
a f ( m / 2)+1 a0 ( m / 2)+1
[ (m / 2) + 1] A m m / 2Y m
7 105 =
5
7 10 =
af
1.8
+1
2
(0.0018 m)
1.8
+1
2
2.913 109
0.5336 = a 0.1
f
a f = 0.00187 m = 1.87 mm
6.38
Same as Prob. 6.35. Compute the critical surface crack length if fatigue life must be 8.0
106 cycles and maximum tensile stress is 21,000 psi. Assume m = 3.5 and A = 4.0 10-13
in ksi and inch units. Initial crack (edge) is 0.120 in. Y = 1.15.
Nf =
a f ( m / 2)+1 a0 ( m / 2)+1
[ (m / 2) + 1] A m m / 2Y m
8 106 =
8 106 =
af
3.5
+1
2
(0.12 in. )
3.5
+1
2
Smith
111
Creep of a metal refers to the slow, progressive plastic deformation of a metal subjected
to a constant load or stress. Thus creep is the time dependent strain of a metal.
6.40
6.41
Draw a typical creep curve for a metal under constant load and at a relatively high
temperature, and indicate on it all three stages of creep.
6.42
The following creep data were obtained for a titanium alloy at 50 ksi and 400C. Plot the
creep strain versus time (hours) and determine the steady-state creep rate for these test
conditions.
Smith
Strain (in./in.)
Time (h)
Strain (in./in.)
Time (h)
0.010 10-2
0.030 10-2
0.050 10-2
2
18
40
0.075 10-2
0.090 10-2
0.110 10-2
80
120
160
112
Strain (in./in.)
1.0E-03
8.0E-04
6.0E-04
4.0E-04
2.0E-04
0.0E+00
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
Time (h)
Creep Rate =
6.43
Equiaxed MAR-M 247 alloy is to support a stress if 276 MPa (Fig. 6.36). Determine the
time to stress rupture at 850C.
From Fig. 6.36, for a stress of 276 MPa, the L.M. parameter value for Equiaxed MAR-M
247 is 26 103 Kh. Thus,
P = T ( K )(20 + log tr ), T = 850 C + 273 = 1123 K
26,000 = (1123 K)(20 + log tr )
log tr = 3.152
tr = 1419 h
6.44
DS MAR-M 247 alloy (Fig. 6.36) is to support a stress of 207 MPa. At what temperature
(C) will the stress rupture lifetime be 210 h?
From Fig. 6.36, for a stress of 207 MPa, the L.M. parameter value for DS MAR-M 247
alloy is 27.5 103 Kh. Thus,
P = T ( K )(20 + log tr )
6.45
27,500
= 1232 K = 959o C
22.32
Smith
113
From Fig. 6.36, for P = 30.1 103, the stress is approximately 96 MPa.
6.46
A Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo alloy is subjected to a stress of 20,000 psi. How long can the
alloy be used under this stress at 500C so that no more than 0.2% creep strain will
occur? Use Fig. 6.37.
From Fig. 6.37, for a stress of 20 ksi, the L.M. parameter for 2% stress is P 31,000.
Thus,
P = T (R)(20 + log t0.2 ), T = 500 C=932 F + 460 = 1392 R
31,000 = (1392 R)(20 + log t0.2 )
log t0.2 = 2.270
t0.2 = 186.2 h
6.47
Smith
114