JanuszGodasz BogdanSapiski

Insight into
Magnetorheological
Shock Absorbers

Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers

Janusz Godasz Bogdan Sapiski

Insight into
Magnetorheological
Shock Absorbers

123

Bogdan Sapiski
Department of Process Control
AGH University of Science and Technology
Krakw
Poland

Janusz Godasz
BWI Group
Technical Center Krakw
Krakw
Poland
and
Chair of Automation and Information
Technology
Cracow University of Technology
Krakw
Poland

ISBN 978-3-319-13232-7
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4

ISBN 978-3-319-13233-4

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014954608

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
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Printed on acid-free paper
Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media
(www.springer.com)

Foreword I

Direct transduction in hydraulic actuators (the production of useful output from a

command signal without the intervention of a valving scheme), has been the dream
of many hydraulic engineers who have struggled with the design of fast, stable, and
reliable hydraulic valves. In the eld of controllable suspension dampers, the design
of responsive and well-behaved valves is an extremely difcult task due to the wide
varying flow and pressure conditions within these dampers. This was the primary
motivation for the development and use of both Magneto-Rheological (MR) and
Electro-Rheological (ER) fluids in automotive semi-active suspension systems in
the early 2000s (MagneRide by Delphi Automotive Systems, Corp/BWI Group)
and in the early 2010s (eRRide by Fludicon GmbH), respectively.
The development of a novel technology has never been easy, and mastering a
multidisciplinary one at a level sufcient for design of useful applications is even
more demanding. Even though the controllable MR fluids were invented over
50 years ago, it was the more recent developments in the elds of MR fluids,
suspension control algorithms, on-board power and processing electronics, and
seal/bearing materials and design methods plus a clear understanding of the force
and dynamic performance requirements of suspension dampers that enabled the rst
large-scale commercial use of MR fluids in a semi-active suspension system for
passenger vehicles. So, the dream of a valveless damper was fullled about twelve
years ago with astounding levels of performance, speed of response, dynamic
authority, and reliability. As is usually the case with novel technologies, two
additional generations have been developed and commercialized since the rst
generation of MagneRide. The primary author and I worked closely on the
development and application of the design and analysis methodology of this book. I
can personally attest as to the suitability and utility of these techniques in the
optimization of both static and dynamic performance of MR dampers.
This book covers comprehensively the fundamental science of MR fluids, their
composition, and their performance characteristics. Relevant information is presented in a format that can be used in the design and optimization of MR damper
pistons from the viewpoints of fluid flow and magnetics.

vi

Foreword I

Basic architectures of MR dampers are presented along with alternative piston

congurations, some of which have been commercialized successfully. Analytical
methods that deal with the prediction of the piston flow and magnetic elds are
included and then integrated into comprehensive analytical tools that deal with the
complete damper, both from a static and a dynamic viewpoint. Detailed analyses
of the flow and magnetic elds are presented by means of CFD and electromagnetic
FE models. These models have proven extremely useful in clarifying some of the
more subtle behaviors of MR dampers and in further optimizing the performance of
MR dampers. In order to complete the system, the power electronics typically
employed with MR dampers are presented in a clear fashion. The analytical models
have been validated experimentally, and both static performance predictions and
dynamic step responses are compared to laboratory test data.
For condentiality reasons, the control algorithms (and sensors) used in the
MagneRide system are not included. This is not a major omission because wellknown algorithms (such as the Skyhook or those used in other commercial,
valve-based semi-active systems) can be easily adapted to MR dampers.
A rather interesting emerging area of research and development is that of energy
harvesting. Although the amount of power generated by typical road proles (and
converted into heat by the present hydraulic dampers) is rather small (of the order of
50100 W) for vehicle propulsion, it is perhaps sufcient to drive internal sensors/
controller electronics and power drivers, thus arriving at self-powered semi-active
dampers. The present authors work on energy-harvesting actuators with MR fluids
is included and should be valuable in promoting further research in this area.
This book is written by two authors with automotive damper engineering
backgrounds as well as academic experiences in the eld of Smart Materials. They
have attempted to bring the MR technology closer to their readers. I believe that
they have succeeded; this book should be particularly valuable to practicing
engineers, researchers and students of MR fluids and their applications.
Darmstadt, Germany
17 November 2014

Alexander A. Alexandridis PhD

Chief Engineer (ret), Delphi Corporation
CEO (ret), Fludicon GmbH
MagneRide co-inventor

Foreword II

Technically, the words magic and magnet have unique derivations. Some
etymologists suggest that the word magic predates magnet by roughly a century.
From the 14th century the derivation of magic is generally that which influences
events and produces marvels using hidden natural forces. So, it is not a stretch to
suggest that for anyone that has anything from a casual passing interest to deep daily
involvement with magneto-rheological fluids that magic is a most appropriate
descriptor. In fact, I can confess that as the director at BWI Group with responsibilities for product and process engineering of the only serial production magnetorheological dampers in the world, that I myself have answered more than once the
question how does magneto-rheological fluid work? with the short phrase it is
magic!
Of course, magneto-rheological fluid based dampers are technically not magic.
They are, however, rather complex devices requiring a mastery of fluid dynamics,
magnetic eld theory, dynamic systems, electrical systems and more for one to truly
comprehend their operation. In this book the authors expertly tackle all of these
topics to decompose what appears to be magic into the broad basic physics which
underpin these powerful devices. Beginning with magneto-rheological (MR) fluid
basics the book combines both the theoretical and the empirical as it reveals details
about dampers, control valves, modeling, damper congurations, and energy harvesting dampers. Adding to the usefulness for the reader the progression of topics in
the book have been thoroughly and comprehensively referenced which easily
enables further study of any of the major points.
So whether one has the aforementioned casual interest or works every day with
MR based devices, this book will provide deeper understanding with just a selected

vii

viii

Foreword II

chapter or with a complete cover to cover read. Most certainly the book makes a
valuable compilation of background, research, data, and prose which takes the
magic which is MR dampers to better levels of understanding for any reader.
Dayton, Ohio, US
17 November 2014

Douglass L. Carson
DirectorSuspension System Engineering
BWI Group

Preface

By denition, solids and fluids have been characterized with different physical laws.
The behaviour of linear solids, for instance, can be quantied using Hookes law of
elasticity, and the rheology of linear fluids can be governed by Newtons viscosity
law. Some materials, however, do not t into the principal denition. Examples of
such materials are magnetorheological/electrorheological (MR/ER) fluids well
known under the name of smart fluids. The materials undergo major physical
changes upon the application of an external (magnetic or electrical) stimulus so that
they can be converted from a fluid to a pseudo-solid material. The reversible nature
of the phenomena, the dramatic magnitude of changes and the speed of response
have made them suitable for use in vibration isolation and control. The characteristics have been found useful in engineering systems where real-time performance, which follows changing conditions of system operation, is required.
No more than a scientic curiosity for decades since their discovery in the 1940s,
both have deceived and tempted researchers and scientists for years. Till the early
1990s, the majority of research efforts concentrated on ER fluids; their limitations,
electrical and safety issues, however, rendered them unsuitable for real-life applications at that time. MR fluids promptly stepped in, and once technological and
control issues were overcome, the material was successfully utilized by the automotive industry in a valveless controlled chassis system application in passenger
vehicle in the North American market in 2002. The system used MR fluid-based
shock absorbers otherwise known as MR vehicle dampers. Since that time and as of
2012, the system marketed under the name of MagneRide has been put to a regular
use in many passenger vehicle models as a standard suspension system or in the
form of an option. A commercial application of a semi-active MR powertrain mount
in a 2009 high performance passenger car completes the list.
Recently, one aspect of MR damper applications that has received a great deal of
researchers attention is energy harvesting. Here, in a typical conguration an MR
device is driven by energy harvested from a vehicle while in motion. The
mechanical energy that otherwise would be unused and lost through heat is converted into electricity and used for monitoring the output of an associated MR
device. This trend is accompanied by the industrys interest in hybrid and electrical
ix

Preface

vehicles. Vehicle suspension applications of energy harvesting dampers seem

immediate; however, factors including the recovered energy magnitude, manufacturability, lifecycle, weight and cost may prevent such applications from commercialization in real-life.
Briefly, an automotive MR damper when used within a controlled environment,
and in a vehicle suspension in particular, has its piston rod driven by a prescribed
displacement/force. At the same time, the dampers coil is supplied with a current
signal. The coil is located in the piston assembly of the damper. The commanded
current is supplied to the coil through a pulse-width-modulated (PWM) driver. The
current in the coil induces a magnetic eld in the actuator in order to modify the
MR fluids yield stress and the damping force at the same time. The changes in
the magnetic eld passing through the components in the magnetic circuit of the
actuator induce an electromotive force, whilst eddy currents are generated in the
actuators core. Furthermore, the eddy currents produce a magnetic eld opposing
the flux changes, and the speed of response of MR dampers becomes slower.
Therefore, capturing the time-varying behaviour of the MR damper with the PWM
current driver supplying the commanded current to the coil is necessary for
describing the characteristics of an MR device. It involves a detailed description
of the coils resistance to the change of current and coupling among the magnetic
eld-induced yield stress and the damping force output (hydraulic circuit), as well
as the dynamics of current drivers used for controlling the output of MR dampers.
In brief, the main objective of this book is to provide the readers with information on theoretical and practical aspects of MR damper operation, modelling and
engineering. By denition, the word insight that is contained in the title of the book
can describe a piece of information, an understanding of cause and effect based on
identication of relationships and behaviours within a model or an instance of
apprehending the true nature of a thing. By itself, it makes a promise to the potential
readers and imposes obligations on the authors, and by following its spirit the
authors hoped to provide the necessary foundations for the information in the book
either in the form of theoretical knowledge or applied solutions. Specically, the
book contains the background information on smart fluids and related devices,
common congurations as well as theory and its experimental verication. Following a review of the technology, theoretical backgrounds are provided of MR
fluid compositions and key factors affecting the characteristics of these fluids is
followed by a description of existing congurations of dampers and control valves.
Specically, the authors highlight common congurations of flow-mode MR
dampers that have been considered by the automotive industry for controlled
chassis applications. The authors focus on single-tube dampers utilizing a piston
assembly with one coil or multiple coils and at least one annular flow channel in the
piston.
Clearly, for modelling and design of a math-based analytical model of an
exemplary MR fluid device, a flow-mode monotube damper is needed. Within the
automotive industry it is a common practice to exercise entry-level scenarios with
steady-state models, whereas more in-depth tests incorporating non-stationary and
fluctuating magnetic elds are usually performed by means of more advanced tools

Preface

xi

capable of copying the devices dynamic features of interest. Here, the authors
attention has been focused on models suitable for steady-state design analyses as
well as dynamic studies, respectively. The task has been always somewhat of a
challenge as with MR fluids the ability to model and quantify the behaviour of a
material that is multidisciplinary by nature has always been a daunting exercise. It
requires the knowledge of the materials rheology, electrical and mechanical
engineering as well as control theory principles. First, a review of several constitutive models of non-Newtonian fluids in planar flow is carried out, and a novel
exact (analytical) solution for them in terms of several non-dimensional parameters
is obtained and analysed. The parameters capture the effects of plasticity, inertia,
viscosity, shear thinning/thickening, and they allow for expressing the behaviour of
an MR damper in pre-yield as well as post-yield flow regimes in a manner that is
easy to follow and comprehend. Their application is highlighted in a fairly realistic
steady-state model of a flow-mode MR damper conguration incorporating primary
and secondary flow channels of MR fluid. A dynamic model of the damper for use
in component-level as well as vehicle-level studies is also followed. In addition to
copying the devices characteristics associated with the yield stress, the model also
incorporates the effects of fluid compressibility, inertia, flow leakage past MR
piston, friction, floating piston inertia, cavitation, gas pressure and the like. Furthermore, for the purpose of testing and verication, both models were applied to
experimental data of several fabricated MR damper prototypes of a customized
piston design and successfully veried across a wide range of piston velocity
inputs, displacement amplitudes and coil current levels.
To summarize, Chap. 1 is an introduction to the material included in the book,
whereas Chap. 2 includes a review of MR fluid formulations and key components
affecting the fluids performance in a semi-active environment. The information is
followed in Chap. 3 by a thorough review of fundamental congurations of automotive flow-mode dampers. Next, in Chap. 4 the authors provide the reader with an
application of several key non-Newtonian fluid models while in the MR damper
environment. Chapter 5 contains a review of lumped parameter models of MR
single-tube and double-tube dampers, respectively. Chapter 6 contains complementary information on MR fluid flow modelling using numerical Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods, whereas Chap. 7 reveals power driver structures
for MR devices as well as control circuits and exemplary control strategies. In
Chap. 8 the authors present results of several experiments involving customized
prototypes of automotive flow-mode MR dampers. Finally, Chap. 9 highlights the
development of energy harvesting MR dampers and Chap. 10 is a summary.
Krakw
July 2014

Janusz Godasz
Bogdan Sapiski

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their gratitude to several individuals and organizations
whose support was absolutely vital. First of all, we are deeply indebted to the BWI
Group and the AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakw, for supporting this work. In particular, special thanks are extended to Dr. Sawomir
Dzierek, Damper Engineering Manager, BWI Group. Second, we are grateful to
the National Centre for Research and Development (Poland) for their partial support
of the energy harvesting MR damper project.
Finally, we are tremendously honoured to have Douglass L. Carson, Director
Suspension System Engineering, BWI Group, and Dr. Alexander A. Alexandridis
write the foreword to this book.

xiii

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 MR Fluid Operation Modes .
1.3 MR Dampers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1
1
5
7
10

MR
2.1
2.2
2.3

Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanisms of the MR Effect
MR Materials. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Liquid Phase . . . . . .
2.3.2
Solid Phase . . . . . . .
2.3.3
Additives. . . . . . . . .
2.4 Rheology of MR Fluids . . . .
2.5 Figures of Merit . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13
13
13
16
17
17
19
21
22
23

Congurations of MR Dampers. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Damper Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1
Mono-tube Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
Double-tube Dampers . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3
Sensory Damper Structures . . . . . . .
3.3 MR Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1
Single-coil Control Valve . . . . . . . .
3.3.2
Multiple Coils and Multi-stage Cores
3.3.3
Secondary Flow Paths . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4
Multiple Parallel Flow Paths . . . . . .
3.3.5
Segmented Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6
Buried Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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25
25
26
26
28
31
32
33
35
36
38
39
39

xv

xvi

Contents

3.4

3.3.7
Fail-Safe Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.8
Valves with Large Fluid Activation Area Ratio
3.3.9
Asymmetric MR Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.10 Velocity- and Field-Sensing Valves . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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41
43
45
47
49

Modelling of Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Bingham Plastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Bi-plastic Bingham Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 HerschelBulkley Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Single Gap Control Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2
Control Valve with Leakage Flow Paths . . .
4.3.3
Multiple Parallel Flow Paths . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Mathematical Model for an Electro-Magnetic Circuit
of Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1
Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2
Magnetostatic Lumped Parameter Model . . .
4.4.3
Electrical Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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51
51
53
57
62
70
74
74
78
82

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85
86
88
90
92

Damper Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Single-Tube Damper . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Double-Tube Damper . . . . . .
5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations . . . . .
5.2.1 Single-Tube Damper . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Geometry, Material Properties
5.2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4 Twin-Tube Damper. . . . . . . .
5.2.5 Geometry, Material Properties
5.2.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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93
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95
99
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102
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109
109
112
115

CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids . . . . . . . . .

6.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Flow Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Test Geometry and Material Properties
6.3.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

xvii

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132
138
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144

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149
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170

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173
173
177
185
188
193
200

10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

203

Appendix A: Sliding Friction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

207

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213

Power Drivers for MR Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Damper Electrical Circuit Response Subjected
to Controlled Voltage Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Experimental Testing and Analysis . . . . . . . .
7.3.1
Measurement and Control System. . .
7.3.2
Results and Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3
Open Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4
Current Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Experimental Verication of an MR Monotube

Damper Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1 Experimental Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1
Damper Geometry, Test Inputs. . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2
Damper Response to Sinusoidal Displacement
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3
Damper Response to Step Current Inputs. . . .
8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1
Response to Sinusoidal Displacement Inputs .
8.2.2
Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Harvesting MR Dampers.
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Power Generator . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Conditioning Electronics . . . .
9.5 EHLMR Damper . . . . . . . .
9.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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About the Authors

Janusz Godasz received his habilitation degree in machine design in 2013, and
the PhD degree in mechanical engineering from the Strathclyde University,
Glasgow, UK, in 1999. In 1994 he was awarded the M.Sc. in mechanical engineering at the Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland. Since 1999 he
has been with Delphi Corporation and BWI Group (upon the acquisition of the
Delphis chassis business by BWI Group in 2009) as a senior simulation engineer.
His research and engineering career, spanning nearly 20 years, has encompassed
smart fluids and their applications in semi-active chassis platforms at component
and vehicle level. His other current research activities are related to conventional
vehicle dampers and electromechanical actuators. To date, he has authored or coauthored several technical and scientic publications as well as US patents and a
monograph. He is an adjunct professor at the Chair of Automation and Information
Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Krakw, Poland.
Bogdan Sapiski is professor in the Department of Process Control, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering and Robotics AGHUniversity of Science and Technology
(AGHUST), Krakw, Poland. He received M.Sc. in 1978 and PhD in 1982, both
in electrical engineering, and habilitation degree in 2004 in mechatronics from
AGHUST. His activities are spanning 35 years of research. He has authored or
co-authored about 300 scientic and technical papers as well as 3 monographs. He
also holds several patents related to electromechanical transducers and actuators.
He has been involved with MR fluid technology and its application in vibration
suppression of mechanical systems since 1999. His current research interests are
related to MR fluid-based vibration and motion control systems with a focus on
energy harvesting devices.

xix

Nomenclature

A
AH
Ab
Ac
Acore
Aeff
Af
Ag
Am
Ao
Ap
Ar
A2
A3
B
Bcore
Bg
Bi
Bs
Bsat
0 h
Bi 
v
C
CH
w
Cf 
v2
cf
Co
C2
C3
D
Db

Magnetic potential
Total area of holes
Bypass cross-section area
Coil window area
Core cross-section area
Piston effective area
Flat plate area
Annulus cross-section area
Core active surface area
Orice area
Cylinder (piston) cross-section area
Piston rod cross-section area
Check valve flow area
Check valve flow area
Magnetic flux density
Core flux density
Gap magnetic flux density
Iron magnetic flux density
Sleeve flux density
Saturation flux density
Bingham number
High velocity loss coefcient
Hole discharge coefcient
Dimensionless friction factor
Isothermal compressibility
Orice discharge coefcient
Check valve discharge coefcient
Check valve discharge coefcient
Electric flux density
Bypass diameter
xxi

xxii

Dc
Ddc
Ddp
Ddp1
Ddp2
Ddp3
Ddr
Do
Dp
Dr
Dt
D2
D3
D4
dci
dco
dmi
dmo
E
Es
e
f
Fa
Fd
FEH
Ffg
Ffp
Ffr
Fmin
Fmax
Foff
Fon
F1
F2
F3
hp
G  2L
0
G
G1
G2
gca
gh
H
Hc

Nomenclature

Piston core diameter

EH damper core diameter
EH damper piston diameter
EH damper kidney hole outer diameter
EH damper sleeve inner diameter
EH damper kidney hole inner diameter
EH damper piston rod diameter
Orice size
Piston outside diameter
Piston rod outside diameter
Cylinder inside diameter
Sleeve inside diameter or inner gap outer diameter (dual-gap
MR valve)
Outer gap inside diameter
Outer gap outside diameter
Generator coil window inside diameter
Generator coil window outside diameter
Permanent magnet inner diameter
Permanent magnet outer diameter
Electric eld strength
Young modulus
Electromotive force
Frequency
Shear force
Damping force
EH damper force
Floating piston friction force
Piston friction force
Rod guide friction force
Minimum damping force
Maximum damping force
Off-state (min.) damping force
On-state (max.) damping force
Figure of merit (active volume)
Figure of merit (weight)
Figure of merit (power efciency)
Dimensionless pressure number
Complex modulus
Inner gap pressure number
Outer gap pressure number
Coil carcass thickness
Generator housing thickness
Magnetic eld strength
Generator coil window height

Nomenclature

Hca
Hdc
Hg
Hh
h
hf
h1
h2
Hco
Hg
He 0h2
hm
Ico
ico
Imax
icmd
is
itr
j
a
Ka Q
Qp

xxiii

Generator coil carcass height

EH damper coil window depth
Gap magnetic eld strength
Generator housing height
Annulus height (gap size)
Flux bypass depth
Inner annulus height (gap size)
Outer annulus height (gap size)
Coil window height
Magnetic eld strength in the annulus
Hedstrom number
Generator permanent magnet height
Peak coil current
Coil current
Maximum coil current level
Coil current command
Steady-state current
Transient current
Current density
Annular flow rate ratio

b
Kb Q
Qp

Bypass flow rate ratio

Kco
Kf FFoffon

PI controller proportional setting

Force turn-up ratio

Kl QQpl

Leakage flow rate ratio

KQ
Kr
1
K1 Q
Qp

Flow rate ratio

2
K2 Q
Qp

Outer gap flow rate ratio

kc
kp
k
k
L
La
Lc
Lce
Lco
Ldp
Ldp2
Ldc
Lf

Coil coupling coefcient

Average number of particles in unit area
Proportional gain of the controller output
Sensitivity of the current sensing
Annulus length
Active length
Compression chamber length
Eddy current loop inductance
Coil inductance
EH damper piston length
EH damper plate height
EH damper active length
Complex transfer function amplitude

Q
Qp

Proportional gain
Inner gap flow rate ratio

xxiv

Lg
Lgo
Lr
LDE
Ms
m
mg
mr
mt
Nco
Ns
N2
n
wh3
P  p
L 12Q
Pa
Pc
Pg
Pg0
Pm
Pr
Pv
p
pEH
pout
px
Q
Qa
Qb
Qo
Qp
Q0
Q1
Q2
Qv1
Qv2
Qv3
r
Rco
Rc2
Rce
Re vh
Reb
Rgo
r

Nomenclature

Gas chamber length

Generator coil inductance
Rebound chamber length
Life of device estimate
Magnetisation saturation
Flow index
Floating piston mass
Combined piston and rod mass
Tube mass
Coil wire turns
Number of chains per unit area
Search coil wire turns
Adiabatic constant
Dimensionless pressure (Philips 1969)
Atmospheric pressure
Compression chamber pressure
Gas chamber pressure
Initial gas pressure
Mechanical power
Rebound chamber pressure
Vapour pressure
Pressure
Instantaneous power
Outlet pressure
Pressure gradient
Volumetric flow rate
Volumetric flow rate through annulus
Volumetric flow rate through bypass
Volumetric flow rate through orice
Total volumetric flow rate (due to piston motion)
Critical flow rate
Inner gap flow rate
Outer gap flow rate
Volumetric flow rate through MR valve
Volumetric flow rate through piston valve
Volumetric flow rate through base valve
Radial coordinate
Coil resistance
Parasitic loop resistance
Eddy current loop resistance
Reynolds number
Bypass flow Reynolds number
Generator coil resistance
Particle radius

Nomenclature
12Q
S wh
2
0
S0
2
0
T wh
12Q
Ta
Ton
Toff
Ti
t
tc
tw
Ubat
Uco
uco
ugo
Uref
u
uz
u1
u2
w
wf
Wco
Wm
We
w1
w2
V
Vc
Vc0
Vg
Vg0
vg
vin
Vmin
Vp
Vp;ref
Vr
Vr0
Vs
vp
vr
vt
v

xxv

Dimensionless plasticity number

Threshold plasticity
Dimensionless yield stress (Philips 1969)
Damper temperature
PWM pulse duration
PWM pulse off-cycle time
Integral-acting factor of a PI controller
Time
Magnetic eld establishment time
Tube thickness
Battery (supply) voltage
Peak coil voltage
Coil voltage (across coil terminals)
Generator output voltage
Reference voltage
Fluid velocity
Velocity gradient
Primary coil voltage
Search coil voltage
Annulus mean diameter
Flux bypass width
Coil window width
Mechanical power density
Electrical power density
Inner annulus mean diameter
Outer annulus mean diameter
Volume
Compression chamber volume
Compression chamber initial volume
Gas chamber volume
Gas chamber initial volume
Floating piston velocity
Inlet velocity
Minimum volume of MR fluid
Piston peak velocity
Piston reference velocity
Rebound chamber volume
Rebound chamber initial volume
Average volume of solid particles
Piston velocity
Piston rod velocity
Cylinder tube velocity
Mean velocity

xxvi

Xp
xg
xp
xr
xt
Zco
z

d
0

c
f
0
r
d
e
p
pa
pb
pH
pmin
pmax
po
p1
p2
12
p

app
b
m
MR
r
0

EH
v
d
co
0

Nomenclature

Piston displacement amplitude

Floating piston displacement
Piston displacement
Piston rod displacement
Cylinder tube displacement
Damper impedance
Vertical coordinate
Fluids plug width
Duty cycle
Constant
Bulk modulus
Container bulk modulus
Fluid bulk modulus
Pure fluid bulk modulus
Dimensionless viscosity ratio
PWM driver coefcient
Material deformation
Pressure difference
Pressure difference across annulus
Pressure difference across bypass
Pressure difference across holes
Minimum pressure difference
Maximum difference across bypass
Pressure difference across orice
Yielding pressure difference (across inner annulus)
Yielding pressure difference (across outer annulus)
Dimensionless yield stress ratio
Gap between neighbouring particles
Signal error estimate
Fluid viscosity
Apparent viscosity
Base (carrier) oil viscosity
Magnetic permeability
MR fluid permeability
Pre-yield viscosity
Free-space permeability
Poisson coefcient
Relative air content in MR fluid
Directional coefcient
Susceptibility
PWM driver coefcient
Flux linkage
Flux linkage initial condition
MR fluid density

Nomenclature

EH

co
w
0
1
2

a
g
s
v

xxvii

Shift coefcient
Shear stress
Time constant
(Wall) shear stress
Static yield stress
Static yield stress (bi-plastic Bingham model only)
Dynamic yield stress (bi-plastic Bingham model only)
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux
Angle between the centerline of the particle chain
and the magnetic eld direction
Gap magnetic flux
Steel core magnetic flux
Solid phase volume fraction
Angular velocity

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background
The chapter introduces the reader to the the concept of smart materials and smart
systems and its key functionalities including short historical information on MR
research and its introduction into the automotive industry. MR fluid operation modes,
semi-active flow-mode vehicle damper principles along with a description of the
MagneRide system are highlighted in the remaining part of the chapter, too.
By definition, smart materials are those which can sense external stimuli and are
capable of adapting to changing external conditions. The concept of a smart material
was inspired initially by observations of natural systems which can sense changes
and adapt accordingly. Takagi (1996) defined smart materials as those capable of
responding to environmental changes and manifesting their function according to
them in a coordinated fashion. According to Spillman et al. (1996), smart materials
are a physical structure having a purpose, means and imperative to achieve that
purpose, and a biological pattern of functioning. In a broader manner smart materials
are those incorporating functions of sensing, analysis, decision making and actuation
when combined with the materials controllable properties. The external stimuli
being sensed can result in a modification of a materials environmental condition,
e.g. temperature, humidity, pressure, light, magnetic field, etc. The response to the
environmental change would involve a variation of one or more materials properties
such as size, shape, structure, color, magnetisation, conductivity, etc.
Presently, smart materials are used in the form of a component forming a part
of a smart systemthey are specifically designed to react to external stimuli in a
prescribed manner. Smart systems make use of particular properties of smart materials and utilize them in such a way that the functions of sensing and response are
possible through a feedback between input and output or are linked with information
processing and decision making modules. That has formed the basis for adaptronics,
a new comprehensive term for a range of technologies known as smart materials,
smart structures, intelligent materials, intelligent structures, adaptive systems, etc.
The term of adaptronics designates a system in which all functional elements of a
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_1

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Smart material

system (SMS) (Chong 2003;
Rogers 1993)

Sensor

Actuator
Smart
Material
System

Controller

Material

conventional regulator circuit are existent and at least one element is applied in a
multifunctional way as shown in Fig. 1.1. The roots of adaptronics can be found in
material sciences, automation and control as well as computer science. The range of
smart materials includes biometic polymers and gels, controllable (MR/ER) fluids,
MR elastomers, MR composites, shape memory alloys and polymers, piezoelectric
polymers, electro-active polymers, piezoelectric and electrostrictive ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, liquid crystals, etc. The multi-functional materials present an
exceptional promise in the fields of (semi-)active vibration suppression, noise attenuation, shape control, smart machines, health monitoring and micro-mechanical systems with spectacular engineering applications in motor industry, aircraft, aerospace,
mechanical engineering, civil structures, medical technology, micro-system technology, etc. (Janocha 2007). It appears that almost every scientific field covers
applications whose technical benefits can be improved by implementing adaptronic
concepts.
In consideration of the responsive nature of smart materials they can be categorized as materials that respond to thermal, light, electric, magnetic and stress
fields, respectively. Thermally responsive materials have the ability to convert thermal energy into mechanical energy, whereas the remaining ones transform the energy
of magnetic stimuli (or other inputs) into mechanical energy. Magnetically and electrically responsive materials include MR fluids and ER fluids which represent smart
materials that fill a gap between solids and liquids. As suspensions of micron-size
solid particles in a non-conductive carrier oil, they both undergo a transition from
a fluid to a pseudo-solid in the presence of magnetic (MR fluids) or electrical (ER
fluids) stimuli. No more than a scientific curiosity for decades, the controllable property has been now found useful in engineering systems where performance which
follows changing conditions of system operation is required. The credit for discovery of the phenomena goes to Rabinov (1948) (MR fluids) and Winslow (1947)
(ER fluids) who first described the changes in the rheology of both materials and
made an attempt to apply them in various controlled devices, the first one being a

1.1 Background

controllable clutch. Winslow (1947) defined the ER phenomenon as changes in the

apparent viscosity upon the application of the electric field. Technological hurdles,
however, as well as cost prevented the MR materials from commercialization at that
time. The interest that the Rabinovs discovery had ignited in the early 1950s quickly
disappeared and it was not before the late 1970s that research studies on MR fluid
formulations and devices began to emerge (Shulman and Kordonsky 1986; Shulman
et al. 1986, 1993). The works of Shulman and Kordonsky (Kordonsky 1993a, b) dealt
with MR effect fundamentals, however, the researchers became immediately aware
of the MR fluid applications potential. For example, Gorodkin et al. (1994) patented
exemplary structures of MR valves, and then demonstrated their application in a seat
suspension system as well as a controlled vehicle suspension. Apparently, real-time
opportunities in vibration damping and isolation were already recognized at that
time as the inventors mentioned a method of controlling the damper characteristics
through an on-board computer or a micro-processor. The pace at which the technology was developed accelerated in the mid 1990s when General Motors selected
it for a worlds first semi-active vehicle suspension system based on smart fluids
(Alexandridis 2000; Hopkins et al. 2001; Kruckemeyer et al. 2001)see Fig. 1.2a.
The joint effort of GM and Delphi Automotive Systems under the commercial name
of MagneRide resulted in launching of the system application on the GMs Cadillac

Fig. 1.2 Automotive MR devices (BWI Group 2014). a MR damper. b MR mount

1 Introduction

Seville STS car in 2002 in the North American automotive market. Another application of the system on the GMs Corvette C5 coupe followed soon in the 2003 model
year, and the suspension has been carried over to the next generations of the car.
Within GM the suspension system has been marketed under the commercial name
of Magnetic Ride Control. The system benefits, i.e. variable damping and the ability
to adapt to changing ride conditions has attracted European vehicle manufacturers,
too. With the release of the new generation of the Audi TT car in 2005 the German
manufacturer offered the so-called Audi Magnetic Ride system and Ferrari implemented it on their 599 GTB Fiorano road car (2006). Since then the system has been
developed in Europe for a variety of cars incl. Audi A3, Audi R8, Lamborghini Gallardo, Landrover Evoque to name just a few. It has been a standard SCM controlled
suspension system for nearly all Ferrari vehicle models, and the Chassis division of
Delphi after the acquisition by BWI group in 2009 continues to develop next generations of the system, and implement them in future vehicle platforms. Since its debut
in the Cadillac car the technology has been implemented for more than 20 passenger
vehicle platforms (segments DI) (BWI Group 2011). For example, Murphy (2012)
predicts that within 15 years nearly half of automotive dampers are expected to rely
on MR fluid. Another device in which the MR technology debuted is the Porsche
911 Turbo cars powertrain PADM (Porsche Active Drivetrain Mount) mountsee
Fig. 1.2b.
The range of potential applications is not limited to the automotive market only.
The material that can change its properties within a fraction of a second following
a change in system working conditions has long been attractive for engineers and
a subject of great scientific and industrial interest. A brief list of other commercial
applications include racing car suspensions (Racing 2000), MR rotary dampers (Lord
Corp. 2001), mountain bike dampers (Batterbee and Sims 2009), seismic/bridge
dampers (Ding et al. 2013), truck seat dampers (Jolly et al. 1999), optics (Kordonski
and Golini 2000). The list of examined areas of application in various academic
projects is even more extensive incl. washing machine dampers (Chrzan and Carlson 2001), liquid body armour (Wisniewski 2011), prosthetic legs and exoskeletons
(Chen and Liao 2006), haptic devices (Rizzo et al. 2007), helicopter rotor lag dampers
(Wereley et al. 1999), self-powered and self-sensing dampers (Chen and Liao 2012;
Sapinski 2011), ski dampers (Battlogg 2010), multi-mode engine mounts (Brigley
et al. 2007; Nguyen 2009), cancer therapy (Flores et al. 1999; Flores and Lui 2002),
etc.
Perhaps it is worth explaining in layman terms the reasons behind the MR fluid
technology success at the cost of its ER counterpart. Over the years both materials
have received a great deal of attention from the researchers and the industry.
From the standpoint of rheology, both MR and ER fluids are equivalent, i.e., their
rheology can be quantified using the same constitutive models, and their behaviour
(yield stress) is controlled by the action of an external field. Systems that they are
used in are energy modulators (Stanway et al. 1996)see Fig. 1.3. It is the magnitude
of the response to the external stimuli in MR fluids that exceeds that of ER materials.
If embodied into a controllable system, they render its characteristics adaptable so
that it is capable of following the systems changing conditions of operation. Some

1.1 Background

Fig. 1.3 MR device diagram

(Stanway et al. 1996)

of the well-known limitations of the ER materials, namely, electrical breakdown at

high voltages, temperature sensitivity, are not experienced by their MR counterparts
which can operate under a lower voltage than is required for ER fluids. Moreover,
MR fluids generate yield stresses that far exceed those of their ER counterparts,
as already mentioned. Additionally, they are relatively insensitive to contamination.
Also, they are more stable and less temperature dependent. The main limiting factors
for MR fluids are magnetic saturation and abrasiveness.
Literary speaking, ER fluids have both deceived and tempted researchers for years
to be overtaken by MR materials in controlled applications. Since generating an enormous research interest back in the 1990s, their role is now primarily reduced to that
of a testbed for testing of control strategies and technologies. Despite recent progress
in ER hardware followed by their commercialization in light duty vehicles (Fludicon
2014; Frost 2009), MR fluids have been commercialized to a larger extent than their
electrical counterparts, and for that reason the book focuses on the description of
these fluids and their applications.

1.2 MR Fluid Operation Modes

Over the years four main areas of application of MR fluids in controlled devices have
been identifiedsee Fig. 1.4ad (Jolly et al. 1999):
Flow the fluid flows between two stationary planar (or concentric) surfaces due a
pressure difference. The changes in the rheology of the fluid are controlled by an
external field that is normal to the direction of the flow. Exemplary devices include
MR/ER actuators and linear long-stroke dampers (Carlson and Chrzan 1994;
Hopkins et al. 2001; Kruckemeyer et al. 2001; Petek 1993) or MR powertrain
mounts (Baudendistel et al. 2003). Far and large a flow-mode MR vehicle damper
remains the most often utilized device using smart fluids.
Shear the fluid flows between two surfaces that move relative to each other. Again,
the external magnetic field is normal to the direction of the fluid flow thus causing
changes in the rheology of the fluid. Exemplary devices include rotary dampers
(brakes) or clutches (Carlson 1999; Jolly et al. 1999; Lord Corp. 2001; Rabinov
1948), steering dampers (Namuduri 2003), exoskeletal actuators (Chen and Liao
2006). It is the least efficient operation mode; it requires large shear areas for
generating loads.

1 Introduction

Low pressure

High pressure

Flow

Moving pole

Magnetic
Field
Low pressure

(b)

Magnetic
Field

High pressure

(a)

Flow

Stationary poles

Stationary poles

(c)

(d)
Magnetic
Field

Force

Magnetic Field
Flow

Poles
Poles

Non-magnetic spacer

Fig. 1.4 Operation modes. a Flow mode. b Shear mode. c Squeeze mode. d Pinch mode

Squeeze the fluid is sandwiched between two planar parallel surfaces. The distance
between the poles varies according to the prescribed displacement or force input.
Exemplary devices include high-force small-stroke linear dampers and mounts
(Carlson 1996; Farjoud et al. 2011; Goldasz and Sapinski 2011; Jolly and Carlson
1996; Zhang et al. 2011). It is restricted to application areas in which vibration
amplitudes are small.
Pinch the MR valve features magnetic poles in an axial arrangement along the
flow channel. The magnetic field controls the effective diameter of the semiorificethe fluid is solidified at the fluid layers near the magnetic poles. Carlson
et al. (2008), Goncalves and Carlson (2009) have recently quoted field-induced
pressure difference figures that are by the order of magnitude larger than those
of the remaining three modes. This mode is specific to MR fluids. Controllable
orifice-like valving systems were foreseen to appear in some future.
Combining at least two operation modes in one application, e.g. flow and squeeze or
flow and shear, leads to mixed-mode devices (Brigley et al. 2007; Hong et al. 2005;
Minh 2009). Of the four operation modes only the first two have been commercialized
so far. To the authors best knowledge, no commercial applications of the squeeze
mode based hardware have been reported yet. There is, however, still some engineering and research interest in the development of MR fluid based hardware operating
in squeeze-mode (Farjoud et al. 2011; Jolly and Carlson 1996; Sproston et al. 1994;
Wiliams et al. 1993; Zhang et al. 2011). At the present moment the most novel and
promising squeeze mode application seems a mixed mode (hybrid) MR fluid based
damper or an MR mount as demonstrated by Minh (2009) or Brigley et al. (2007) in
which the flow mode is utilized for large-stroke motion control, and the squeeze mode
is made use of at small-stroke motions as a way of enhancing the primary flow mode.

1.2 MR Fluid Operation Modes

Commercial mixed mode applications are yet to be developed and implemented,

though. Readers are requested to refer to (Wang and Meng 2001) for information on
prototype devices operating in the two remaining modes (shear and squeeze).

1.3 MR Dampers
A vehicle damper is commonly known within the automotive industry as a shock
absorber (Dixon 2007). Arguably, the term is misleading for dampers. Vehicle
dampers dissipate energy, whereas tires and springs absorb shocks in a suspension.
In general, vehicle dampers can be classified by type of damping force variation
mechanism: passive, manually adjustable, adaptive (Dixon 2007). Within the adaptive damper group the devices can be split into other sub-categories, namely, semiactive, slow active, fast active and fast active with fail-safe capability (Gysen et al.
2009). Using mechanical valves only, passive dampers require no auxiliary power
input nor control input. Manually adjustable systems incorporate electromechanical
actuators that allow for a selection of preset characteristics of damper valves. Adaptive systems are autonomous and have the ability of generating force according to
varying conditions on the road. Available systems range from two-position systems
to continuously variable ones (Dimatteo et al. 1997; Groves et al. 2002; Hopkins
et al. 2001). Considering the high costs of fully active suspension systems the concept of an adaptive damper is now almost exclusively limited to semi-active damping
systems. Recently, upon the advent of energy-harvesting trends a new category of
(semi-)active systems with power regeneration have emerged (Chen and Liao 2012;
Sapinski 2014). In a regenerative damper an external power supply unit is replaced by
an EMI (electromagnetic induction device) type actuator. The energy harvested from
vibrations is then used for controlling the force output of a (semi-active) damper. In
the active mode of damper operation the same actuator creates a linear movement
(Gysen et al. 2010; Tucker et al. 2013). The potential the new technology offers
is yet to be verified; at the time of writing the material for this chapter no power
figures on the amount of energy captured from vehicle motion and then used for
driving the actuator have been known yet. Gysen et al. (2010) reports the peak power
consumption of the electromagnetic damper system is 500 W. As such, it remains
to be confirmed whether such devices can operate as a standalone hardware or they
require auxiliary power supply units.
Historically, the concept of driving a car with an adjustable suspension has always
appealed to vehicle engineers even in the friction damper era. Cars from the beginning of the 19th century featured a manually operated Bowden cable connected to
friction pads on the vehicle (Dixon 2007). The 1933 Cadillac 355C V8 car featured
a five-position ride control system that could be set by a driver (GM Heritage Center
1993). The system used four rotary vane (Houdaille-type) dampers which were popular at that time. The 1934 Packard Super Eight Convertible Victoria luxury vehicle
included a similar three-position hydraulic ride control system. Next generations
of adjustable systems incorporated pneumatically operated valves. For example,

1 Introduction

Dessimond (1957) described a hydraulic damper with a deflected disc type valve
in which a high air pressure was delivered underneath the valve to exert an additional
variable force on the discs. The development of the sky-hook semi-active suspension concept by Karnopp et al. (1974) allowed for the introduction of on-off type
variable damping systems into passenger vehicles. The sky-hook based semi-active
suspension systems were rudimentary at that time, however, some implementations
showed promise (Hrovat 1997). In the late 1980s the progress in electronics and
computer management enabled several vehicles like Nissan, Toyota or Mitsubishi to
develop hydraulic dampers with real-time solenoid-operated valves. Around 1985
Colin Chapman developed a fully active hydraulic suspension system for Lotus Excel,
however, the system was never offered for sale. The Lotus system was a base for
the GM active suspension project for the 1990 Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1 Active Suspension prototype. Apparently, system calibration problems and general reliability
prevented it from being offered to the general audience. In the 1990s the significant
progress in research on smart materials have resulted in the worlds first MR vehicle
suspension system. Recent years have brought another series of development efforts
in the area of regenerative active suspension systems, however, at the time of writing
the material none of these systems has been offered for sale yet.
So far, the MagneRide system has remained the first mass-produced controlled
vehicle suspension system that is based on smart fluids. It is integrated with the
vehicles on-board architecture and cooperates with other systems on the carsee
Fig. 1.5 (Alexandridis 2000). As seen in Fig. 1.5 the original system required four
position sensors, the information on vehicle speed and steering wheel motion. Relative displacement sensors allowed the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) to determine
the motion of the cars body. The information was available through CAN (Controller Area Network). CAN ensured the information that was available to the MR
power driver module, could be accessed by other systems on the car. In addition
to handling the action of the four MR dampers at a rate of 1 kHz, the controllers
worked with traction control (TC), levelling (air-lift) system and ABS. For example, its integration with traction control ensured stability when on slippery surfaces.
Recent developments in the third generation of MagneRide focused on time response
improvements. The present hardware is based on a 32-bit micro-controller device,
and the control frequency of the current controller is 30 kHz which is well above the
audible noise range. Other notable improvements over the previous generations of the
systems include a higher dynamic range and better response at low body velocities
(New Electronics 2011).
From the design point of view the semi-active dampers are based on the concept
of either the variable orifice or a smart fluid. The first group is an extension of passive
damping systems with continuously variable electromechanical valves, whereas the
other varies the damping force output by affecting the apparent viscosity of a smart
fluid upon the action of a magnetic (electric) field. MR fluid dampers represent the
latter.
Main advantages of semi-active MR dampers include mechanical simplicity,
continuous change of damping characteristics, high dynamic range (turn-up ratio),
fast and noiseless work, robustness, low power demands (Alexandridis 2007) and

1.3 MR Dampers

Fig. 1.5 MagneRide system components (Alexandridis 2000)

controllability. Life cycle requirements and temperature operating range within the
automotive industry are similar to those specified for conventional suspension vehicle
dampers (Burson 2006; Murphy 2012). Exemplary performance figures show that
the response time of the recent generation of automotive MR dampers is below
12 ms, whereas the turn-up ratio exceeds 6:1 at piston velocities up to 1 m/s
(Godasz 2012).

10

1 Introduction

With few notable exceptions, MR control valves are rid of mechanical moving
parts, and they are virtually noise-free. The time response of electromechanical valves
depends not only on the electromagnetic circuit dynamic characteristics but also on
the magnitude of the force driving the switching mechanism available. Also, high
turn-up ratios at low and medium speeds are difficult to achieve with variable-orifice
type controllable dampersa field in which MR dampers have excelled. In fact it
can be argued that MR dampers with similar peak force characteristics at medium
and high-speed as in other types of controlled hardware possess better dissipative
characteristics than any semi-active dampers do.
However, the devices have remained a challenge due to the damping force nonlinearity and its dependence on relative velocity and control inputs, respectively. Due
to the non-linearities involved optimum control strategies appear doubtful (Batterbee
and Sims 2007).
Nevertheless, MR dampers have been criticized for weight and lack of fail-safe
capability. Also, Klingeberg (2001) highlights several challenges that the technology
needs to cope with on the on-going basis, namely, fluid cost, sedimentation, fluid
particle oxidization, etc.
The fail-safe operation mode is related to a damper being capable of generating
sufficient forces in case of electrical circuit failure(s). The requirement has been
recently met with several concepts of MR valves (Nehl and Alexandridis 2010).
The problem of excessive weight can be resolved through the use of MR fluids
with less iron content. Although less iron content means lower yield stress (and lower
generated forces), it can be compensated for by modifications in the control valve
geometry and magnetic circuit characteristics.
In general, it can be argued that settling is not a major issue as long as they fluid
is allowed to re-mix after it has settled. Tests have shown that an MR damper with a
good quality fluid returns to nominal forces after one stroking cycle even after one
year of storage (Burson 2006). Settling, however, remains a problem in applications
where dampers remain unused for extended periods of time, and they are required to
act instantaneously, e.g. in civil engineering.

1.4 Summary
Due to their structural simplicity and controllability MR actuators are becoming
more and more popular in industrial applications and passenger cars in particular,
despite initial general disbelief and doubts. Although technological hurdles as well
as high cost have hindered the development of MR fluid devices, smart dampers are
now found in a number of semi-active controlled chassis platforms in passenger vehicles. The so-called MagneRide technology is the first mass-production semi-active
vehicle suspension system that is based on smart materials. It now appears that it is
the automotive industry that has become the major beneficiary of the Rabinovs discovery of the 1940s. Following the discovery of stable fluid formulations, hardware

1.4 Summary

11

configurations capable of meeting the demanding criteria of applications in various

domains have emerged.
The research on MR devices continues. Since their discovery of the MR effect
we have witnessed a significant progress in fluid formulations, dedicated control
algorithms and the hardware itself. The potential these devices offer is still enormous
and yet to be explored in various areas of applications.

Chapter 2

MR Fluids

2.1 Introduction
Magnetorheological fluids are a suspension of fine, non-colloidal, low-coercivity
ferromagnetic particles in a carrier fluid (Carlson and Wesis 1995). They belong
to the class of controllable fluids which reveal the ability to change from a liquid
type behaviour to that of a semi-solid with a yield stress when exposed to external
magnetic fields. The changes are reversible and fast. MR fluid fulfil the important
performance criteria such as low initial viscosity, high shear upon the application
of the magnetic field, low hysteresis, low power consumption, temperature stability,
and fast response (Ashour et al. 1996). The unique nature of MR fluids have made
them suitable for semi-active energy-dissipating applications in particular (Carlson
and Chrzan 1994).
In this chapter the authors highlight the general principles of MR fluids. Their
rheology, critical parameters are discussed, and the mechanisms governing the socalled MR effect are characterized. For a more in-depth review of modelling efforts,
compositions and the influence of critical parameters the reader should refer to e.g.
de Vincente et al. (2011) or Bossis et al. (2008).

2.2 Mechanisms of the MR Effect

By far, the most accepted model for the MR fluid magnetization is the particle
magnetization model (de Vincente et al. 2011). According to the model, the MR
effect occurs due to the mismatch in the permeabilities of the solid phase and the
liquid phase, respectively. It is further assumed that particles act as magnetic multidomains (Agraval et al. 2001). In general, solid particles dispersed in the fluid feature
a number of sub-domains; each domain has a randomly aligned dipole moment in the
absence of magnetic stimuli (see Fig. 2.1a). Once they become ordered in the presence
of the magnetic field, all the sub-domains in a particle align in one direction, and
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_2

13

14

2 MR Fluids

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.1 MR fluid particles (Agraval et al. 2001). a Off-state, b On-state

the particle is subjected to magnetic forces. It can be seen that the forces between
two particles interact with each other and the particles attract (or repel) each other.
Attraction occurs in the direction parallel to the magnetic field lines, and repulsion
in the direction perpendicular to them. That leads to the formation of chain-like
structures in the direction of the magnetic field lines as illustrated in Fig. 2.1b.

2.2 Mechanisms of the MR Effect

15

The MR response results from the polarization induced in the suspension particles
upon the application of the external stimuli (Jolly and Nakano 2013; Jolly et al. 1999)
which induces a dipole moment in each of them. As the dipole-dipole interaction
increases, the particles align to form chains along the flux lines (Felt et al. 1996).
Increasing the magnetic field strength causes the aggregation of these chains into
columnar structures parallel to the field lines. In this condition the fluid exhibits
yield stress that is magnetic field dependent. The yield stress is the minimum stress
that needs to be overcome by external forces to initiate the flow. The manner and
rate at which the particles form the chain-like structures depend mainly on the rate
of magnetic field strength increase and particle ordering (Mohebi et al. 1999).
Several models have been proposed so far to predict the chain formation process
and to evaluate the yield stress in monodisperse as well as bidisperse MR fluids
(Bossis and Lemaire 1991; Ginder et al. 1996a; Ginder 1998b; Kittipoomwong and
Klingenberg 2005; Li and Peng 2012; Shulman et al. 1986; Si et al. 2008). The
researchers have attempted to model magnetic dipole interactions between adjacent
particles within a particle chain. One of the earliest attempts to quantify the magnetorheological effect through using mathematical models came from Shulman et al.
(1986) who developed a micromechanical model of the MR suspension on the basis
of the statistical theory of diluted suspensions of the following form
=

v
du
+ 0 H 2 v 01 + v
dz
2

(2.1)

where shear stress, viscosity, Hmagnetic field strength, v particle volume fraction, 0 vacuum permeability, v susceptibility and 0 is a constant.
Although novel and useful at that time, the model was quite limited, and other efforts
followed soon. For example, Ginder et al. (1996a) and Ginder and Davis (1994) carried out a numerical and analytical analysis of the magnetic phenomena by means of
the finite-element method. The researchers identified three regimes. At low applied
fields, the stress would increase quadratically, i.e. proportionally to the magnetic
field strength squared. In the second (intermediate region), the change rate of the
stress would be reduced. That is followed by a complete saturation at high fields.
Ly et al. (1999) simulated the process of chain formation using the Fast Multipole
Method. The authors performed the analysis for fluids with different iron content.
They concluded that the time to form the aggregates is inversely proportional to the
iron volume fraction. One recent model by Si et al. (2008) is a further attempt to
characterize the yield stress in terms of the magnetic field strength, particle size,
iron particle volume fraction. The model is illustrated in Fig. 2.2, where h denotes
the gap height, and Fa is the external force applied to the upper plate. The bottom
plate is held stationary. The 0 is the shear yield stress per unit area. It is assumed
that 0 = Fa sin a , where a is the angle between the centerline of the chain and the
magnetic field direction. The analysis showed that the yield stress of MR fluid under
these conditions can be given as

16

2 MR Fluids

Fig. 2.2 Shear yield stress

(Si et al. 2008)

kp

0 rv (MR 1)2 H 2
sin a cos a
0 (H) =
12n2
(2r + p )

(2.2)

n=1

where MR relative permeability of the MR fluid, MR = 1 + v , v

susceptibility, kp average number of particles in each chain, and kp = Af h/Vs Ns ,
Af flat plate area, Vs average volume of solid particles, Ns number of chains
in unit area. All models predict similar relationships as long as low magnetic field
strengths as well as low solid phase volume fractions are involved. However, Ginder
and Davis (1994) and (Phule and Ginder 1999) showed that as the field increased,
other expressions would yield more satisfactory results. At intermediate magnetic
field strengths the yield stress can be predicted according to
0 =

6v Ms1/2 H 3/2

(2.3)

where Ms saturation magnetization, and the saturation yield stress can be calculated
as
0 = 0.086v 0 Ms2

(2.4)

Finally, it should be noted that the above expressions express the yield stress as a
linear function of the iron volume fraction . de Vincente et al. (2011), however,
argued that the conclusion would be primarily valid for diluted MR suspensions
only.

2.3 MR Materials
An MR fluid is a suspension of magnetizable particles in a carrier fluid. Various
additives are present in the composition to enhance the yield stress, improve the
settling rate, reduce oxidation, etc. (Phule 2001).
In the context of the automotive industry that by far has been the biggest beneficiary of the Rabinovs discovery, MR material compositions should be optimized
for maximum yield stress magnitude changes, temperature operating range, durability, minimum settling, oxidation and paste formation (in-use thickeningIUT). MR

2.3 MR Materials

17

fluids should have an acceptable low viscosity in the absence of magnetic forces,
yet at the same time they should be capable of exhibiting large yield stresses (0 
20 kPa) when subjected to a magnetic stimuli of flux densities within the range from
0.6 to 1.0 T (tesla) (Carlson and Chrzan 1994)high turn-up ratio. The temperature
range that commercial MR fluids are claimed to operate within varies from 40 to
120 C in the conditions of continuous exposure and with excursions up to 150 C
(Alexandridis 2007).
Automotive vehicle dampers impose the most demanding conditions for MR materials. The shear rate well exceeds 105 s1 at the piston velocity of 1 m/s, and the
temperature range within which the fluid should operate approaches 140 C. Rotary
MR dampers in which the fluid is generally subjected to shear rates of 10,000 s1
provide a far more benign environment for exploiting the materials controllable characteristics. It is also clear that easy-to-remix MR suspensions would be preferred over
thixotropic gels, for example. Arguably, the latter would be more suitable for seismic damper applications, whereas the former would perform best in the automotive
environment.

2.3.1 Liquid Phase

Examples of typical carrier fluids (constituting the continuous phase of MR fluids)
are silicon oils, mineral oils, paraffin oils, silicone copolymers, white oils, hydraulic
oils, synthetic hydrocarbon oil, water, esterified fatty acid, ferrofluid (Carlson and
Weiss 1995; Foister 1997; Iyengar and Foister 2003a; Iyengar et al. 2004b; LopezLopez et al. 2006; Weiss et al. 1997a, b, 2000). One particularly preferred carrier fluid
material is polyalphaolefin (PAO). The material is well known for its wide temperature operating range. Again, in the context of automotive suspension applications,
the viscosity of the carrier fluid should vary between 0.001 Pas and 0.1 Pas when
measured at ambient temperature. According to Weiss et al. (1997a), carrier fluids
should be chemically compatible with both the material the particles are made of
and device materials. Moreover, they should be capable of functioning over a broad
temperature range (40 . . . 120 C in the case of vehicle dampers), exhibit low thermal expansion, and ensure excellent lubricity in addition to presenting no hazard to
the surrounding environment.

2.3.2 Solid Phase

A magnetorheological fluid is a suspension of fine, non-colloidal, low-coercivity
ferromagnetic particles in a carrier fluid that responds to the magnetic field. Based
on the analysis of available patent literature it seems the range of suitable solid
phase soft-magnetic, low coercivity materials includes pure iron, iron alloys (incl.
cobalt, vanadium manganese, molybdenum, silicon, nickel), carbonyl iron, atomized
iron, water-atomized iron, iron oxides (incl. Fe2 O3 , Fe3 O4 ), low carbon steel grades,

18

2 MR Fluids

silicon steel, nickel, cobalt, ferritic stainless steel, atomized stainless steel, and the
like (Bombard et al. 2011; Foister et al. 2003, 2004; Forehand and Barber 2010; Iyengar and Foister 2003a, b; Iyengar et al. 2004b; Margida et al. 1996; Munoz et al. 1998).
In general, the solid phase should exhibit high saturation magnetisation (1.6 . . . 2.1 T)
and low remanence (coercivity). The saturation limits the magnetic field induced
yield stress variation range, and low remanence delays long-term particle agglomeration and improves redispersibility (de Vincente et al. 2011; Phule et al. 1999). Other
limiting factors are cost and durability.
The solid phase material of choice seems reduced carbonyl iron powder (CIP)
the thermal decomposition product of iron pentacarbonyl. The material exhibits good
magnetisation properties and low remanence. Also, polymer coated carbonyl iron
powder has been known to improve dispersion stability (Choi et al. 2006). Indeed
a vast majority of commercially available MR fluids are carbonyl-iron based. The
materials manufacturing process, however, is relatively expensive compared to other
methods of producing iron powders. On-going efforts by the industry to lower the
cost of the MR fluid have resulted, e.g. in the application of water-atomized iron
powder in a high-durability MR fluid (Forehand and Barber 2010).
A brief review of physical properties of available off-the-shelf commercial MR
fluids (e.g. Basonetic 2040, Basonetic 4035, Basonetic 5030, MRF-122EG, MRF132DG, MRF-140CG) indicates that the solid (Fe) phase content by volume is typically within the range from 2022 to 4048 %the density of those fluids varies
from appr. 2,300 to 4,120 kg/m3 . Again, the former is best used with rotary brakes
and clutches, whereas the latter with linear dampers. Again, low iron content fluids
are likely to suffer from sedimentation, and those with high iron content accelerate
wear with devices they are used in.
The particle size is typically from 1 to 100 in diameter, preferably in the range
from 1 to 10 . Particles larger than 100 are known to cause irreversible jamming
in MR devices, increased friction and accelerated wear, and those smaller than 1
micron (as in ferrofluids) have been confirmed to generate insufficient yield stress
changes that have rendered them useless for use in controlled damping applications
and devices, However, Carlson et al. (2008) claims to have eliminated this inefficiency
with the recent discovery of an MR valve operating in the so-called jamming mode.
Apparently, small particles would not be subject to sedimentation but Brownian
motion would prevent them from developing the yield stress. In fact, MR fluids using
small size particles were reported to suffer from long-term particle agglomeration
and separation due to surfactant breakdown. Although, decreasing the particle size
reduces the sedimentation rate, the field-induced yield stress is negatively affected
by the changes. Specifically, Lopez-Lopez et al. (2010) examined monodisperse
spherical cobalt particles with the average diameter across the range from 60 to
800 nm and found a significant degradation of the MR yield stress when the average
particle size was below 100 nm.
Unlike monodisperse formulations, bidisperse suspensions involve a mixture of
particles of two significantly different sizes. For example, Rosenfeld andWereley
(2002) and Wereley et al. (2006) as well as Trendler and Bose (2005) and LopezLopez et al. (2013) examined formulations incorporating micron-sized particles and

2.3 MR Materials

19

nanometer-sized particles. For example, the mixture examined by Wereley et al.

(2006) with 20 wt% of the microparticles replaced by nanoparticles led to a substantial reduction in the settling rate (by an order of magnitude), and an increase
in the dynamic yield stress of over 15 % at high magnetic field. For comparison,
Foister (1997) developed a micron-size bimodal suspension involving a mixture
of large-size particles (<10 m) and smaller particles. The large-to-small particle
size ratio was 5:1. The mixture provided a significant enhancement in the yield
stress with no increase in the off-state viscositythe reported improvement was
2.7 times over the monosized suspension. Also, the study of Bombard et al. (2005)
confirms that mixing two CIP materials with different particle improves the rheology of MR fluids by decreasing the off-state viscosity and increasing the yield
stress.
In general, particles are spherical in shape. This geometry is preferred for low magnetic anisotropy, lubricity and durability. Recent studies have explored the possibility
of using nano-wires and micro-wires (fibers) in MR fluids for improved settling and
yield stress enhancement (Bell et al. 2008; de Vicente et al. 2010; Gomez-Ramirez
et al. 2011; Jiang et al. 2011; Ngatu et al. 2008; Starkovich and Shtarkman 2002).
It seems the fiber-based MR fluids offer a potential for a larger yield stress than a
suspension of spherical particles of the same concentration.
Some interesting results were reported by Ulicny et al. (2010), who performed
studies on MR fluid compositions containing a portion of non-magnetizable spheres
in an attempt to increase the yield stress and decrease the fluids weight as well as
cost. Others, e.g. Ohori et al. (2013), claimed an improvement in the storage modulus
in bimodal gels consisting of carbonyl iron particles and non-magnetic aluminum
hydroxide particles. Finally, mixing micron-size carbonyl iron particles with nanosize particles allowed for the fourfold increase in the yield stress as well (Ginder
et al. 1996b).
Polymer coating of particles improves their surface properties (reduces oxidation
and abrasion) and improves dispersion stability (Choi et al. 2006; Sedlacik et al.
2011).

2.3.3 Additives
As MR fluids are suspensions of solid particles in a liquid phase, surfactants are used
to delay particle settling as well as to prevent redispersion difficulties (Bombard
et al. 2009; Bossis et al. 2008). The rate at which settling occurs is one of the
most important design criteria when developing the fluid compositions for a specific
application. Typically, thickeners or thixotropic agents are used to prevent separation

20

2 MR Fluids

of the particles and the liquid phase (Weiss et al. 1997b). Here, the range of suitable
materials includes polymeric thickeners (hydrocarbons) or fumed silica (Iyengar
and Foister 2002), colloidal clays (organoclays) (Foister et al. 2003; Hato et al.
2011; Munoz et al. 2001), fluorocarbon grease (Iyengar et al. 2010). For example,
adding a low volume fraction (23 %) of silica particles produces a low off-state
yield stress fluid with low settling rates. On the other hand, even such low volume
fractions of fumed silica have been known to be abrasive towards damper seals and
coatings (Foister et al. 2003). When used in MR fluid compositions, surface treated
colloidal clays develop a low yield stress in the material that is sufficient to prevent
the particles from settling. Rich et al. (2012) examined MR suspensions with the
particle volume fraction up to 30 %. The suspensions composed of a synthetic clay
showed a practically zero settling rate.
Although the settling rate is an important parameter, tests with MR fluids have
shown that MR dampers return to nominal forces after one stroking cycle even after
one year of storage (Burson 2006; Carlson 2002).
Additives are also used to cope with another in-use failure modein-usethickening or paste formation. Carlson (2002, 2003) described the increase in the
off-state viscosity of the fluid by a factor of 3 after 600,000 cycles when used in a
damper and under the influence of magnetic field. According to Foister et al. (2003),
the key factor in the process is the use of fumed silica. Surface protection agents
and anti-oxidants can be added to the formulation in order to reduce or eliminate the
process. Implementation of various passenger car platforms with MR fluids based
shock absorbers indicates at successful solutions of the failure mode; typical life
cycle requirements of automotive OEMs vary between one million and two million
cycles.
Other additives are also used to reduce friction, wear, and to improve durability, as well as to ensure compatibility with device materials. For example, Foister
et al. (2003) describe an exemplary durable MR fluid formulation which comprised
about 5095 % by weight magnetizable particles, about 550 % by weight liquid
carrier, about 0.02510 % by weight of one or more thickeners such as organoclays,
fumed silicas, precipitated silicas, polyureas, alkali soaps, and an additive package.
The package (organomolybdenum ditiocarbamate, an ashless ditiocarbamate and a
tolutriazole compound) may further incorporate a total of at least 0.055 % by weight
of the formulation. This formulation was optimized for use in automotive applications (controlled MR dampers) requiring fluids to pass durability (life) tests and
exhibit acceptable variation of off-state forces.
In another exemplary application, Iyengar et al. (2006) describe a formulation
for use with devices containing natural rubber, e.g. powertrain MR mounts. The
composition incorporates a silicone fluid with a treated fumed metal oxide thickener
and several hydro-bonding chemicals such as propylene glycol and a bifunctional
ethoxylated amine. Other additives in the form of anti-wear agents and anti-friction
agents include zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDDP), organomolybdenums (Iyengar
and Foister 2003a).

2.4 Rheology of MR Fluids

21

2.4 Rheology of MR Fluids

Among other factors, the rheology of MR suspensions relies on particle concentration,
particle shape distribution, properties of the carrier fluid, additional additives, applied
magnetic field, temperature (Jolly et al. 1999). Specifically, the off-state behaviour
of MR fluids depends on carrier fluid properties, additives, particle volume fraction,
etc., whereas the on-state (energized) behaviour depends on the solid phase properties
and the volume fraction of the solid phase.
Rheology of MR fluids is characterized in terms of pre-yield as well as post-yield
conditions

e = 0, < 0
G e
(2.5)
=
e + 0 , 0
where e denotes deformation. The post-yield behaviour of MR fluids has been
observed experimentally and described mathematically on numerous occasions
see de Vincente et al. (2011). The Bingham plastic model has now become the tool
of choice in characterizing the properties of MR fluids and the performance of MR
fluid based devices. Phillips (1969) first used the rheological model in explaining
the behaviour of variable yield stress fluids. In the pre-yield regime (below the yield
stress) the behaviour of the material is viscoelastic, and the complex modulus G
was found to be magnetic field dependent, too (Weiss et al. 1994). However, the
Bingham model is insufficient in characterizing the behaviour of MR fluids at high
shear rates, and cannot account for the pre-yield characteristics. Shear-thinning as
well as shear-thickening effects appear to dominate at high shear rates and they were
included in the visco-plastic Herschel-Bulkley model
1

= 0 + e m

(2.6)

Note that the above model is reduced to that of a Bingham plastic for m = 1.
The Bingham model as well as the Herschel-Bulkley model are analysed in detail
in Sect. 4.2. Most MR exhibit shear-thinning behaviour (Ginder 1998a), i.e. when
apparent viscosity decreases with an increasing shear rate.
In general, the viscosity increases with the particle concentration. For example,
Felt et al. (1996) investigated an aqueous suspension for a range of particle concentrations from 0.014 to 0.12. In the study the viscosity was found to vary in
accordance with
(2.7)
= b (1 + 2.5v )
where b is the carrier oil viscosity. Also, particle size was found to have a significant
effect on viscosity in fluids with high concentration of particles.
The yield stress 0 (H) varies with the magnetic field applied. Therefore, the
magnetization characteristics (BH curves) are among the most important material
properties when drawing requirements for a specific application. At the same time,

22

2 MR Fluids

most often it is the MR fluid that represents the biggest reluctance within the magnetic circuit of a device it is used in. Jolly et al. (1996) demonstrated that commercial
MR fluids exhibited approximately linear magnetic properties up to a field of about
0.02/ A/m ( = 0 r ). As such, studies up to this magnetic field strength assume
the fluids magnetic permeability (the slope of the fluids BH curve) to be constant within that range. Above the magnetic field strength the materials revealed a
gradual saturation. The point at which the material saturation occurs, i.e. saturation
flux density, is the product of the particle volume fraction, and particle saturation
magnetization. Factors that influence the materials magnetic saturation are related
to the solid phase properties and include the solid phase material, particle size, iron
volume fraction, and certain additives (e.g. ferrofluids). In contrast to ER fluids, the
materials yield stress is insensitive to operating temperature. Finally, due to the very
good magnetic properties of the soft iron material used for the solid phase, MR fluids
show little or no hysteresis.

2.5 Figures of Merit

Several performance measures have been defined by various authors to be able to
predict the expected life of an MR fluid in a specific application, define the turn-up
ratio, the required MR fluid volume and power consumption (Carlson 2003, 2002).
For example, Jolly et al. (1999) defined the mechanical power density Wm and the
electrical power density We

Wm = e
(2.8)
We = BH
2tc
where tc refers to the establishment of a magnetic field in the MR fluid, is the shear
stress, whereas B and H are magnetic field density and field strength, respectively.
Combining Wm and We yields the expression for calculating the efficiency of an MR
fluid as
tc
(2.9)
m = 2 e
BH
The figure of merit F1 is based on the active volume of an MR fluid and is given as
F1 =

(2.10)

F1 is inversely proportional to the minimum active MR fluid volume Vmin and reflects
the turn-up ratio as well as the required MR fluid volume and power consumption.
Maximizing F1 makes an MR device smaller and more energy-efficient.

2.5 Figures of Merit

23

Modifying F1 to include the density allows for incorporating weight. Thus,

F2 =

(2.11)

The remaining figure of merit F3 reflects the power efficiency of MR fluids

F3 =

BH

(2.12)

Maximizing F3 relaxes the power consumption requirements in a given application

device.
The life of a device (LDE) is given by

LDE =

1
V

TR
Pm dt

(2.13)

where V denotes the volume of MR fluid and Pm is the mechanical power converted
into heat during the operation of an MR device. LDE determines the life time dissipated energy (TR) or the total mechanical energy converted into heat per unit volume
of MR fluid. For example, F1 usually varies from 1010 to 1011 for many commercial
fluids (Agraval et al. 2001; Jolly et al. 1999), whereas LDE of a good MR fluid is on
the order of 107 J/cm3 or higher (Carlson 2002).

2.6 Summary
In general, MR fluids reveal a fascinating complex behaviour that can be tuned upon
the application of an external magnetic field. The material has matured as several
barriers have been overcome over the period of last twenty years. It has evolved from
being a scientific curiosity to a well-established and proven technology. The fluid is
a rare example of a smart material that paved its way into a relatively high-volume
product in the automotive market. The automotive environment in which fluids are
subjected to high shear rates, changing road conditions, temperature variation, heating, etc. imposes challenging and diverse life and performance requirements. That
is a strong evidence that many numerous obstacles and challenges, e.g. improving
the sedimentation stability of MR fluids, enhancement of their rheological properties and durability, operating temperature range, in-use thickening in MR fluid based
systems have been overcome and resolved. Regrettably, published studies on fluid
durability are rare and have received relatively little attention (Carlson 2003, 2002;
Forehand and Barber 2010; Iyengar et al. 2004a). Efforts toward new formulations
of MR fluids seem to be directed towards low cost and durability as well as settling.

Chapter 3

Configurations of MR Dampers

3.1 Background
MR dampers have been developed in a various sizes, configurations, and load
requirements to accommodate specific application needs. The damper configurations that have been developed so far can be categorized in three prime aspectsMR
fluid operation mode, hydraulic housing (cylinder), piston (or MR control valve)
structure (Zhu et al. 2013). A damper consists of a cylinder housing filled with the
fluid and a control valve (piston) for damping force generation while in motion.
The control valve (usually located in the piston) incorporates a magnetic circuit
with a coil.
In consideration of the operating modes MR dampers are divided into four
fundamental categoriesflow-mode dampers, shear-mode dampers, squeeze-mode
dampers and pinch-mode dampers. Dampers utilizing more than one MR fluid
operation mode are mixed-mode devices. Each category brings particular benefits,
and it may serve different purposes.
As regards the cylinder design the dampers are single-tube (mono-tube), twintube or tri-tube devices. The mono-tube design has been a natural choice for MR
applications due to its simplicity and few internal components.
The design of a control valve involves specification of a magnetic-circuit with
a coil wound onto a core and an annular gap (annulus). The valves can be categorized in terms of the primary flow (annular) paths, annulus geometry, the coil-core
arrangement, etc. The selection of geometry of the annulus and the characteristics
of the magnetic circuit are the key steps in the design application process.
By a wide margin, vehicle suspension dampers are flow-mode devices featuring
annular flow paths, and the contents of this chapter focuses on this operation mode and
the application of annular channels in control valves. Radial flow channels have been
virtually non-existent in control valves of commercial MR dampers. Therefore, the
authors split this chapter into several sections. In Sect. 3.2 they address fundamental
structures of MR shock absorbers, also reviewing and discussing mono-tube and

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_3

25

26

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

twin-tube configurations. Next, MR piston (control valve) structures are highlighted

in Sect. 3.3. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Sect. 3.4.

3.2 Damper Structures

In many aspects MR damper structures reflect the development of damper
configurations by various industries and the automotive industry in particular. In
general, damper structures can be classified in terms of the number of fluid volumes,
cylinder tube arrangement and the location of control valves. In this section the
authors describe the most common single-tube (mono-tube) configuration of an MR
damper. Double-tube structures and sensory structures are mentioned here as well.

3.2.1 Mono-tube Dampers

Mono-tube dampers are by far the most common devices that utilize MR fluids. The
mono-tube design has been a natural choice for MR applications due to its simplicity
and few internal components. As already stated, the most common application of
these dampers is a passenger vehicle suspension. From the standpoint of design,
the automotive MR dampers are of a simple mono-tube design with no electromechanical valves and no small moving parts. In principle, the design configuration of
a typical gas-charged MR damper is similar to that of a passive valve-based damper
see Fig. 3.1a. The cylinder tube houses the floating piston (gas cup) which separates
the MR fluid from the high-pressure gas chamber. The main piston divides the MR
fluid volume into the compression chamber (fluid volume between the floating piston
and the main piston assembly) and the rebound chamber (fluid volume between the
rod guide and the main piston). The piston assembly incorporates an annular gap
(annulus) to permit the fluid to flow between the chambers while in motion. The
relative motion of the wheel and the body drives the fluid flow between the chambers
through the annular gap in the piston. The gas high pressure in the chamber below the
floating piston is necessary for cavitation-free operation, however, it has an adverse
effect on cylinder inner surface finish requirements, sealing and friction. In a typical
MR shock configuration (see Fig. 3.1a) the piston rod is attached to the vehicles body
and the cylinder to the wheel. For comparison, Fig. 3.1b shows an automotive MR
strut damper in an upside-down mono-tube McPherson strut configuration. Since
MR struts utilize upside-down monotube cartridges, it is the cylinder that is attached
to the vehicles body and the piston rod to the wheel via external fixturing.
One variation of the single-tube scheme is the twin-rod configuration as shown in
Fig. 3.2 (Carlson and Chrzan 1994; Poynor 2001; Sapinski 2014; Yang 2001). The
single-tube damper features a piston assembly guided by a rod attached to either side

3.2 Damper Structures

27

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.1 Automotive MR single-tube shock absorber; a Coilover shock absorber. b McPherson
vehicle suspension strut. 1 cylinder, 2 piston, 3 rod, 4 floating piston, 5 rod guide, 6 connector, 7
spring seat

of the piston. In this configuration only some small compensation volume of gas
is necessary to account for the fluids expansion with temperature. This particular
structure may be convenient, e.g., for car door lock applications or small-stroke
dampers.

28

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

3
2
1

Fig. 3.2 MR twin-rod single-tube damper (Poynor 2001; Sapinski 2014); 1 piston rods,
2 control valve (piston valve), 3 cylinder tube

3.2.2 Double-tube Dampers

In addition to operating at high gas pressures, the applications of mono-tube structures
may be limited due to packaging constraints. Therefore, a research on other structures
of MR dampers and on twin-tube ones in particular continues (Jensen et al. 2002;
Marjoram and Chrzan 2004; Oakley 2008; Poynor 2001). The mono-tube damper
configuration, however, is still by far the most common incarnation of a controlled
semi-active MR fluid damper. Compared to mono-tube configurations, a standard
twin-tube damper features concentric cylinder tubes. The inner cylinder houses a
piston valve. The piston valve controls the flow between the adjacent fluid chambers
and a base (foot) valve. In turn, the base valve regulates the flow between the fluid
chamber below the piston in the inner cylinder and a reservoir (fluid volume contained
between the outer tube and the inner one). The reservoir is partially filled with oil to
accommodate volume changes due to piston rod displacement. The dampers work at
a lower gas pressure, but only upright positions (or ones with low inclination angles)
are possible in a vehicle suspension and they incorporate more valving components.
It is apparent that research and engineering efforts on MR twin-tube structures
have not fully succeeded yet. For example, two studies reported a twin-tube structure
of an MR damper in which the MR control valve was located in the piston inside the
inner cylinder (Jensen et al. 2002; Poynor 2001)see Fig. 3.3. In the patented design
of Jensen et al. (2002) a conventional base valve was used for controlling the MR
fluid flow into the outer reservoir. The damper structure, however, may suffer from
hydraulic imbalance (which is a common problem affecting all twin-tube dampers),
and the range of damping forces that can be achieved with this design can be limited.
The imbalance phenomenon occurs when the damper is in compression and the
pressure drop across the piston is larger than the pressure drop across the base valve.

3.2 Damper Structures

29

Fig. 3.3 MR twin-tube damper (Jensen et al. 2002); 1 rod, 2 control valve (piston), 3 base valve,
4 cylinder, 5 reservoir

As a result, most of the fluid volume is pushed through the base valve causing pressure
lags in the chamber above the piston; damping forces should be tuned in such a way
to avoid that phenomenon.
In another study Oakley (2008) revealed a twin-tube damper in which the MR
valve regulates the fluid flow from the upper chamber above the piston into the reservoir volume between the cylinders. The device is essentially a tri-tube damper with
the inner tube disposed between the cylinder and the reservoir. In addition to the
MR control valve, two rather simple one-way check valves are used for directing the
flow between the fluid chambers. The twin-tube damper is illustrated in Fig. 3.4a;
wiring in the rod is not shown. The cylinder tube houses the piston that separates
the fluid volume into the rebound chamber (above the piston) and the compression
chamber (below the piston). The damper is driven by the prescribed displacement
(velocity) input applied to the piston rod. The internal MR valve controls the flow
of fluid between rebound and reservoir chambers, respectively. The flow through
the piston is controlled by the check valve. This valve allows for flow in one direction only, from the lower chamber into the upper chamber, and the fluid flow is
prevented in the other direction. Thus, the flow between the chambers (reservoir) and
(compression) is controlled by the valve. Also, this valve allows for flow from the
fluid chamber in the reservoir into the lower chamber in the cylinder, and prevents
any reverse flow (from the compression chamber into the reservoir). The reservoir
contains MR fluid and pressurised gas. Inside the reservoir the gas can be separated
from the fluid with a floating piston. While in compression, the rod is moving into the
damper. Flow through the check valve in the base valve is prevented, and it occurs
through the valves in the piston and the MR valve only. For comparison, during the

30

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

(a)

(b)

MR
Fluid

5
2

4
Gas

3
1

Fig. 3.4 Twin-tube damper configurations: a Oakley (2008), b Carlson and Chrzan (1994);
1 piston rod, 2 valve (piston), 3 foot valve, 4 cylinder tube, 5 reservoir tube, 6 gas

rebound stroke, the rod is moving out of the damper, so that flow occurs through the
MR valve and the base valve, and there would be no flow through the base valve.
Due to the check valve arrangement the flow through the MR valve does not reverse
regardless of the piston motion direction. Figure 3.4a shows the twin-tube damper
in a configuration with an internal MR valve, besides, Oakley (2008) also discusses
external valve arrangements.
Unlike conventional MR damper structures, the specific twin-tube damper configuration is asymmetric in terms of the magnitude of generated forces in either
direction of the piston motion. The amount of asymmetry is directly related to the
piston rod size (area) (or rebound-to-compression chamber cross-section area ratio).
Goldasz (2014) illustrated through the simulations of the dampers force outputs
that increasing the piston rod area minimizes the asymmetry, however, at the cost of
degraded rebound forces. In a manner similar to the other twin-tube configurations,
the damper also operates at a significantly lower gas pressure than the gas-charged
mono-tube MR dampers.
Note that the above twin-tube concept can be easily converted into a bypass-type
single-tube devicesee Fig. 3.5. Also, in this specific case the MR valve controls
the flow of fluid between the rebound and reservoir fluid volumes, respectively. The
flow through the piston is controlled by the check valve which allows for flow in
one direction only, from the lower chamber into the upper chamber, precluding the
fluid flow in the opposite direction. The flow between the external chamber and the

3.2 Damper Structures

31

3
5
6

Fig. 3.5 MR bypass-type single-tube damper; 1 rod, 2 check valve (piston), 3 MR valve, 4 check
valve (base valve), 5 cylinder tube, 6 floating piston, 7 gas

lower chamber is controlled by the lower check valve. Also, this valve allows for flow
from the chamber in the external reservoir into the lower chamber, and prevents any
reverse flow from the compression chamber into the reservoir. The external reservoir
contains oil (MR fluid) and pressurised gas which can be separated from the fluid
with a floating piston.
Another modification of the above concept is a twin-tube damping device of
Marjoram and Chrzan (2004) in which the piston assembly incorporated the accumulator and the base valve contained the MR valve assembly for pressure difference
regulation across it. In another study Carlson and Chrzan (1994) describe several
similar twin-tube structures of which one is presented in Fig. 3.4b. Notably, the volume compensation chamber is located in the piston assembly, whereas the MR valve
(at the base of the damper) regulates the fluid flow between the fluid chambers.

3.2.3 Sensory Damper Structures

Damping force control of MR dampers requires that the pistons relative velocity
(or position) should be estimated. It is a common practice by the industry to utilize
additional displacement sensors to provide that information to the ECU. That is why

32

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

Fig. 3.6 Relative velocity

sensor (Nehl and Deng 2007);
1 damper tube, 2 iron pole, 3
coil, 4 pole, 5 PM

4
2

a great deal of attention has been given to damper structures having built-in sensor
devices. For example, Nehl and Deng (2007) developed a relative velocity sensor
integrated into the dust tube of the dampersee Fig. 3.6. The sensor comprises a soft
iron pole, a permanent magnet and a coil. The motion of the damper against the dust
tube induces a voltage in the coil. The voltage is proportional to the relative velocity
of the piston.
Next, Wang and Bai (2013) presented an MR damper structure with a displacement
sensor. In their concept the sensor is integrated into the dust tube of the damper.
Finally, Or et al. (2008) developed a prototype concept of a damper having a force
sensor. The sensor is essentially a piezoelectric wafer compressed in between the
cylinder tube of the damper and the external mounting.

3.3 MR Control Valves

The control valve modifies damping forces in the shock absorber. In the design
process the geometry of the flow channel as well as the magnetic circuit characteristics
are varied in order to meet specific application needs.
In general, piston assemblies can be classified in terms of the primary and secondary flow path geometry, coil arrangement, core configuration and performance
enhancing features, e.g. fail-safe functions, force asymmetry, active area, flux boosting features, etc. This section handles the configurations of control valves that seem
to offer particular performance improvements in either the hydraulic characteristics or magnetic circuit features over the common and well-known single-coil and
single-gap control valve assembly.

3.3 MR Control Valves

33

3.3.1 Single-coil Control Valve

In an exemplary single coil piston assembly shown in Fig. 3.7 the piston rod
contains wiring for connecting the dampers electrical circuit to the driver module.
The rheology of the fluid is controlled by means of the magnetic field generated in the
circuit by applying a current to the coil in the piston core. The magnetic flux induced
by the coil passes through the core, enters the annulus, expands through the sleeve
and returns back into the core through the annular gapsee Fig. 3.7. The other flux
path is associated with the flux leakage into the cylinder (not shown) and the return
path into the piston rod via the MR fluid in the rebound (rod-side) chamber. The flux
leakage results in the flux density asymmetry over the poles which can be reduced
by employing a non-magnetic rod and cylinder tubes. Clearly, the magnitude of the
damping force varies with the yield stress induced in the fluid upon the introduction
of the magnetic field into the gap and the flow path geometry. Therefore, a careful
magnetic analysis is required to maximize the flux density in the gap while designing
MR actuators. At the same time magnetic saturation should be avoided (Carlson and
Chrzan 1994; Hopkins et al. 2001).
In general, the topology of the generic single coil and singe gap structure is varied
to accommodate specific features. For example, the assembly can involve multiple
coils in series or in parallel wound around the solid core (Gavin and Dobossy 2001).
Although the piston usually involves one annular (primary) flow path, multiple parallel flow path configurations have been proposed and analysed, too (Carlson et al.
2009; Gavin 2001; Goldasz 2013a; Namuduri et al. 2001). The double gap configuration is renowned for the high turn-up ratio but not the highest force. Next, Oliver
and Kruckemeyer (2002) described a piston assembly in which the coil was wound

3
1

6
4
2

Fig. 3.7 MR flow-mode piston valve assembly; 1 rod, 2 core, 3 coil, 4 plates, 5 sleeve, 6 leading
wires

34

3 Configurations of MR Dampers
2.5
2

B,[T]

1.5
1

0.5

SAE 1010
Hiperco-50
M-19

H,[A/m]

6
4

10

Fig. 3.8 Magnetisation curves of selected soft magnetic alloys (Lyman 1961)

onto radially projecting poles. In contrast to the usual transverse coil arrangement, in
this design the coil set-up was parallel to the flow path and the coils were connected
in series. In terms of the flow path structure, the valve may accommodate additional
secondary flow paths for low velocity performance shaping in the form of flow bypasses (Foister et al. 2011; Kruckemeyer et al. 2001; Lisenker et al. 2005). Fail-safe
features were also introduced into the valve in order to ensure a higher than minimum
damping force in the event of the electrical circuit failure (Bose and Ehrlich 2010;
Bose et al. 2009; Ding et al. 2013; Nehl and Alexandridis 2010).
In the parameter selection process for the MR valve it is a common practice to
follow same principles and criteria that have been developed for electro-mechanical
actuators and for fixed-gap actuators in terms of the flux output and selection of suitable materials in particular. Moreover, as with electromagnetic solenoid actuators,
a selection of materials is a key element in the design and development process.
MR actuators usually utilize soft magnetic materials in all components of the magnetic circuit of the actuator. Soft magnetic materials should be used wherever a large
amplification of the magnetic flux generated by the electric current is needed. Exemplary magnetisation curves of several soft magnetic alloys are illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
SAE 1010 is a low carbon steel alloy, whereas Hiperco-50 and M-19 are a cobalt
steel alloy and an electrical (high silicon) steel alloy, respectively. In general, important characteristics of soft materials used in electro-magnetic actuators include high
permeability, low remanent magnetisation, high saturation field strength (Pawlak
2006). By definition, high permeability relates to the ability of a given material to
amplify the magnetic field tens or hundreds of thousands of times. Using a highpermeability material the same flux density in the annular gap of the actuator can
be obtained by driving the coil with a current of lower intensity, thus contributing
to a smaller energy consumption by the actuator. Alternatively, higher flux density
in the gap can be obtained for the same coil current. Next, it is necessary to use
materials with small hysteresis loops for minimum remanence when the electric

3.3 MR Control Valves

35

current is switched off. Remanence in the MR actuators means that a low (yet finite)
flux remains in the annular gap, and induces a yield stress in the fluid at off-state
conditions. In general, it is detrimental to the applications performance and should
be best avoided. Saturation is also a key issue for the efficient design of the core
region below the coil that is most liable to saturation. For instance, the magnetic
flux density in the piston core includes a high flux density region and a low flux
density one. The high density region is typically located below the coil winding.
Saturating the material in that region limits the flux density in the gap regardless
of the coils ampere turns. The high flux density region restricts the magnetic flux
through the central portion of the core acting as a bottleneck, thus limiting the dynamic range of MR dampers (Yoo and Wereley 2002). Moreover, for applications in
which fast response is a primary requirement (as in automotive or aircraft suspensions, for example) high electric-resistivity materials can be recommended for eddy
current reduction in addition to realizing appropriate control strategies. The desired
characteristics could be utilized in the form of, e.g. electrical steel laminations or soft
magnetic composites (SMCs) (Battlogg et al. 2013; Oliver and Kruckemeyer 2002;
Shokrollahi and Janghorban 2007).
Hard magnetic materials are acceptable only in applications in which fail-safe
functionality may be required (Bose and Ehrlich 2010; Bose et al. 2009; Nehl and
Alexandridis 2010). In a typical configuration permanent magnets in an MR piston
would supply a bias magnetic flux in the absence of current (or the electric current
failure), i.e. they would be used in the form of a magnetic field source or a generator.
Effectively, the fluid in the annulus of the piston is magnetised by the permanent
magnets flux only, and a higher than minimum damping force can be obtained at
zero current conditions. As a result, driving the coil with the current in such a way
that the flux induced by the coil is effectively added to that of the permanent magnet
increases the damping force. Alternatively, it is possible to cancel the flux in the
annulus by subtracting it from the permanent magnets flux so that the damping
force can be reduced down to a prescribed minimum level.

3.3.2 Multiple Coils and Multi-stage Cores

MR valve with multiple coil have been developed and used for the purpose of
increasing the activation region (and the resulting field-induced damping force). In
consideration of the piston geometry the damping force can be augmented by varying
the height of the annulus in the piston and/or the activation area. However, varying
the gap height has a rather dramatic effect on the minimum damping force as well in
addition to the maximum force when activated. Therefore, increasing the activation
area (by varying the core length, for example) is more feasible-the damping force is
proportional to the length of the annulus but inversely proportional to the cubic gap
height. This can be often accomplished by utilizing a multi-stage design featuring
multiple coil as shown in Fig. 3.9. In the illustration the two serial coils are alternately
wound so that the magnetic fluxes are additive (see also Fig. 3.21a). The multi-stage

36

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

2
1

Fig. 3.9 Dual coil and single gap piston assembly layout; 1 core, 2, 3 serial coils

configuration has been recently implemented on several vehicle platforms, and a

significant improvement in both the force authority as well as speed of response has
been reported over previous MR valve designs (Pitcher 2010).

3.3.3 Secondary Flow Paths

If a leakage feature or a bypass is present in the primary flow path (annulus), some
section of the flow channel is not subjected to the magnetic flux of the same magnitude, and the material yields at a much lower break-away pressure than in remaining portions of the flow path. In MR dampers this is achieved with semi-circular
grooves or rectangular slot features located on annular surfaces (Foister et al. 2011;
Kruckemeyer et al. 2001) or on the outer surface of the sleeve (Lee et al. 2010; Lopez
and Skarbek 2013). Machining a slot on either surface constituting the annulus increases locally the height of the annulus. Effectively, the flux density in the slot is
lower, and the fluid in the region is exposed to a magnetic field of a lower strength.
However, the flux in such a (flux) bypass is not exactly zero (Foister et al. 2011), and
the fluid behaviour in the slot region is still that of the Bingham plastic.
Another example of a secondary flow path involves a piston featuring a thru-core
hole as shown in Figure 3.10b (Kruckemeyer et al. 2001). It can be shown through
spatial magnetic field simulations that the flux density level in the bypass is effectively
zero. As a result, the fluid in the thru-core bypass is not magnetised, and the damping
force characteristics in the low velocity regime of damper operation is governed only

3.3 MR Control Valves

Fig. 3.10 Piston
configurations with flow
leakage paths. a Flux (slot)
bypass; 1 slot. b Thru-hole
bypass; 2 hole. c Slot and
hole bypass; 1 slot, 2 hole

37

(a)

(b)

(c)
2

38

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

Fig. 3.11 Performance comparison of piston configurations with leakage flow paths

6
4
3
2

Fig. 3.12 Dual-gap piston assembly (Namuduri et al. 2001); 1 core, 2 coil, 3 inner annulus, 4 outer
annulus, 5 intermediate spacer, 6 sleeve

by the bypass geometry. With both secondary flow path configurations performance
tuning can be carried out through a bypass/slot geometry selection processsee
Fig. 3.11.

3.3.4 Multiple Parallel Flow Paths

Namuduri et al. (2001) proposed a piston configuration with multiple annular flow
paths in parallel. In the piston shown in Fig. 3.12 this was achieved by a ring for
MR fluid flow splitting. The inner spacer is made thinner in order to reduce the

3.3 MR Control Valves

39

magnetic flux leakage as shown in Fig. 3.21b as well. Alternatively, the inner spacer
can be a three-piece component in which the middle ring is made of a non-magnetic
material. A similar design was presented by Carlson et al. (2009) who claimed
specific performance gains with this configuration. Simulation results of Goldasz
(2013a) have shown that the particular piston configuration achieves a high turnup ratio but not the highest force. It seems it is worth pursuing in applications in
which a high amplification force ratio is required, however, at a cost of considerable
manufacturing expenses. Moreover, the structure requires more care in the geometry
selection process. Large outer flow channels perform as bypasses and degrade onstate damping forces whereas it is easy with small flow paths to disturb off-state
forces at the same time (and degrade the turn-up ratio at the same time).

3.3.5 Segmented Core

The MR piston core as shown in Fig. 3.7 is a solid piece of soft magnetic material.
It can be shown through magnetic analysis that the flux density in the area under the
coil winding often exceeds 1.51.6 T at maximum coil current. In the case of common soft-magnetic steel alloys cores that flux density condition represents magnetic
saturation. For comparison, the flux density on either side of the coil window below
the outer surface of the core is well below 1 T under the same working conditions.
Therefore, a need has arisen for using high-permeability and high-saturation alloys
in the piston and a new category of valves with such materials. This category of
MR valves utilizes high-permeability high saturation materials in critical areas of
the magnetic circuit that are liable to saturation. Alternatively, the materials are used
to boost flux in the annulus. The benefits are twofold. First, the approach augments
the flux density in the annulus for the same coil current input or coil ampere turns.
Second, it allows for an improved coil current range.
Briefly, several approaches have been suggested to improve the flux density in
the annulus so far. For example, Goldasz et al. (2005) proposed the use of a highpermeability and high-saturation material in the region below the coil. One proposed
configuration involved a high-permeability solid inner core combined with two outer
cores made out of ordinary materials to form the core assemblysee Fig. 3.13 (and
Fig. 3.21d). Effectively, the high-permeability material application reduces the bottleneck below the coil. The authors highlight the application of cobalt iron alloys,
silicon steel grades, electrical steel laminations, SMC, etc.

3.3.6 Buried Coils

In the piston configuration shown in Fig. 3.7 the middle section including the rectangular coil window is non-active and it contributes little to the total pressure difference
across the piston (damping force). In such piston configurations the coil window

40

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

Fig. 3.13 MR piston assembly with a high-permeability inner core (Goldasz et al. 2005); 1 inner
core, 2 outer core(s)

Fig. 3.14 MR piston assembly with a trapezoidal coil (Nehl et al. 2009); 1 inner core, 2 poles,
3 coil

represents a significant portion of the annulus. In order to improve on the active

surface on the core Nehl et al. (2009) utilized a trapezoidal coil so that the coil assembly was essentially buried under the magnetic pole surfacesee Fig. 3.14 (and
Fig. 3.21c). The configuration may be advantageous in two aspects. First, it minimizes the length of the non-magnetic (middle) section in the core assembly. Second,
it maximizes the magnetically active area on the core at the same time. Given the
same flux passing through the outer surface of the core, the configuration is beneficial in that the field-induced pressure difference across the piston is larger for the

3.3 MR Control Valves

41

same annulus length compared to the regular structure of Fig. 3.7. The resulting flux
density is lower as the flux spans over the larger surface of the core, however, the
middle non-active section contribution is reduced.

3.3.7 Fail-Safe Valves

In the off-state conditions MR dampers generate relatively low damping forces. The
damping force is increased by energizing the coil in the MR valve. In the case of
the electrical circuit failure the damper returns to the minimum off-state condition.
Therefore, it is said that MR dampers fail soft. In certain applications, however, it
is more beneficial to use damper systems with fail-hard or fail-safe capability. By
definition, fail-safe systems generate a higher than minimum damping force in the
event of electrical circuit failure. To ensure this behaviour hard magnetic materials,
e.g. neodymium permanent magnets, are used for generating a constant magnetic
flux in the piston assembly. With the bi-polar current driver it is then possible to
influence the polarity of the coil current so that the flux induced by the coil current
is added to or subtracted from the permanent magnets flux. Effectively, lower coil
current levels can be required to achieve the maximum damping force if the coil flux
coincides with that of the permanent magnet. Also, minimum damping forces can be
achieved by reversing the coil flux with respect to the bias flux so that the effective
flux in the annulus is forced down to zero. Apparently, this issue has received a great
deal of research and engineering interest. Over the last couple of years several failsafe valve structures have been suggested. For example, Bose and Ehrlich (2010);
Bose et al. (2009) developed and patented a fail-safe MR valve concept in single
coil as well as multiple coil configurationssee Fig. 3.15. In the concept shown in
Fig. 3.15a at zero current conditions the magnetic flux is induced by two permanent
magnet pieces dispersed below and above the coil, respectively. At on-state conditions
the flux passing through the annular gap consists of the permanent magnet flux and
that of the primary coil. The current in the coil circuit induces the on-state flux.
Therefore, the total flux in the annulus is the sum of the coil flux and two fluxes
due to the permanent magnets. By changing the polarity of the current as shown in
Fig. 3.15b, c (as well as in Fig. 3.15e, f) the total flux in the gap can either be increased
or almost completely cancelled.
Nehl and Alexandridis (2010) patented a piston assembly shown in Fig. 3.16. In the
assembly concept revealed in Fig. 3.16 the permanent magnet is located underneath
the coil. The piston assembly contains an air gap extending from the PM component
down to the other end of the piston core. It reduces the flux leakage from the side
of the permanent magnet. The piston can be operated in a manner similar to the
previous fail-safe concept. Again, with the particular piston concept the flux (and
the resulting damping force) may vary between the minimum damping force level
(occurring when the flux in the gap is cancelled by the coil flux that opposes the

42

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

(a)

(b)

(c)

(e)

(f)

3
1
2

(d)
1
2
4

Fig. 3.15 Single-coil and dual-coil fail-safe piston operating modes (Bose et al. 2009); 1 core, 2
coil, 3, 4 N-S permanent magnets. a Ico = 0 A. b Ico +. c Ico . d Ico = 0 A. e Ico +. f Ico

permanent magnet flux) and the maximum on-state damping force (occurring when
the coil flux aids the bias flux). The behaviour is confirmed in the magnetostatic
simulations of the MR valve in Fig. 3.16e, f. Note the flux small leakage path into
the rod in Fig. 3.16f.
Apparently, the research in this area continues. Jackel et al. (2014) revealed
details of an MR valve in which a movable permanent magnet assembly is located
underneath the coil window. In this design the motion of the PM component has
been accomplished through an external actuator and a thru-rod linkage mechanism.
The valve has three regimes of operation depending on the position of the permanent
magnetic relative to the inner core and the current condition of the coil.

3.3 MR Control Valves

43

(a)

(b)

(c)

(e)

(f)

1
3

(d)

Fig. 3.16 Fail-safe piston operating modes (Nehl and Alexandridis 2010); 1 core, 2 coil,
3 PM, 4 air gap. a Ico = 0 A. b Ico +. c Ico . d Flux lines: Ico = 0 A. e Flux lines: Ico +. f
Flux lines: Ico

3.3.8 Valves with Large Fluid Activation Area Ratio

Typically, an MR piston utilizes a core with a coil that is wound in a window around
the outside of the core. The area section over the coil is essentially inactive, thus, its
contribution to the damping force of such MR dampers is small. Therefore, a piston
design that maximizes the active area on the core was clearly worth pursuing.
Oliver and Kruckemeyer (2002) describe a core made out of SiFe (silicon steel)
laminated stacks having radially projecting arms away from the center of the core.
The coil is then wound around the radially projecting armssee Fig. 3.17. Neighbouring coils are wounded in the opposite directions. The flux that is generated in
the piston assembly passes through the radially projecting arm, enters the gap and
into the sleeve, then returns into the neighbouring arm through the annular gap as

44

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

(a)

(b)
7
5

6
8

Fig. 3.17 MR piston with electrical steel laminations (Goldasz 2013b; Oliver and Kruckemeyer
2002); 1 rod, 2 sleeve, 3 annulus, 4 plates, 5 poles, 6 core, 7 wiring, 8 casing. a Side view. b Top
view

in Fig. 3.18a. Figure 3.18b shows that the flux density in the gap is almost uniform
over a single pole with a large drop in the non-active area between neighbouring
poles. Goldasz (2013b) showed through magnetic field calculations that the area between the neighbouring poles is a natural flux bypass. In this design the mid-section
of the pole forms the flux bottleneck region, and avoiding saturation in this area is
critical for the damper performance. In this piston configuration the core utilizes
a significantly higher portion of its surface compared, e.g. to existing MR piston
configurations (Kruckemeyer et al. 2001).

3.3 MR Control Valves

45

(a)
r

(b) 0.65

Bg ,[]

0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4

20

40

60

80

100

120

r , [mm]
Fig. 3.18 Exemplary flux lines distribution in the piston core. a Flux lines. b Flux density distribution in the gap

3.3.9 Asymmetric MR Valve

Regular valve structures generate symmetric and near equal damping force regardless
of the direction of motion of the piston. The force asymmetry is then realized through
software in real-time. Oliver et al. (2003) developed a piston assembly in which
the damping force asymmetry can be accomplished through hardware meanssee
Fig. 3.19. The piston features a blow-off type mechanical valve which operates in
parallel to the primary MR valve. The blow-off valve involves a piston attached to
that of the MR assembly, a disc and a preloaded coil spring. In the rebound (upward)
stroke there is no flow through the bypass valve. In the compression (downward)
stroke the valve opens once the pressure difference across the piston exceeds the
blow-off pressure due to the preloaded spring. The disc in the blow-off assembly
may contain orifices for shaping the force-velocity characteristics at low velocities
of the piston. The blow-off valve contribution results in the exemplary force-velocity
characteristics shown in Fig. 3.19b.

46

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

(a)

2
1

(b)

Fig. 3.19 MR piston assembly with bypass valving (Oliver et al. 2003); 1 control valve,
2 blow-off piston, 3 disc, 4 blow-off spring. a Assembly cross-section. b Fd versus V p

In another example study Potnuru et al. (2013) analysed an MR valve having a

tapered annular flow channel as revealed in Fig. 3.20. Apparently, tapering the annular
surfaces influences both the magnetic field (as shown in Fig. 3.21e) as well as the
pressure drop for compression and rebound. As the piston moves upward (downward)

3.3 MR Control Valves

47

Fig. 3.20 MR valve with tapered annular surfaces (according to Potnuru et al. 2013); 1 flow path

in rebound (compression) the fluid accelerates (decelerates) in the annulus which

translates into different flow conditions and the resulting pressure drop in either
direction of motion (Fig. 3.21).

3.3.10 Velocity- and Field-Sensing Valves

Damping force control of MR dampers requires the accurate knowledge of pistons
relative velocity (or position) as well as magnetic flux in the annular gap or force.
While velocity sensors have been embedded into damper structures, the natural location for flux sensors is the MR valve. The sensors are necessary for calculating
the current demands during vehicle manoeuvres in real-time. Nehl et al. (2007)
and Gopalakrishnan and Namuduri (2011) developed an approach for estimating the
flux passing through the annular gap from main coil voltage measurements or using
a search coil wrapped around a coresee Fig. 3.22. The search coil is wound in
parallel to the main coil on the bottom of coil window, however, it is disconnected
from the driver circuit. The primary coil is wound on top of the search coil. The
secondary coil (as well as the primary coil) senses the average flux passing through
the core structure. Considering the respective voltages u 1 and u 2 across the primary
and secondary coil terminals, respectively, the following expressions can be written
for the search coil circuit (Nehl et al. 2007)
u2 =

d
dco
= N2
dt
dt

(3.1)

48
Fig. 3.21 Magnetic flux
exemplary distributions of
several piston configurations;
1 slot, 2 annulus.
a Dual-coil piston.
b Dual-gap piston.
c Trapezoidal coil.
d Segmented core.
e Tapered flow path. f Flux
bypass

3 Configurations of MR Dampers

(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

(e)
(f)
1

3.3 MR Control Valves

49

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.22 Search coil concept (Nehl et al. 2007); 1 core, 2 search coil, 3 primary coil.
a Concept. b Piston assembly

where N2 refers to the number of search coil turns, and co is the (coil) flux linkage.
In the light of the above equations, the average flux passing through the structure can
be obtained from voltage measurements

=

(u 2 )dt/N2 + 0

(3.2)

where 0 is the flux linkage initial condition. The same flux estimate can be obtained
through voltage measurements of the primary coil. However, in this case additional
measurements of the coil current and resistance are required for the flux estimate.

3.4 Summary
In the chapter the authors presented a review of MR damper structures and MR
valve configurations. The structures were described in terms of the arrangement
of cylinders and the MR valve topologies.The range of examined valve structures
involves a conventional standard single coil and single gap (annulus) piston as well as
multiple coil assemblies. Specifically, various families of valves aimed at enhancing
the damper performance were described and analysed, including high-permeability
inserts, pistons with multiple flow channels, buried coil designs, pistons with tapered
surfaces in the flow path, etc. The significance of the secondary flow paths on the low
velocity performance of the valves was highlighted, too. Finally, the authors conclude
the chapter with fail-safe valves and velocity- as well as field-sensing valves utilizing
search coils as well as other structures with sensory capabilities.

Chapter 4

Modelling of Control Valves

4.1 Background
One of the most crucial stages in the analysis of dynamic devices and components
is the development of a mathematical model of the device. With MR/ER devices
modeling efforts have been always hampered by the complexities involved and their
multidisciplinary nature. The multidisciplinary aspect of MR dampers requires the
coupling of the hydraulic, mechanical and electro-magnetic domains. Non-linearity
of the materials, fluctuating magnetic fields, eddy currents as well as compressibility,
inertia and plasticity of the fluid should be taken into account in the model development process. In consideration of the real-time damper operation, it is important
that all key components are included in the analysis. For example, in a typical system configuration, the piston rod (or the cylinder tube) is driven by a prescribed
displacement or force, while a current signal is applied to the coil located in the
piston assembly of the damper. In a typical; configuration of a control system the
commanded current is supplied to the coil through a pulse-width modulated (PWM)
current controller. The current in the coil induces a magnetic field in the actuator
in order to magnetise the fluid and influence its yield stress and the damping force
at the same time. The changes in the magnetic field passing through the components in the magnetic circuit of the actuator induce an electromotive force, and eddy
currents are generated in the magnetic circuit. Furthermore, the eddy currents produce a magnetic field opposing the flux changes, and the speed of response of MR
dampers becomes slower. Therefore, a non-stationary model for capturing the timevarying behaviour of the MR damper should account for the PWM supplying the
commanded current to the coil and the coil resistance to the change of current. The
coupling between the magnetic field induced yield stress and the damping force
output (hydraulic circuit) should be included in the model as well. Although multiphysics numerical methods based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and magnetic finite-element (FE) tools can be employed to model and analyse the response of
the damper system (Bullough et al. 2008; Zheng et al. 2014), the CFD-FE approach is
still time consuming, and hence not very effective in studies involving simulations of
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_4

51

52

4 Modelling of Control Valves

a complete damper system. Still, very good results can be obtained with 1D lumped
parameter models solved analytically or using numerical solvers.
Over the years two categories of modelling efforts could be recognized: mathbased modelling utilizing constitutive models of smart materials and phenomenological black-box modelling. Most research efforts have focused on phenomenological
(parametric) models of MR devices as well as ER ones; non-parametric models of
smart fluid based devices, e.g. neural network based models as used by, e.g. Chang
and Roschke (1998) are beyond the scope of the current study. In general, the models
reveal a network of elements representing the suitable phenomena inside a smart fluid
based device, namely, viscous damping, MR effect induced yielding force, hysteretic
operators and inertia elements. They are suitable for control studies, and the model
parameters are identified from pre-arranged experiments. A comprehensive review
of the research work in this area was given by Wang and Liao (2011), and the reader
should refer to this paper for details. In other words, the model structure is identified
based on observations of inputs and outputs of an existing MR device using suitable
system identification techniques. However, they lack insight into physics governing the behaviour of the device. Therefore, the usability of such a model in virtual
(damper-level) prototyping studies, for example, is none, and they are not analysed
in the chapter. For the same reason MR/ER fluid models that use blending functions
to copy the material behaviour, e.g. the Eyring model (Choi et al. 2005) or Papanastasiou model (Papanastasiou 1987) are left outside the scope of the present study.
Here, the authors present and analyse models that rely on the description of the MR
phenomenon with constitutive models of the smart fluid behaviour. The application
of various constitutive models of non-Newtonian fluids has proved promising in the
process of modelling and designing smart fluid based devices and flow mode MR
(and ER) dampers in particular, e.g. (Hong et al. 2002; Wereley 2003).
As the behaviour of ER devices has been modelled using similar constitutive
models, most relevant work on ER dampers and control valve in particular is reviewed
in this chapter in parallel with MR research results wherever appropriate.
In general, two categories of MR damper models can be recognized based on their
behaviour in the time domain. Steady-state (or time-invariant) models usually involve
least computational effort and are sufficient for fast sizing of damper geometries to
meet specific application needs. On the other hand, dynamic models provide a good
insight into significant phenomena occurring in the device while in motion. With
these models not only the physics of the fluid in flow through the control valve can
be studied but other dynamic effects outside of the valve can be accounted for through
math simulations as well (Jiang and Christenson 2012; Mao et al. 2013).
This chapter focuses on modelling the core of each MR fluid based devicethe
control valve, and deals with an analytical approach for determining yield stress
induced pressure losses due to the control valve. In order to be able to estimate
the hydraulic characteristics of the control valve in the damper it is essential to
provide a relationship between the flow rate through the valve and the resulting
pressure drop across it. Therefore, the authors handle several constitutive models
of non-Newtonian fluid models, and obtain equations governing their behaviour in
the planar flow. The majority of control valve geometries are axi-symmetric about

4.1 Background

53

the centerline axis of the piston assembly. The flux density is radial with respect
to the main axis, and the current flow is cylindrical. As a result, both hydraulic
(flow) model as well as the electromagnetic model can be limited to the study of a
slice of the device of a unit angle. Neglecting non-symmetric features in the flow
path or the magnetic path allows the model dimension to be reduced from a 3D
geometry to a 2D axisymmetric space. Furthermore, the axisymmetric flow models,
e.g. (Gavin 1998), can be approximated with parallel-plate models on account of the
small ratio of the annular channel height and the piston diameter (Wereley and Pang
1998). Effectively, constant-yield stress parallel-plate models seem adequate in most
practical studies. Special attention is given to the development of a non-dimensional
modelling approach comprising all key geometric as well as material variables. The
scheme performance is then demonstrated based on several configurations of control
valves (pistons) of MR dampers. Electromagnetic coupling is provided through a
(steady-state) magneto-static axisymmetric model of the control valve assembly or
a (transient) lumped parameter model of the electromagnetic circuit of the control
valve.

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

Historically, the Bingham plastic model has been proved useful in numerous MR
(or ER) applications. For example, Gavin et al. (1996) studied the flow of ER fluids
through a rectangular duct using the Bingham plastic approach, then applied it to the
analysis of multi-duct ER dampers (Gavin 2001). In the Bingham plastic material
model, the fluids viscosity remains approximately constant. It is the initial shear
(or yield) stress 0 that has to be exceeded to initiate the flow. Therefore, the following
description of the material behaviour was given by Phillips (1969)
= 0 +

du
dz

(4.1)

where du/dz is velocity gradient, fluid viscosity, 0 yield stress. The fluid viscosity and the field-induced yield stress are the two most important parameters used
in describing the flow behaviour of MR/ER materials and designing MR/ER devices.
The Bingham model does not account for the post-yield shear thinning/thickening
effects at high shear rates that were observed experimentally. Omitting these effects
results in under/over-prediction of damping force (or torque) in smart devices as
highlighted by Jolly et al. (1999) and Yang (2001). However, the accuracy of Bingham model-based tools is acceptable and they have formed basis of various research
efforts to describe the MR/ER hardware behaviour (Gavin et al. 1996; Hong et al.
2003, 2008; Peel et al. 1996; Stanway et al. 1996). The authors recognized that meaningful results would be obtained with significantly less effort through nondimensional
groups involving all key (geometric and material) variables. Nondimensional models are necessary for effective engineering of MR/ER dampers as the devices are
complex and involve a large set of important material and geometric variables with

54

4 Modelling of Control Valves

mutual interactions between them. Therefore, there was a need for techniques and
methods capable of reducing the complexities involved and handling them in an
efficient manner.
So far, several dimensionless schemes have been demonstrated to predict the
damping force output of flow mode dampers in particular. Phillips (1969) provided
his steady-state solution of the Bingham flow through a rectangular duct (fixed/sliding
plate configuration) into dimensionless form. The defined groups involved the important dynamic range, P (the ratio of the maximum damping force to the minimum
damping force at a given speed), the dimensionless yield stress, T , and the dimensionless wall velocity, Vw . The variables relate flow geometry and material properties of the fluid and provide means of expressing the pressure gradient (and damping
forces) in closed-form. Using the same parameters, Gavin et al. (1996) documented a
closed-form formula for pressure gradient in a smart damper, and studied the impact
of the nondimensional parameters on the device dynamic range, and applying the
principle for designing multi-duct MR dampers (Gavin 1998, 2001). Later, Hong
et al. (2003) found his solution useful as a basis for an effective design scheme of
semi-activeER dampers. In studies of a long-stroke flow mode ER damper both Peel
et al. (1996) and Stanway et al. (1996) utilized a novel nondimensional group involving known quantities, namely, the friction coefficient, C f , the Reynolds number,
Re, and the Hedstrom number, H e. The group was developed using the principles of dimensional analysis, then substituted in the cubic relationship of Phillips.
In Peels solution the resulting friction factor (pressure drop) is a function of the
Reynolds number and the Hedstrom number. The authors showed that scaling ER
data by means of the nondimensional three-component set makes them collapse
onto a surface, C f = f (Re, H e), or a curve (for a constant Hedstrom number),
C f = f (Re, H e = const). In an earlier study of a squeeze-mode ER mount Wiliams
et al. (1993) utilized yet another three-parameter nondimensional scheme that incorporates the so-called pressure number, G, the yield stress number, S and the viscosity ratio, (that was specific for the bi-viscous model). The pressure number, G, is
inversely proportional to the scaled annulus size, and the yield stress number links
both the Hedstrom number and the Reynolds number. The Wiliams scheme (based
on the work of Gartling and Phan-Tien (1984)) is further explored in the present
analysis, and the application (and extension) of this scheme to various constitutive
models of MR/ER fluids is illustrated here. In the study of approximate parallel
plate models of MR/ER dampers Wereley and Pang (1998) used the idealized Bingham plastic model to introduce a three-parameter nondimensional group. The group
and
incorporated the Bingham number, Bi, the nondimensional plug thickness, ,
the area coefficient defined as the ratio of the piston head area to the area of the
annular gap. In analyses that followed Wereley et al. (2004) applied the approach to
the study of a secondary flow path in ER valves (bypass), and extended it with the
pre-yield-to-post-yield viscosity ratio of a bi-viscous material model. Based on the
nondimensional set of parameters, a design scheme was proposed and its effectiveness demonstrated for flow mode and mixed mode ER and MR dampers, respectively
(Browne et al. 2011; Hong et al. 2003, 2005; Mao et al. 2007). Subsequently, using the
HerschelBulkley model, Wereley (2003) applied the same nondimensional scheme

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

55

to study shear thickening/thinning scenarios, and Hong et al. (2008) extended it for a
generic HerschelBulkley model with pre-yield viscosity and non-zero yield stress.
The generic model would reduce to existing models of MR/ER dampers depending
on specific constraints applied to the scheme.
Briefly, having a different level of usability, all schemes reduce the number of
variables describing the behaviour of MR/ER devices, and provide means for characterizing data from MR/ER experiments.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the schemes are equivalent as they involve
the same set of dimensional (material and geometric) variables. For example, by
definition the Reynolds number Re, the Hedstrom number He and the friction factor
C f are as follows (Stanway et al. 1996)

0 h 2

H
e
=

v h
Re =

C f = w2
v

(4.2)

Also, the P T pair is defined as (Phillips 1969)

P = p wh
L 12Q
2

T = wh 0
12Q

(4.3)

By definition, both the pressure number, G, and the plasticity number, S, are (Wiliams
et al. 1993)

G = hp
2L0
(4.4)
12Q

S =
2
wh 0
where h is the annular gap height, p is the pressure drop across the energized
surfaces, Q is the volume flow rate, is the fluid viscosity, is the fluid density, L
is the length of the energized section of the piston, w is the width (circumferential
length) of the annulus, w = hp/2L is the wall shear stress, and v refers to the
mean velocity of the fluid; Q = wh v . Finally, note that the Bingham number, Bi =
0 h/(v), is inversely proportional to the plasticity number, S = 12Bi 1 , and the
non-dimensional plug thickness is equal to = G 1 . Upon further inspection, the
following equations become quite apparent


G = C f Re2 H1e
Re
S = 12 H
e

(4.5)

56

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.1 Exemplary force-velocity characteristics of an MR damper

P = 2G/S
T = S 1

(4.6)

Based on the analysis of results obtained by the researchers and the examination of
force-velocity characteristics of controlled flow mode MR/ER dampers for automotive applications in particular it has become clear that the presented schemes can
be effective in dynamic range scenarios in which a specific damping force span is
requested at a particular piston velocity.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.1, a typical force-velocity characteristics of an automotive
flow-mode MR damper can be partitioned into three regions: bypass (or pre-yield),
post-yield and progressive (high-speed) regimes.
In order to model and characterize the first two regions, a five-parameter nondimensional group (according to the methods of mathematical analysis) is proposed.
The proposed group incorporates the parameters G and S as defined by Wiliams
et al. (1993). The remaining pair is the viscosity ratio, , which characterizes the
slope of the curve inside the bypass (pre-yield) region of damper operation, and the
yield stress number, , which accounts for the non-zero yield stress within the bypass
region (due to partial magnetization of MR fluid, if any). These two parameters ( , )
are used to describe the damper characteristics in that region only when any pre-yield
(or leakage) features are present in the flow path in order. It is further demonstrated
that the proposed scheme application leads to relationships between the pressure
gradient and volume flow rate from which analytical formulas can be extracted.
Therefore, in order to highlight the nondimensional group, the analysis of a planar
flow between two flat surfaces of the Bingham plastic material is exercised, and a
cubic relationship is derived between pressure gradient across the energized length of
the flow channel and the fluid flow rate. The analysis concerns the second (post-yield)

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

57

flow region only. Using the cubic equation the pertinent dimensional parameters are
aggregated into the two-parameter nondimensional group (GS), and an analytical
exact closed-form expression for pressure gradient is obtained. The exact solution
is derived by aid of symbolic math engines and can be useful as a first-order design
tool.
If a leakage feature or a bypass is present in the primary flow path (annulus), some
section of the flow channel is not subjected to the electrical/magnetic field, and the
material yields at a much lower break-away pressure than in the remaining portion of
the flow path. In MR dampers this is achieved with rectangular slot features located on
annular surfaces (Foister et al. 2011; Kruckemeyer et al. 2001). No simple analytical
solution for the case of the flow with the leakage path is available, though. However,
the concept of bi-plasticity can be employed in a straightforward manner to account
for the leakage path (Goldasz and Sapinski 2012). Therefore, using the bi-plastic
model the non-dimensional group is extended with an apparent viscosity dependent
parameter and a yield stress dependent one, and an analytical closed-form formula
incl. corresponding exact solution for pressure gradient is derived too. The apparent
viscosity parameter defines the behaviour of the fluid in the pre-yield region, whereas
the yield stress parameter accounts for the non-zero yield stress due to a small yet
finite flux density (Foister et al. 2011 and Kruckemeyer et al. 2001). As a result,
a generic cubic formula for the pressure gradient is obtained and a four-parameter
analytical solution for pressure gradient is developed as well.
Moreover, the high shear rate effects are accounted for by means of the Herschel
Bulkley model presented in the GS power-law form and the flow index m. However,
in the generic form, the analytical formula (exact solution) for pressure gradient could
not be obtained for the HerschelBulkley model, and the numerical solution needs to
be proceeded with. The additional parameter due to the flow index in the Herschel
Bulkley model may be useful in describing the flow effects in the third (high-velocity)
regime of damper operation (Wereley 2003).

4.2.1 Bingham Plastic Model

In this section, the Bingham plastic model is recalled, a closed-form expression for
the pressure gradient versus flow rate is derived and the analytical (exact) solution
for it is obtained in terms of the nondimensional parameterspressure number G,
plasticity number S.
Therefore, consider the pressure-driven flow of a Bingham fluid between two flat
plates as shown in Fig. 4.2. The rheology of a Bingham fluid is given by Eq. (4.1).
Equation (4.1) gives the pressure drop, px , versus the volume flow rate, Q, in terms of
the proposed nondimensional parametersG, S. The analytical solution is presented
in sections below.

58

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.2 Bingham fluid in flow between two planar surfaces (Goncalves 2005)

4.2.1.1 Shear Stress

The behaviour of MR fluids can be described using the well-known NavierStokes
equations (Tannehill et al. 1997). Using the tensor notation, the conservation of
momentum equation for an incompressible non-Newtonian fluid flow can be written
as follows

i j
u i
p
u i
+ u j
=
+
t
x j
xi
x j

(4.7)

where the relationship between the shear stress and the shear rate is given by
= 0 +

u i
x j

(4.8)

and , , u j , p are the fluid density, shear stress, velocity, pressure, respectively, and
xi is the independent variable, i = 1, 2, 3. In the general case, Eq. (4.7) governs the
spatial behaviour of an incompressible Bingham fluid.
In the present study, a steady and fully developed one-dimensional flow in the gap
between two parallel plates is assumed. Then, Eq. (4.7) is simplified to yield
dp
d
=
dz
dx

(4.9)

= px z + c

(4.10)

Integrating Eq. (4.9) gives

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

59

The constant c can be determined from the following condition

z = h/2 = 0
h
c = px
2
Finally, Eq. (4.10) becomes as follows


h
= px z
2

(4.11)

Given that the mid-plane is a plane of symmetry, it can be further shown the materials
yielding surfaces are located at the coordinates z 1 and z 2 (where < 0 and z 1
z z 2 ), respectively,

z 1 = 21 (h )

z 2 = 21 (h + )

= 20
p

(4.12)

where = z 2 z 1 refers to the size of the Bingham fluids plug.

4.2.1.2 Volume Flow Rate

The volume flux (flow rate) is obtained by double integration of the velocity gradient
1
du
=
px [(2z h) + ] ; 0 z z 1
dz
2

(4.13)

Equation (4.13) needs to be double-integrated to obtain the desired formula whilst

the formulas for calculating velocity profiles are well-known (Phillips 1969) and
they were omitted in this analysis. Upon transformation and further simplification,
the relationship between the pressure gradient, px , and the volume flow rate, Q, is


px
2 h
20

px
h
20



Q
3 + 12
+1=0
bh 2 0

(4.14)

With the introduction of (shown in Eq. (4.12)), and the nondimensional parameters
G and S according to Eqs. (4.12) and (4.4), respectively, Eq. (4.14) becomes
2G 3 G 2 (3 + S) + 1 = 0

(4.15)

60

4 Modelling of Control Valves

4.2.1.3 Analytical Formula for Pressure Gradient

With the Bingham model a closed-form formula for pressure gradient was first documented by Gavin et al. (1996) and repeated by Goncalves (2005) using the dimensionless (P T ) representation of the cubic formula of Phillips (1969)see Eq. (4.3).
Here, the cubic formula in terms of G and S shown in Eq. (4.15) is somewhat easier
to handle mathematically, and the solution is presented here using symbolic math
engines.
The solution was obtained using two symbolic math engines: the Symbolic Math
Toolbox in MATLAB 2013 (for solving Eq. (4.15)) and Maxima 5.23.0 (for handling
the obtained roots and factoring). The same result could be obtained by applying the
Cardanos formula to derive the roots of a cubic equation (Ramana 2006); symbolic
math engines were chosen to proceed with for the ease of calculations. Solving for
the pressure number, G, in Eq. (4.15) yields three roots


+ S)2 + (S + 3)
(3
1

G
=
x
+
y
+
1

3
6

x+y

+
S)
(3
1
3
2 (3 + S)
x+y+
G 2,3 = 12
3

x+y

+ S)2

1 i 3
3

12
x + y (3
3
x+y

(4.16)

where


x = 27
+ 27S + 9S 2 + S 3

y = 6 3 27S 9S 2 S 3

(4.17)

of which the largest one is G 1 . This root is also physically realizable.

The remaining two roots appear to be explicitly complex, however, their imaginary
parts can be shown to be identically zero for positive S (nondimensional flow rate).
Also, for any S > 0 the first root, G 1 , is implicitly complex as the expression
(27S 9S 2 S 3 ) < 0. However, again it can be shown that the imaginary part of
the first root is identically zero for positive Sthe proof will follow below. Moreover,
the first root also shows the correct asymptotic behaviour, (G 1 1 S 0), i.e.
it is physically realizable. Neither G 2 nor G 3 are physically realizable. Therefore,
all roots are real for positive values of the plasticity number, S. However, only the
first root is physically realizable, i.e. G > 1. Absolute values of the three roots are
graphically presented in Fig. 4.3.
Next, redefining y to make the root explicitly complex, dropping the root index
in G 1 (see Eq. (4.16)) and calculating its real part gives

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

61

Fig. 4.3 Roots of Eq. (4.15)absolute values

1
atan2(y, x)
G=
(x + y ) cos
6
3



(S + 3) cos 31 atan2(y, x)

+ (S + 3) 1 +

1/6

x 2 + y2


2 1/6

(4.18)

where y is redefined for positive S



x = 27
+ 27S + 9S 2 + S 3

y = 6 3 27S + 9S 2 + S 3

(4.19)

Here, the function atan2(.) calculates the principal value of the complex argument
x + i y for real-valued x, y and atan2(y,x) . Furthermore, it should
be noted that expanding and factoring the term x 2 + y 2 in Eq. (4.18) results in
the simple expression (S + 3)6 , and substituting it back into Eq. (4.18) yields the
analytical solution of Eq. (4.15) as follows
G=




1
1
(S + 3) 2 cos
atan2(y, x) + 1
6
3

(4.20)

from which the pressure gradient, px , can be extracted in the following form
px =




1
0
(S + 3) 2 cos
atan2(y, x) + 1
3h
3

(4.21)

For a complete proof, it will be shown that the imaginary part of the first root is
identically zero. Calculating the imaginary part of the complex root, G 1 , yields

62

4 Modelling of Control Valves


1
1
atan2(y, x)
(G 1 ) = (x 2 + y 2 )1/6 sin
6
3


(S + 3)2 sin 13 atan2(y, x)

1/6

6 x 2 + y2

(4.22)

Equation (4.22) is rather lengthy, however, note that factoring the expression (x 2 +y 2 )
leads to (S + 3)6 . Therefore, substituting it back into Eq. (4.22) gives


1
1
atan2(y, x)
(G 1 ) = (S + 3) sin
6
3


1
(S + 3)2 sin
atan2(y, x)
3
0

6 (S + 3)

(4.23)

Similarly, deriving the imaginary part of the second root, G 2 , of Eq. (4.16) yields




1/6
3 2
1
(S + 3)2
2
y +x
atan2(y, x) 1 2
(G 2 ) =
cos
12
3
(y + x 2 )2/6



(S + 3)2
1 2
1
2 1/6
atan2(y, x)
+ (y + x ) sin
1
12
3
(y 2 + x 2 )2/6

(4.24)

Again, note that (x 2 + y 2 ) = (S +3)6 , and substituting it back into Eq. (4.24) reduces
it to 0, which completes the proof; deriving the imaginary part of the third root, G 3 ,
shown in Eq. (4.16), is left to a curious reader. Finally, the limits of Eq. (4.20) can
be easily verified. If S 0, the function atan2(.) approaches . Consequently,
the quantity cos (/3) approaches 1/2, and the value of Eq. (4.20) approaches 1
for S 0. For comparison, in the limit (S ), the function atan2(.) result
approaches 0. As a result, the cosine function approaches 1. Thus, the limiting value
of Eq. (4.20) for S is S/2.
Figure 4.4 shows the numerical solution of Eq. (4.15) plotted against the analytical
solution of Eq. (4.20) shown with markers ()Eq. (4.20). The two solutions are
identical.

4.2.2 Bi-plastic Bingham Model

In this section, using the bi-plastic Bingham model, the results from the previous
section are supplemented with one additional pre-yield flow parameterthe yield
stress ratio .
Again, let us consider the bi-plastic Bingham model described by Eq. (4.25) and
illustrated in Fig. 4.5.

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

63

Fig. 4.4 Numerical solution of Eq. (4.15)

Fig. 4.5 Bi-plastic Bingham model: shear stress versus shear rate

1 + r du ;
dz
=
0 + du ;
dz

2
> 2

(4.25)

Compared to the Bingham plastic model given by Eq. (4.1), it features the additional
pre-yield or apparent viscosity, r , and the non-zero yield stress, 1 , in the pre-yield
flow regime. In the post-yield flow regime the material model is characterized by
the viscosity, , and the yield stress, 0 or 2 (2 1 ); 0 = 2 [1 (1 )],
= 1 /2 and = r1 . If = 0 (1 = 0) the model takes the bi-viscous form
(Goldasz and Sapinski 2012). Also, if = 1 and 0 (r ), it is reduced to
the conventional Bingham plastic material model given by Eq. (4.1).
In other words, in the pre-yield flow regime the material behaviour is that of a
plastic material of the viscosity r and the yield stress 1 . The post-yield behaviour
at higher shear rates is characterized by the post-yield viscosity and the yield stress

64

4 Modelling of Control Valves

0 (or 2 ). Clearly, if local shear stresses do not exceed the pre-yield stress, 1 , the
so-called plug occupies the entire gap, and there is no flow.
The model is used to obtain the formulas for the velocity gradient and velocity
profiles, volume flow rate and the analytical solution for pressure gradient for the
case of flow between parallel plates. The analytical solution is presented here in
terms of the two dimensionless variables, namely, the pressure number, G, and the
plasticity number, S, introduced in the previous sections and extended here with the
two additional parameters ( , ). Using a similar bi-plastic material model, Dimock
et al. (2000) carried out a theoretical study in which the authors examined the effect of
various parameters of the model on the damping ratio of an ER damper exhibiting the
post-yield shear thinning/thickening behaviour, and developed a cubic formula for
pressure gradient which they solved numerically. The model is extended to include
an analytical (exact) solution for pressure gradient in terms of G and S.

4.2.2.1 Shear Stress

The shear stress is already defined by Eq. (4.11), and imposing the boundary conditions results in four yielding surfaces (see Fig. 4.6) given by

z 1 = 21 (h 1 )

z 2 = 1 (h + 1 )
2
1

z 3 = 2 (h 2 )

z 4 = 21 (h + 2 )

(4.26)

where the flow section thicknesses i , i = 1, 2 and 1 2 are defined as follows

i =

2i
; i = 1, 2
px

Fig. 4.6 Bi-plastic Bingham model: yielding surfaces

(4.27)

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

65

4.2.2.2 Velocity Profile

The flow is symmetric, so the solution can be simplified and limited only to the
lower half of the gap. The velocity u(z) can be obtained by integrating the velocity
gradients
p 

x

2 (2z h) + 2 (1 (1 )) ; 0 z z 3

du
px
=
z3 < z z1
2 [(2z h) + 2 ] ;

dz

0;
z 1 < z h/2

(4.28)

Integrating Eq. (4.28) across the first interval, 0 z z 3 (between the lower plate
and the first yielding surface) results in
u=z


px 
(z h) + 2 (1 (1 ))
2

(4.29)

Recalling Eq. (4.29), the velocity at the lower yielding surface, z 3 , can be easily calculated


px
u(z 3 ) = (h 2 ) (h 2 ) + 22 (1 )
(4.30)
8
Proceeding to the second region (between the two yielding surfacesz 3 and z 1 )
yields
u=

px
1
z (z h + 2 )
px (1 )(h 2 )2
2
8

(4.31)

Given Eq. (4.31), the plug/core velocity can be simply calculated as

u=


px 
(h 2 )2 + (h 2 )2 (1 )
8

(4.32)

Combining Eqs. (4.29), (4.31) and (4.32) gives the following system of equations
p 

x z (z h) + (1 (1 )) ;




px
z (z h + 2 ) 41 (1 )(h 2 )2 ;
u = 2




px (h 2 )2 + (h 2 )2 (1 ) ;
8

0 z z3
z3 < z z1

(4.33)

z 1 < z h/2

Equations (4.33) describe the bi-plastic Bingham velocity profile across the
gapsee Figs. 4.7 and 4.8. The model has three flow regimes. If | px | 21 / h,
the fluid does not flow through the planar gap. In the second regime (| px | 22 / h
and | px | > 21 / h) the fluid starts to flow as any Bingham fluid of the viscosity
r and the yield stress 1 . If the pressure gradient | px | exceeds 22 / h, the material
behaviour becomes bi-plastic.

66

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.7 Bi-plastic Bingham model: impact of ; = 0.05, G = 1.1

Fig. 4.8 Bi-plastic Bingham model: impact of ; = 0.1, G = 1.1

4.2.2.3 Volume Flow Rate

Equation (4.33) is required to obtain the desired relationship between the pressure
gradient, px , and the volume flow rate, Q. To begin with, let us integrate Eq. (4.33)
as follows
Q
=
2w

h/2
z 3
z 1
h/2
udz = udz + udz +
udz
0

z3

z1

(4.34)

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

67

Fig. 4.9 Bi-plastic Bingham model: impact of ; = 0.05

Upon the introduction of the nondimensional numbers

G = h
2
S = 12 Q
wh 2 2

(4.35)

and rather lengthy transformations Eq. (4.34) takes the following form

h2

p
22 L




 
p
1
6Q
3

1
+

1
22 L
2
r
2
2 wh 2



 3
1
1

+
1
=0
1
2
r
2
h

(4.36)

In the dimensionless form Eq. (4.36) becomes

G G
3


1
1
3
(1 (1 )) + S + (1 (1 3 )) = 0
2
2
2

(4.37)

Exemplary illustrations of the solution of Eq. (4.37) calculated for a range of

values and , respectively, are shown in Figs. 4.9 and 4.10. Equation (4.36) can be
easily verified. If = 0, then Eq. (4.37) takes the familiar bi-viscous form. Again, if
= 0 and = 1 then Eq. (4.37) reduces to


1
2G 2 G S = 0
2

(4.38)

Equation (4.38) has a double root at G 1 = 0 and G 2 = S/2. The root G 2 is the
Newtonian solution for a laminar flow between two parallel plates. Moreover, if

68

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.10 Bi-plastic Bingham model: impact of ; = 0.1

1 and r ( 0) Eq. (4.36) is reduced to the Bingham plastic model

(see Eq. (4.15)). In the pre-yield flow regime, there exist only 2 yielding surfaces (z 1
and z 2 ). This occurs when the yielding surfaces z 3 and z 4 contact the upper and the
lower plate, respectively. In that regime the bi-plastic model takes the Bingham form
= 1 + r

u
z

(4.39)

and the corresponding formula in the limiting case is given by


 1
1
G 3pr e G 2pr e 3 + S pr e + = 0
2
2

(4.40)

where G pr e and S pr e are defined as follows

h
G
=
2

Q
S
= 12
=
wh 2 2

G pr e =
S pr e

(4.41)
(4.42)

Therefore, the combined bi-plastic solution incorporating both the pre-yield and
post-yield flow regimes (Eqs. (4.40) and (4.36)) is
 
 
 2 
3

G 1 G
3 + S + 21 = 0;

2



G 3 G 2 3 (1 (1 )) + 1 S + 1 (1 (1 3 )) = 0;
2
2
2

S < S0
S S0
(4.43)

where S0 = (2 3 + 3 ) refers to the threshold plasticity (at G = 1).

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

69

4.2.2.4 Analytical Formula for Pressure Gradient

The closed-form expression for pressure gradient is obtained in the manner already
presented in previous sections. Again, employing symbolic math engines to solve
Eq. (4.36) yields three roots of which the largest one is

a2

G 1 = 61 3 x + y + 23
+ 13 a

x
+
y

1
4a
3
4a
x+y+
G 2,3 = 12
3
x+y

1
4a
3

12 i 3
x+y
3
x+y

(4.44)

3
x = 108b

+ 8a

y = 12 81b 12ba 3
a = 23 (1 (1 )) + 21 S

b = 21 (1 (1 3 ))

(4.45)

where

The first root in Eq. (4.44) is implicitly complex. However, it can be shown that in
the post-yield flow regime (S S0 ) its imaginary part is identically zero, and it
also shows the correct asymptotic behaviour. Neither G 2 nor G 3 of Eq. (4.44) are
physically realizable. Calculating the real part of the root G 1 of Eq. (4.44) yields




2a cos 31 atan2(y, x)
a
1 2
1
atan2(y, x) +
G = (x + y 2 )1/6 cos
+ 1
6
3
3
(x 2 + y 2 )1/6
(4.46)
where re-defining y gives


3
x = 108b
+ 8a
y = 12 81b2 + 12ba 3

(4.47)

Expanding the term (x 2 + y 2 )1/6 in Eq. (4.46) reduces it rather dramatically to 2a (or
3(1 (1 )) + S) and further substitutions give the following analytical solution





1
1
3(1 (1 )) + S 2 cos
atan2(y, x) + 1
G=
6
3

(4.48)

where x and y are defined in Eq. (4.47). Equation (4.48) describes the material
behaviour in the post-yield flow regime, S S0 and G 1. In the pre-yield flow

70

4 Modelling of Control Valves

regime, S < S0 , the material behaviour is governed by the modified Bingham plastic
formula





1
1 S
+ 3 2 cos
atan2(y  , x  ) + 1
(4.49)
G=
6
3
where

 2  3

x  = 27 + 27 S + 9 S + S
 2  3

S
y  = 6 3 27 S + 9 S

(4.50)

Again, for a complete proof it should be shown that the imaginary part of the first
root, G 1 , in Eq. (4.44) is identically zero. Here, calculating the roots imaginary part
gives


1
1 2
2 1/6
atan2(y, x)
(G 1 ) = (x + y ) sin
6
3


2 sin 1 atan2(y, x)
a
2
3

2
3
(x + y 2 )1/6

(4.51)

Then, further simplification results in



2 sin 1 atan2(y, x)
a
1
2
1
3
(G 1 ) = 2a sin
atan2(y, x)
0
6
3
3
2a


(4.52)

which completes the proof. The limits of Eq. (4.48) can be easily verified; see Goldasz
and Sapinski (2012) for details.

4.2.3 HerschelBulkley Model

In order to capture high shear-rate effects with the GS scheme the HerschelBulkley
model is analysed, then the relationship between pressure and flow rate is derived in
terms of G, S and one additional parameter, mflow index,
Let us recall the HerschelBulkley model that is given by Eq. (4.53) (Wereley
2003)

= 0 +

du
dz

1/m
(4.53)

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

71

Fig. 4.11 HerschelBulkley

model: shear stress versus
shear rate (Wereley 2003)

where m > 0 is the flow index. If m > 1, the model accounts for the so-called shear
thinning, whereas m < 1 is used for quantifying shear thickening effects. Clearly,
the model reduces to the Bingham plastic material model for m = 1see Fig. 4.11.
MR fluid is in flow through a parallel plate gap as in Fig. 4.2.
Equation (4.53) is used to obtain equations expressing velocity gradients and
profiles across the channel height, volume flow rate, and the formula for pressure
gradient in terms of G, S and m.

4.2.3.1 Velocity Profile

Equations governing the shear stress distribution and the yielding surfaces are identical with those of the Bingham modelsee Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12). Therefore, that
part of the analysis is omitted here. The flow is symmetric, so the solution can be
simplified and limited only to the lower half of the gap, z h/2. The velocity profile
u(z) can be then obtained by integrating the velocity gradient
du
=
dz

1
[ px (z h/2) 0 ]

!m
(4.54)

Integrating across the first interval, 0 z z 1 , yields



px m
1

u=
(z 1 z)m+1 + c
m+1

(4.55)

The wall boundary condition implies the constant c is as follows



px m m+1
1

z1
c=
m+1

(4.56)

72

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.12 HerschelBulkley model: exemplary velocity profiles

Then, combining Eqs. (4.55) and (4.56) gives

u=




px m  m+1
1

z 1 (z 1 z)m+1
m+1

(4.57)

The velocity in the plug region, z 1 z h/2, is as follows



px m m+1
1

z1
u=
m+1

(4.58)

Finally, combining Eqs. (4.57) and (4.58) yields the set of equations describing the
velocity profile

 


px m m+1
1
m+1 ;
z

(z

z)

1
1

m+1
m

u=
p

m+1
x
1
z1 ;
m+1

0 z < z1
z 1 z h/2

(4.59)

Examples of velocity profiles for a range of flow indices are illustrated in Fig. 4.12.

4.2.3.2 Volume Flow Rate

Integrating Eq. (4.59) provides the formula for calculating the volume flow rate
Q
=
2w

h/2
z 1
h/2
udz = udz +
udz
0

z1

(4.60)

4.2 Application of Nondimensional Groups

Further transformations yield the following formula




1
px m m+1 h(m + 1) +
Q
=

z1
2w
m+1

2(m + 2)

73

(4.61)

Introducing the pressure number, G, and the plasticity number, S, transforms

Eq. (4.61) into the nondimensional form
G 2 S (G 1)m+1 [G(m + 1) + 1] = 0

(4.62)

where


G = h /
 
+ 2) m
S = 2Q(m + 1)(m
2
0
wh

(4.63)

In dimensionless terms, Eq. (4.62) describes the relationship between the pressure
number, G, and the plasticity number, S. Note that the plasticity number is modified
by the flow index, m. Again, the solution can be easily verified. In the Bingham limit,
(m = 1), Eq. (4.62) is reduced to the original Eq. (4.14). Also, in the Newtonian limit
(0 0, S ), Eq. (4.62) reduces to the well-known equation describing the
Newtonian fluid behaviour with the shear-rate modifier in flow between two parallel
plates


px m h m+2
2w

(m + 1)
Q=
(m + 2)(m + 1)

(4.64)

In general, Eq. (4.62) does not have an analytical solution for pressure gradient, and
the solution needs to be obtained numerically as illustrated in Fig. 4.13.

Fig. 4.13 HerschelBulkley model: solution of Eq. (4.62)

74

4 Modelling of Control Valves

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

The solutions obtained in previous sections can be used for calculating the pressure
difference across the control valve. In this section we apply them to several piston
configurations. As a result, a computing scheme for handling piston configurations
with secondary flow paths and parallel flow paths is developed and demonstrated
here as well.

4.3.1 Single Gap Control Valve

In the case of a piston with one annular gap, calculating the pressure difference across
the piston in Fig. 4.14 is rather straightforward. By employing the classic Bigham
scheme the pressure difference across the piston pa = Pr Pc can be given as




1
0
L La
Qp
pa =
L a (3 + S) 2 cos
atan2 (y, x) + 1 + 12
3h
3
wh 3

(4.65)

Equation (4.65) accounts for the pressure difference across the active sections of
the core and over the coil. At high yield stress levels it is reduced to

pa


1
0
L a (3 + S) 2 cos
atan2 (y, x) + 1
3h
3

(4.66)

where L a = L a1 + L a2 , h = (D2 Dc )/2 and w = (D2 + Dc )/2. The core

length is L, and the piston effective area Aeff = A p Ar . Neglecting flow leakage past the piston, the total flow rate due to the piston is Q p = Q a = Aeff v p .
Engineering practice has shown, however, that Eq. (4.65) yields good estimates of

Fig. 4.14 MR single-gap piston schematic layout

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

75

Fig. 4.15 MR piston with a flux bypass

the pressure difference pa provided no features disturbing the magnetic flux in the
annular gap are present in the valve. In the past the authors demonstrated that so
called flux bypass features (see Fig. 4.15) render the Bingham solution ineffective
at low piston velocity inputs. For example, Goldasz and Sapinski (2012) analysed
a dual-coil piston assembly which featured a non-magnetic groove across the entire
length of the core. Effectively, the flux density in the annular gap above the groove
was significantly lower then in the remaining sections of the annulus. The authors
showed that the low-velocity behaviour of the piston assembly could not be captured
with the Bingham model. Instead, they used the concept of bi-plasticity to estimate
the pressure difference across the piston. Using the bi-plastic approach outlined in
Sect. 4.2.2 the pressure difference pa can be written as







2 L a 3(1 (1 )) + S 2 cos 1 atan2(y, x) + 1 S > S0

3
3h





(4.67)
pa

S
1

) + 1
2
La
2
cos
+
3
,
x
S

S
atan2(y
0

3
3h
where the parameters and are estimated from damper tests, flow bench experiments or numerical simulations. The parameters and control the intercept force
at zero piston velocity and the slope of the force increase with velocity below the
onset of MR fluid flow in the annulus. The parameters are related to the geometry of
the slot in the annulus. For example, the use of a deep and narrow slot would result
in a low intercept force and a steep increase of the damping force with velocity in
the flow pre-yield region. Note that Eq. (4.67) is reduced to (4.65) for = 1. The biplastic approach can be utilized with any piston configuration incorporating features
disturbing the flux density distribution in the annulus. Finally, high shear-rate losses
can be accounted for by modifying Eq. (4.65) or (4.67) to include the additional term
p =

Q 2p
20 L a
G(S) + C 2
h
Ag

(4.68)

where C captures the effects of pressure losses due to entry/exit, recirculation, etc.,
and G(S) refers to any model presented in previous sections. Among other factors,
the parameter C is a function of the entry-radius-to-gap ratio r/ h, gap-length-togap-size ratio L/ h, Reynold number Re, flow index m, and yield stress.

76

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Although Eq. 4.65 provides approximate estimates of the damping force only,
however, it may be basis for calculations of the damping force gain K f or the turnup (amplification) ratio. By definition, the parameter is the ratio of the maximum
damping to the off-state damping force at a given piston velocity V p , and it can
provide simple yet effective measures for characterizing the performance of control
valves. Briefly, we assume the total pressure drop at the maximum yield stress 0.max
is handled by Eq. (4.65). Moreover, note that

pmax = A max
p Ar

pmin = Fmin = 12 L3 Q a = 12 L3 V p (A p Ar )
A p Ar
wh
wh

(4.69)

Then,
Fmax
=
Fmin

L L0
0 L 0
G + 12
Qa
h
wh 3
L
12 3 Q a
wh

(4.70)

G
1
S

(4.71)

Finally, the turn-up ratio is

KF =

Fmax
La
=1+2
Fmin
L

where G, S are given by Eq. (4.4).

To study the impact of the parameters and on the steady-state force-velocity
characteristics simulations are carried out using the bi-plastic Bingham scheme outlined by Eq. (4.67). In all subsequent calculations of the control valve characteristics the following set of parameters was used: Aeff = A p Ar = 1,502 mm2 ,
A p = 1,662 mm2 , h = 1 mm, w = 119.8 mm, L = 30 mm, L a = 19.5 mm, and
= 62.5 cP. The results are revealed in Figs. 4.16 through 4.17 at the yield stress
level 0 of 25 kPa. As the flux bypass feature introduces a three-dimensional geometry to a problem that otherwise could be analysed in a well-known fashion, it is
suggested that the bi-plastic Bingham model should be employed so that the problem can be analysed in a standard manner. In other words, the bi-plastic Bingham
scheme is used in the form of an analogy to reduce the three-dimensional geometric feature in the annulus that would be impossible to analyse with a conventional
Bingham plastic approach.
Specifically, Fig. 4.16 shows the influence of the viscosity ratio, , on the forcevelocity characteristics (while maintaining the yield stress ratio constant at the level
of 0.1). Also, Fig. 4.17 illustrates the impact of the yield stress ratio, . Clearly,
controls the intercept force at the zero piston velocity, and influences the curves
slope below the knee-point of the force-velocity characteristics. The influence of

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

77

Fig. 4.16 Fd versus V p : impact of the viscosity ratio, , = 0.1, 0 = 25 kPa

the viscosity parameter on the damping force level past the knee-point is small. The
slope of the damping curve below the knee-point in Fig. 4.17 is not affected by the
changes.
Finally, Fig. 4.18 reveals the damping force-velocity envelope for the selected
range of yield stress levels. Predictably, the biggest influence on the damping force
output is due to the fluids yield stress level, 0 . The parameter controls both the nonzero offset (or bias) force and the damping force level across the examined range of
velocity inputs.

Fig. 4.17 Fd versus V p : impact of the yield stress ratio, , = 0.03, 0 = 25 kPa

78

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.18 Fd versus V p : impact of the yield stress, 0 , = 0.1, = 0.03

4.3.2 Control Valve with Leakage Flow Paths

In the case of an MR piston with two or more flow paths predictions of the control
valve characteristics require that the calculations of flow rates should be handled in
each flow channel.
Let us consider the case of an MR fluid in flow via the non-magnetized thru-hole
in the piston core and the magnetized annulus in the piston. The size of the straight
bypass is Db , and it extends across the core length L as shown in Fig. 4.19. The total
flow rate Q p combines both the flow rate through the bypass, Q b , and the flow rate
through the annulus, Q a . Also, the fluid is assumed to be incompressible, and fluid
losses due to inertia are neglected for simplicity at this stage. To begin with, the flow
continuity equation is
Q p = v p Aeff = Q b + Q a

(4.72)

Moreover, it is assumed that the flow through the annulus occurs provided the pressure
drop across the piston exceeds the yielding pressure, p0 = 20 L a / h (or the flow
rate through the piston is larger than the yielding flow rate Q 0 )

Fig. 4.19 Flow bypass overview

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

79

Qb = Q p ;
Qb = Q p Qa ;

Qb Q0
Qb > Q0

(4.73)

The bypass and the annulus in the piston form two parallel flow paths. Therefore,
by equating the pressure drop across the thru-bypass and the pressure difference,
pa = Pr Pc , across the energized annulus the problem of predicting the damping
force output can be reduced to the task of finding the root Q a of the following nonlinear pressure balance equation for flow rates exceeding the critical flow rate Q 0


pb Q p Q a pa (Q a ) = 0;

Q p > Q0

(4.74)

and
2

L Q p Qa
pb = C f
Db
2 A2b

(4.75)

where pa is given, e.g. by Eq. (4.20) or (4.66). In the scenario when the annulus
in the piston incorporates other secondary flow paths, e.g. flux bypasses Eq. (4.48)
is a better approach to proceed with. pb represents pressure losses between two
points of a straight conduitthe DarcyWeisbach equation (Lienhard and Lienhard
2002). In the present model the friction factor C f is estimated from steady-state twodimensional axi-symmetric CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations of
the fluid flow. The results were obtained by using the k turbulent model and
using the bypass geometry outlined in Table 8.1of Chap. 8. For the geometry shown
in Table 8.1 the authors obtained the following expression to best approximate the
friction factor variations with the bypass Reynolds number Reb

C f = 3.80484 Reb0.36007


Re = Q p Q a Db
b
A

(4.76)

This relationship was derived by expressing the pressure drop versus flow rate CFD
results into the non-dimensional form C f Reb , and then using curve-fitting techniques in order to arrive at the form represented by Eq. (4.76). To calculate the
damping force across the required velocity range Eq. (4.74) needs to be solved iteratively for Q a (corresponding to the specific piston velocity input v p ). Once the flow
rate in the annulus is calculated, the pressure drop across the piston can be computed
using either Eq. (4.75) or (4.20).
The critical flow rate Q 0 can be calculated by solving the following condition

20 L a = C f (Reb ) L Q 0
h
Db 2 A 2
b

Q
0
b
Reb =
Ab

(4.77)

80

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Fig. 4.20 Flow bypass in series with an orifice disc

Alternatively, using the approach given by Eq. (4.74) it is fairly straightforward to

solve cases in which an additional sharp-edge orifice disc is set in series with the
long thru-bypass of the size Db see Fig. 4.20. The size of the orifice is Do , the area
is Ao , and Ao < Ab . Since the pressure difference across the serial arrangement of
the bypass is the sum of the pressure drops across the orifice disc and that of the long
bypass, Eq. (4.74) is rewritten as follows
pa (Q a ) = [ po (Q p Q a ) + pb (Q p Q a )]

(4.78)

and
po =

2

Q p Qa
(2Co Ao )2

(4.79)

where Co is the flow discharge coefficient, and po represents a pressure drop due
to the orifice disc. Given the piston velocity v p or the flow rate Q p Eq. (4.78) can be
then solved for the flow rate Q b .
Using the set of parameters contained in Sect. 4.3.1, Eqs. (4.74) (as well as (4.78))
were then used for demonstrating the control valve model application to the piston
configuration with secondary flow path features shown in Figs. 4.14, 4.19 and 4.20.
The obtained results are revealed in Figs. 4.21a through 4.23b. In the simulations the
bypass size varied from the initial size of 3 mm to 2 mm in steps of 0.5 mm, the orifice
size changed from 3 mm (equal to the diameter of the thru-core bypass) to 1.9 mm,
and the yield stress level range was from 25 to 10 kPa.
In all cases the calculations began with computing the pressure drop across the
piston due to the bypass flow. For a pressure difference across the piston lower than the
yielding pressure the fluid in the annulus is solidified, so there is no flow. Therefore,
the pressure drop across the piston can be effectively computed using either Eq. (4.75)
in the absence of a serial orifice (see Fig. 4.19) or Eqs. (4.79) and (4.75) provided a
serial arrangement of an orifice and a thru-core bypass occurs (see Fig. 4.20). Once
the threshold (yielding pressure) pressure is exceeded, the pressure drop across the
piston and the resulting flow rates in each flow path are calculated by solving the
balance Eqs. (4.74) and (4.78).

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

(a)

81

(b)

Fig. 4.21 Thru-core bypass: impact of yield stress; Db = 3 mm. a Fd versus V p . b K a (K b )

versus V p

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.22 Thru-core bypass: impact of bypass size; 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd versus V p . b K a (K b )

versus V p

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.23 Thru-core bypass: impact of orifice size; Db = 3 mm, 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd versus V p .
b K a (K b ) versus V p

Figures 4.21a through 4.21b show the effect of varying the yield stress level in
the annulus. Next, Figs. 4.22a through 4.22b reveal the impact of the bypass Db on
the output damping force, and Figs. 4.23a through 4.23b demonstrate the influence
of flow metering by changing the orifice diameter (for a given bypass size of 3 mm).

82

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Predictably, the flow through the annulus occurs provided the pressure drop across
the piston exceeds the yielding pressure due to the field induced yield stress 0 , and
increasing the yield stress shifts the velocity at the knee-point of the damping characteristics towards higher velocity inputs as in Fig. 4.21a. Also, increasing the size of
the bypass shifts the velocity at the knee-point of the damping force characteristics in
Fig. 4.22a towards higher velocity inputs. Moreover, it seems the effect of increasing
the bypass Db influences the damping force level across the whole range of examined
velocity inputs. Finally, as shown in Figs. 4.23a through 4.23b changing the orifice
size Do has a similar impact on the damping force as the bypass hole variation Db .
Clearly, varying the orifice size Do provides additional means for modifying the
damping force output of an MR damper.

4.3.3 Multiple Parallel Flow Paths

The above iterative approach can be easily extended to illustrate modelling of MR
pistons with multiple annular flow paths. As already mentioned in Chap. 3, those
piston configurations are renowned for the high turn-up ratio (force gain) but not
the highest on-state force (Goldasz 2013a; Namuduri et al. 2001). In fact, with such
pistons the optimum turn-up ratio can be best obtained with a low damping force
output in a de-energized condition rather than by maximizing the damping force when
energized. Note, however, that pistons incorporating multiple flow paths may provide
additional means for shaping the damping force output by varying the size of each
annular flow path for optimum performance. Also, splitting the fluid flow results in
lower flow rates (or low Reynolds numbers) in each annulus when compared against
a single-annulus piston so that the fluid flow in each annulus may be considered
laminar nearly across the entire range of damper operating conditions.
The model assumes there is no magnetic flux leakage into the intermediate sleeve
shown in Fig. 4.24, i.e., the sleeve section above the coil is non-magnetic. Alternative
configurations include a one-piece sleeve having a thinner middle section (above the
coil), and one-piece sleeves made of materials saturating at low flux density levels
(below 0.7 T) (Carlson et al. 2009) as already explained in Chap. 3.
To start with, let us consider the case of a piston with two parallel annular flow
paths as illustrated in Fig. 4.24. Also, no bypass in the piston is assumed. Then, the
continuity equation is

pa < p2
0;
p2 pa < p1
(4.80)
Q p = Aeff v p = Q 2 ;

Q 1 + Q 2 ; pa > p1
or using the dimensionless variables

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

83

Fig. 4.24 Dual gap piston

0;
Q p = Aeff v = Q 2 ;

Q1 + Q2;

G 1 1; G 2 1
G 1 1; G 2 > 1
G 1 > 1; G 2 > 1

(4.81)

In the analysed case the MR fluid flow is assumed to occur first in the outer annulus
(Q 2 > 0 or p2 < p1 ). Due to the parallel arrangement of the flow paths, the
pressure drop across the piston is calculated according to the valve model of Eq. (4.65)
in the following manner
pa




1
0,i
atan2 (yi , xi ) + 1 ; i = 1, 2 (4.82)
L a,i (3 + Si ) 2 cos
3h i
3

where i is the gap index and

hpa

G i = 2 L ; i = 1, 2
0,i a
Q i

Si = 12
wi h i2 0,i

(4.83)

Also, xi and yi are defined recalling Eq. (4.20). Then, the balance equation can be
rewritten in the following manner


p1 Q p Q 2 p2 (Q 2 ) = 0

(4.84)

Given the piston velocity V p , the above non-linear expression can be solved in an
iterative manner for the flow rate Q 1 , and then for the pressure difference across the
flow channel pa .
Recalling the parameters given in Sect. 4.3.1, and w1 = 111 mm, w2 =121 mm,
h 1 = h 2 =1 mm, Eq. (4.84) was used for calculating the output force of an exemplary
MR damper with two parallel MR flow paths. The results are presented in Figs. 4.25a
through 4.27b. Specifically, the effect of varying the yield stress ratio 0,2 /0,1 was

84

(a)

4 Modelling of Control Valves

(b)

Fig. 4.25 Dual gap piston: force-velocity maph 1 = h 2 = 1.0 mm, 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd versus
V p . b K a (K b ) versus V p

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.26 Dual gap piston: force-velocity maph 1 = 0.9 mm, h 2 = 1.0 mm, 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd
versus V p . b K 1 (K 2 ) versus V p

studied and analysed. In particular, Figs. 4.25a through 4.25b reveal the model performance for the gap pair of (1.0, 1.0) mm. Figures 4.26a through 4.26b denote the
performance of the gap pair of (0.9, 1.0) mm, and Figs. 4.27a through 4.27b highlight

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.27 Dual gap piston: force-velocity maph 1 = 1.0 mm, h 2 = 1.1 mm, 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd
versus V p . b K 1 (K 2 ) versus V p

4.3 Computing Schemes for Control Valves

85

the output of the gap pair of (1.0, 1.1) mm. Based on the presented results it is clear
that the function of the outer gap (with the lower yield stress) is reduced to that of a
major leak path. In fact, it is easy to generate a scenario in which the entire fluid flow
occurs in the outer annulus. Therefore, large outer gaps (with respect to the inner
gap) will have a detrimental influence of the damping force of MR dampers with
dual gap pistons.

4.4 Mathematical Model for an Electro-Magnetic Circuit

of Control Valves
In consideration of involved non-linearities, development of a good-quality electromagnetic circuit model for MR dampers is considered to be one of the most
difficult steps in the process. In general, the electromagnetic field distribution in
the damper region is governed by Maxwells equations with appropriate boundary
conditions (Elahinia et al. 2013; Gordaninejad et al. 2003; Raja and Gordaninejad
2014). The accuracy of these FE methods is good (Li et al. 2003; Nguyen et al. 2008;
Walid 2002), however, they are time-consuming, and analytical models are often
used in preliminary stages of the engineering process for fast dimensioning of both
the piston and the control valve geometry. The steady-state analytical models that are
based on the Kirchoffs law for magnetic circuits are used mainly for determining
the necessary ampere turns (Carlson and Chrzan 1994; Gavin and Dobossy 2001;
Nguyen and Choi 2009b; Nguyen et al. 2007) to ensure the required damping force
output. However, the analytical time-invariant procedures usually do not take into
account the non-linear effects that are important in practical considerations, namely,
non-linear properties of MR fluid and steel, flux leakage paths, limits on voltage, current and inductance, eddy currents (Sapinski 2004). Control valve (piston) complex
geometries present a major challenge, too.
As MR dampers are designed for use in variable load conditions, the effects of
transient (or fluctuating) magnetic fields should be accounted for in realistic simulations of the damper behaviour (Jiang and Christenson 2012; Koo et al. 2006; Nam
and Park 2009; Yang 2001). For example, Guan et al. (2009) showed that the electromagnetic response is a main factor affecting the response time of MR dampers,
and that the control over eddy currents induced in the magnetic structure are crucial
for accelerating its response. Eddy currents are induced in a conductor under the
influence of a time-varying magnetic field. Effectively, it results in a magnetic field
that opposes the primary flux changes. As with linear solenoid actuators, they are
detrimental to the performance of the damper and should be accounted for in studies
on the dynamics of MR actuators.
This section deals with both magnetic as well as electrical models of MR dampers.
First, the authors discuss a generic field model based on Maxwell equations, and then
proceed further with a simple non-linear magnetostatic model. The simple model
is sufficient for fast prototyping studies, whereas field models allow for including

86

4 Modelling of Control Valves

geometric details and other material non-linearities in the process. Finally, the authors
conclude the review with lumped parameter models of the electrical circuit of the
damper to include the effects of electrical transients.

4.4.1 Field Model

An assumption can be made that the damper component materials are isotropic and
magnetisation characteristics are given for each material B = f (H ) = m 0 (H ) H
where m denotes magnetic permeability of the materials. Moreover, the damper is
assumed to be axially symmetrical. Therefore, the mathematical model may utilize
the cylindrical coordinate system (r , z, ) rather than the Cartesian one.
In order to obtain the electromagnetic field distribution in the damper it is required
that Maxwell equations below should be solved over the entire domain
B
t
D
rot H = j +
t
div D = 0

(4.87)

div B = 0

(4.88)

rot E =

(4.85)
(4.86)

where vector quantities denote: Eelectric field strength, Bmagnetic flux density,
Hmagnetic field strength, Delectric flux density, j current surface density.
With the damper being axi-symmetric, the magnetic field strength vector involves
only two components
H = Hr 1 r + Hz 1 z

(4.89)

In order to determine the field distribution the magnetic vector potential A is introduced and it is related to the magnetic flux density B = rot A. Therefore, we get
H=

1
rot A
m

(4.90)

Accordingly, Eq. (4.86) can be rewritten as

1
rot A = j
m

(4.91)

1
1
1
rot A =
rot rot A rot A grad
m
m
m

(4.92)


rot
Hence

rot

4.4 Mathematical Model for an Electro-Magnetic Circuit of Control Valves

87

For homogeneous and isotropic media the magnetic permeability is the function of
the magnetic field strength, m = m (H). Therefore, 1/grad m and Eq. (4.92) can
be rewritten as follows
1
rot rot A = j
m

(4.93)

Since rot rot A = graddiv 2 A, where 2 A is the Laplacean of the vector field
A and
div A = 0
1 2
A= j
m

(4.94)
(4.95)

In the well-known cylindrical coordinate system the current density has only one
component j as the coil is toroidal with the rectangular cross-section, and
j = j 1

(4.96)

Similarly, the vector A has only one component

A = A 1

(4.97)

All conditions resulting from the damper symmetry being duly considered, Eq. (4.95)
in the coordinate system is given as
1
m

2 A
2 A
1
1 A

+
A
+

r 2
r r
r2
z 2

= j

(4.98)

In the regions where electrical conductance is zero, Eq. (4.98) becomes homogeneous
1
m

2 A
2 A
1
1 A

+
A
+

r 2
r r
r2
z 2

= j

(4.99)

Equation (4.98) or (4.99) must be satisfied in the entire domain. The following
conditions have to be met at the model boundaries
1. equality of tangential components of the magnetic field strength vector,
2. equality of normal component of the magnetic field strength vector
The equation in the form of the magnetic vector potential A yields
H=

1
rot A
m

(4.100)

88

4 Modelling of Control Valves

In the case considered here we get

1
H=
m



A
1 (r A )

1r +
1z
z
r r

(4.101)

Equation (4.98) can be solved over the entire model domain with the use of FE
methods and utilizing modern software tools, e.g. Ansys Maxwell or Cedrat Flux.

4.4.2 Magnetostatic Lumped Parameter Model

The main purpose of a magnetostatic model is to determine the necessary number of
ampere turns for a given force range (Carlson and Chrzan 1994). The model is timeinvariant. The magnetic circuit as shown in Fig. 4.28 can be analysed in numerous
ways using Kirchoff law of the following form (Gavin and Dobossy 2001; Nguyen
et al. 2008; Sapinski 2004)
"
i

Fig. 4.28 Simplified

magnetic circuit of an MR
piston

Hi li = Nco Ico

(4.102)

4.4 Mathematical Model for an Electro-Magnetic Circuit of Control Valves

89

where Nco is the number of wire turns, and Ico is the coil current. Hi is the magnetic
field in the segment i, and li is the ith segment effective length. The relationship
between the flux density B and the field induction H is B = m H , where m =
0 M and 0 is the free space or vacuum permeability, and M (B) is the relative
permeability. The above equation can be simplified. It is well known that the element
of the largest reluctance is the MR fluid. Therefore, Eq. (4.102) reduces to
2h Hg Nco Ico

(4.103)

and the flux density in the annular gap is Bg = M R (Hg )Hg . The fluids yield stress
can be then determined from the materials 0 B data. In general, Eq. (4.103) is nonlinear, and it can be solved using root finding techniques. Using the geometry shown
in Fig. 4.28, the magnetic flux in the annulus is g = Bg Am = Bg (Dc + h)L a /2.
Next, assuming no flux leakage and from the conservation law of the magnetic flux
m the magnetic flux density for the steel core and the sleeve (incl. cylinder wall)
can be calculated from the expression below

c = Bc 4 Dc,2
s = Bs 4 (D 2p Ds2 )

g = c = s

(4.104)

where Ds = Dc + 2h. Satisfying the constraints in Eq. (4.104) ensures that no

component in this circuit is magnetically saturated. Then, the (coil) flux linkage co ,
the inductance L co , the resistance Rco , the voltage Uco and the time constant co can
be derived from

co = Nco g

Nco g

L co = I
co

Rco = rc Nco (Dc + Dc2 )/4

Uco = Ico Rco

= L co
co
Rco

(4.105)

where rc is the resistance per unit length of the copper wire.

Equation (4.102) can be easily extended to include permanent magnets (as in
fail-safe valves), multi-stage coils, and valves with multiple parallel flow paths. That
is left as an exercise to a curious reader.
Equation (4.103) has been the basis for developing an optimisation scheme
in numerous research studies. For instance, using a similar approach, Gavin and
Dobossy (2001) formulated a design optimisation problem to minimize the electrical time constant of the device and its power consumption.
Based, e.g. on the work of Gavin and Dobossy (2001), the following simple
algorithm for fast sizing of MR dampers can be devised as follows:

90

4 Modelling of Control Valves

1. set the following inputs: V p,r e f piston reference velocity, Fmax max. damping force at the reference velocity, Fmin off-state damping force at the reference
velocity
2. alternatively, provide the required turn-up K F = Fmax /Fmin and the reference
velocity
3. provide the battery voltage Ubat , max. coil current Imax , piston diameter D p
4. choose the gap h, gap flux density Bg , and the annulus length L, wire size dw
5. determine the following fluid properties: off-state viscosity , field-induced yield
stress 0 , relative permeability m
6. calculate coil turns Nco from Eq. (4.103)
7. calculate mean radius r = (D p h)/2
8. calculate radial width w = 2r
9. calculate gap area A g = wh
10. calculate the active length from Eq. (4.71)
KF 1 +


G
La
2 1
L
S

calculate magnetic surface area Am = L a w

determine coil window width Wco = L L a
calculate coil window depth Hco
calculate gap magnetic flux g = Bg wL a
determine the core cross-section area below the coil window Acor e = (D p
2Hco )2 /4
16. verify the geometric constraint L L a Wco = 0
17. verify the saturation constraint Bcor e = cor e /Acor e Bsat
18. calculate coil parameters based on Eq. (4.105).
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

4.4.3 Electrical Network

This section deals with lumped parameters models of electrical circuits of MR
dampers. The simplest lumped parameter model of a single coil MR actuator is
presented in Fig. 4.29a. The model incorporates three components: an excitation
(voltage) source, a resistor and a non-linear inductor. The resistor includes the ohmic
losses in the coil winding, voltage source and the routing cables. Yang (2001) developed a model incl. the dynamics of the current controller and a constant inductance
of the coil. However, a linear inductor is adequate for small current excitations only.
In general, the damper coil inductance is a highly non-linear function of current.
For studies which extend well into the nonlinear domain the constant inductance
does not capture the time-varying behaviour of the actuator (Jiang and Christenson
2012). Jiang and Christenson (2012) proposed a time-varying function of the inductance to incorporate the non-linear effects due to eddy currents. Also, Sapinski (2004)
proposed a more complex equivalent network model of the electrical circuit in the

4.4 Mathematical Model for an Electro-Magnetic Circuit of Control Valves

91

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.29 Equivalent models of dampers electrical circuit. a Equivalent circuit model (Mikulowski
2008; Sapinski 2004; Yang 2001). b Second-order circuit model (Sapinski 2004)

form of a second order system taking into account the eddy currents. The proposed
network model is shown in Fig. 4.29b. Its parameters (Rco , L co , Rce , L ce ) can be
obtained from transient FE computations involving the magnetic circuit or from reallife patterns of the coil current i co . Also, it seems other lumped parameter models
of eddy currents in electrical machines can be easily adapted for use in MR damper
analyses. An example of a second-order network model is illustrated in Fig. 4.30.
In the simplest case as shown in Fig. 4.29a and neglecting flux leakage paths, the
current i co is lumped together in each of the Nco coil winding turns to a single current
loop. Then, the voltage u co across the terminals becomes
u co = i co Rco + L co (i co )

di co
dt

(4.106)

where i co (t) is the coil current, Rco (L co ) is the coil resistance (inductance). By
definition, the magnetic flux in the core region is = L co i co = Bi Ai where Ai
is the core cross-section area, and Bi is the flux density in the core region. Then,
the flux density in the gap is Bg = Bi Ai /As , where As is the active area over one
magnetic pole at circumference.

Fig. 4.30 Network model (Li et al. 2010)

92

4 Modelling of Control Valves

Next, for the more complex model shown in Fig. 4.30 the equations are given as
di co
di 2
+ L c2
dt
dt
di co
di 2
0 = i 2 R2 + L 2c
+ L 22
dt
dt

u co = i co Rco + L co

(4.107)

where i 2 is the secondary circuit current, R2 and L 22 stand for the secondary circuit
resistance and inductance, respectively, whereas L c2 and L 2c denote mutual inductances between the main circuit and the secondary current loop. In the model it is
assumed that L c2 = L 2c , and the coupling coefficient between the primary inductance L co and the secondary one L 22 is kc ; kc 1. Again, the parameter values
can be estimated from current patterns obtained experimentally using hardware or
a transient magnetic FE model. The number of secondary current loops can be easily increased in the model for better performance and accuracy. Application of the
model for handling fluctuating magnetic fields in a damper is illustrated in Chap. 8
discussing a two-coil model.

4.5 Summary
The solutions presented in this chapter can be useful tools in the process of developing MR dampers. For example, the ability to predict the steady-state response of
MR dampers is by far the most common engineering task when sizing dampers for
particular applications. At the same time control valves transient behaviour should
be accounted for in order to meet the needs of adaptive applications.
The research at this point was motivated by the observation that real damper
applications in the automotive industry in particular require that the damping force
output should be tuned (or regulated) in a way that is difficult or perhaps even
impossible to achieve with only the conventional Bingham plastic approach. For
example, the damping force roll-off that is observed in the piston low velocity regime
of damper operation can be best copied by the bi-plastic solution. It seemed that other
more sophisticated modelling tools are needed for a better description of the damper
behaviour. Therefore, the control valve solutions presented in the present chapter
may be a valuable aid in the process of simulating the complex behaviour of a flow
mode MR damper. The demonstrated flexibility is a key to modelling the response
of the damper with various different piston and bypass configurations and subjected
to various excitation inputs.

Chapter 5

Damper Modelling

5.1 Background
The contents of this chapter is an extension of Chap. 4. While the previous chapter
focuses on key factors influencing the damping force output due to the control valve
in a damper, the present chapter mainly deals with non-MR phenomena that occur
mainly outside the control valve.
Briefly, the purpose of this chapter is to describe the implementation of a lumped
parameter model of an MR damper. The model would be suitable for dynamic simulations in component (damper) level studies or vehicle system analyses. In addition to
the key flow paths and model components, and the field-induced pressure difference
increase in particular, the model also captures the effects of fluid compressibility, fluid
inertia and gas pressure. Simply, MR dampers generate a force that is not simply a
function of velocity. Prior studies emphasized a phase shift between the velocity and
force at higher excitation frequenciesin flow mode MR dampers as well as mounts
the relatively heavy mass of fluid contained in a long flow path travels back and forth
through the annulus while piston is in motion. Fluid inertia, compressibility (compliance of fluid chambers), annulus geometry are among the key contributors to the
above mentioned effect (Alexandridis and Goldasz 2004; Guo et al. 2013; Nguyen
et al. 2011); readers should refer to (Goldasz and Alexandridis 2012) for a detailed
description of the phenomenon. In this study the authors analyse a series of damper
models of increasing complexity to illustrate the effects. The non-linear phenomena
are virtually non-existent in conventional dampers that rely on different principles
for force generation within the same frequency range. Therefore, modelling of these
phenomena in a damper is critical for accurate simulations and engineering of MR
dampers.
In the past researchers developed various models of passive dampers to capture
their non-linear characteristics and their hysteretic behaviour in particular. Although
the behaviour of MR dampers is governed by different operating principles due to the
annulus flow of the fluid through the piston, the models still could be used as the basis
for modelling various non-MR phenomena occurring outside the piston. For example,
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_5

93

94

5 Damper Modelling

Lang (1977) developed a mathematical model of a twin-tube automotive damper and

concluded that the observed hysteretic behaviour was due to the compressibility of the
fluid, cylinder tube elasticity (expansion with pressure), and cavitation taking place
in a damper. The model of Lang remains the most often cited work on conventional
dampers operating at high stroking frequencies. Also, in the field of mono-tube
dampers Lee (1997) obtained a highly complex model of the device. The model
accounted for the compressibility of fluid dampers, floating gas cup inertia and simple
heat transfer effects in addition to the highly accurate deflected disc piston model. A
similar model capable of handling simulations up to 30 Hz was obtained by Duym
(2000). Nearly about the same time Mollica (1997) proposed a non-linear highorder model of a mono-tube damper using bond graph techniques. The model of
Mollica incorporates friction elements, effects of fluid compressibility, gas, leakage
and hydraulic resistance components for modelling flow losses at the piston. Those
studies became the starting point for developing the lumped parameter model to be
described in detail in the present chapter. In the field of controlled MR dampers
similar models were used for modelling of the fluid hysteresis, fluid flow through
piston (Hong et al. 2006; Nguyen and Choi 2009a; Nguyen et al. 2011). For example,
Nguyen et al. (2011) proposed a dynamic model of an ER damper for accurate
prediction of the hysteresis in a damper. Also, effects of compressibility, gap pressure
and volume as well as dynamics of ER fluid in flow through the annular duct of the
damper were investigated as well.
Also, the work performed on passive and semi-active hydromounts by Adiguna
(2003), Nguyen (2009), Singh (1992), to name just a few, is particularly valuable. In
those devices the conditions experienced by the fluids lumped mass travelling back
and forth a long inertia track are similar, and these studies have formed sound basis
for the presented model as well.
A significant number of research studies were carried out for parametric modelling
of non-linear effects due to hysteresis, inertia and plasticity. The models are a combination of spring, mass and dash-pot elements, and their parameters are estimated
using parameter identification methodsa thorough review of the research effects
in this domain was recently outlined by Wang and Liao (2011). Their parameters are
not known prior to building and testing of the actual device whose behaviour they
describe and quantify. Also, the parameters as in the well-known Bouc-Wen model
(Spencer Jr. et al. 1997) are valid for a limited range of inputs only. Moreover, no
study that relates the parameters variation to temperature (heat transfer) is known to
the authors. Therefore, they are suitable only for control studies (testing of control
algorithms in particular) and practically useless in design and engineering efforts,
and, again, they are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Therefore, in this chapter the authors commence the study with an explanation
of models of three damper structures, namely, a mono-tube damper, a double-rod
damper, and a twin-tube damper. Expressions for pressure variation in each hydraulic
fluid chamber are developed, their key features are demonstrated through numerical
simulations involving the obtained equation sets.

5.1 Background

95

Fig. 5.1 MR damper model

schematic layout
single-tube damper

5.1.1 Single-Tube Damper

In this section a mathematical model of a monotube damper is developed in order
to predict the force-velocity characteristics. As mentioned above, the model should
account for the following phenomena: (1) compliance of the fluid volumes in compression and extension chambers, respectively, (2) elasticity of the cylinder walls
due to pressure, (3) vapour formation in the fluid due to cavitation, (4) dynamics of
the lumped fluid mass in flow through the annulus in the piston, (5) motion of the
floating piston, (6) MR phenomenon and other key contributors to the damping force
output (already described in detail in Chap. 4).
First, let us examine the mono-tube MR damper with a single-gap piston shown
in Fig. 5.1. The cylinder tube houses the floating piston (gas cup) which separates
the MR fluid from the high pressure gas chamber. The main piston divides the MR
fluid volume into the compression chamber (between the main piston and the floating
piston) and the rebound chamber (between the upper rod guide and the main piston).
The piston assembly is assumed to incorporate one annular flow path that permits
the fluid to flow from one chamber into the other. The rheology of the MR fluid

96

5 Damper Modelling

in the gap is controlled by means of the magnetic field. The device can be driven
either by the prescribed displacement (or velocity) input xr (t) (vr (t)) applied to the
main piston rod assembly or the displacement (velocity) xt (t) (vt (t)) applied to the
cylinder tube (base). Therefore, the relative displacement between the piston rod
and the cylinders base is xp = xr xt . As shown in Fig. 5.1, the volume flow rate
through the annulus is Qa and that of the bypass flow Qb . The pressure drop across
the piston is p = Pr Pc . The total flow rate through the annulus and the bypass
is then

q = Qa + Qb
(5.1)
Qp =
To start with, let us proceed by defining the isothermal compressibility cf of the fluid
as (Lang 1977)
cf =

dV
V dp

(5.2)

where p refers to pressure, and V is control volume. Alternatively,

dp
dV
= cf V
dt
dt

(5.3)

By inverting the above equation, the isothermal bulk modulus can be obtained
f = V

dp
dV

(5.4)

The bulk modulus determines the fluid stiffness. Using the following expression
for conservation of mass the equations governing the pressure variation in a fluid
chamber can be derived as

dV =  Qin  Qout
dt
(5.5)


dp = f  Qin  Qout
V
dt
In the model we assume the bulk modulus f is influenced by the stiffness (or the
compliance) of the container s . Lang (1977) and Segel and Lang (1981) considered the effects of cylinder wall expansion with pressure. In the analysis the
volumetric effects were combined with the influence of fluids bulk modulus (compressibility). As such, the following serial relationship is assumed in the present
analysis
1
1
1
=
+
(5.6)

f
s

5.1 Background

97

where the variation of fluids bulk modulus with pressure can be expressed as follows

1
n
a
1 + P P+
p
a
f (P) = 0
1
Pan
1+
1+n
n(Pa + p) n

(5.7)

Equation (5.7) represents the bulk modulus variation with pressure in a mixture of
fluid and a small amount of non-dissolved air (Manring 2005). 0 is the pure fluid
bulk modulus, Pa refers to the atmospheric (or reference) pressure, and denotes
the relative gas content. Finally, n is the adiabatic gas constant.
Taking into account the compliance of the steel cylinder s yields (Mollica 1997)
1
2
=
s
Es

Do2 + Dp2

Dt2 Dp2

(5.8)

where Es is Young modulus, is the Poisson coefficient, and Dt refers to the outer
diameter of the cylinder.
Recalling Eq. (5.5), fluid continuity expressions for each fluid volume (above and
below the piston) imply that


Ap Ar vp Qp = Vr Pr



Ap vg vp + Qp = Vc Pc

(5.9)

and the fluid volumes Vr , Vc are then



Vr = Ap Ar xr + Vr0
Vc = Ap xr xg + Vc0

Global cavitation effects are simply modelled by imposing a constraint (lower

bound) on the pressures Pr and Pc so that Pr Pv and Pc Pv . More complex
cavitation models, e.g. see (Alonso and Comas 2006) can be used here, too.
Next, the influence of accelerating flow on pressure losses is introduced by considering the inertia of the lumped mass of fluid in the annulus while the damper in
motion. Briefly, we attempt to model the motion of the fluid mass bouncing against
the two compliant columns of MR fluid. Accounting for the inertia of the lumped
mass of fluid in the annulus yields a simple force balance equation
L Qa = (Pr Pc ) Ag

(5.10)

Flow losses due to MR effect can be accounted for by including the additional
term as follows (Goldasz and Alexandridis 2012)

98

5 Damper Modelling

L Qa + Ag pa = (Pr Pc ) Ag

(5.11)

where pa can be modelled according to (4.67) or (4.65).

Moreover, considering the forces acting on the floating piston results in the
following force balance equation


mg vg + Ffg sign(vg ) = Ap Pc Pg

(5.12)

Gas pressure in the high-pressure chamber below the floating piston can be
expressed by assuming the adiabatic process

Pg = Pg0

Vg0
Vg0 + Ap xg

n
(5.13)

Finally, combining Eqs. (5.11), (5.9) and (5.12) and substituting (5.13) yields the
system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) in the state-space form

P r

Pc

v g

Qa



Ap Ar vp Qp
=
V r

vg vp Ap + Qp
=
V c

= g + m1 Ap (Pc Pg ) Ffg sign(vg )
g
A
= Lg (Pr Pc pa )

(5.14)

According to (Lee 1997), the floating piston inertia can be neglected at low stroking
frequencies. Also, neglecting friction at the interface between the floating piston and
the cylinder gives Pc = Pg . The system of Eq. (5.14) is then reduced to



Ap Ar vp Qp

P
=

Vr

v A + Q

Pc = p p V p
g
Vc +

nP
g

Q = Ag (P P p )
a
c
a
L r

(5.15)

Calculations of the bypass flow rate require an additional treatment. Note the flow
rate through the bypass path is further given by Eq. (4.75). Here, the pressure drop
along the bypass according to Eq. (4.75) is known (pb = Pr Pc ), and the equation
needs to be solved for the flow rate Qb (as already explained in Sect. 4.3.2).
In the rod-driven scenario, the generated damping force Fd incl. the rod guides
seal friction Ffr , the piston friction Ffp (at the interface between the cylinder tube
and the piston) and the gas cup friction Ffg is as follows


Fd = Pr Ap Ar Pc Ap + Ffr + Ffp + Ffg

(5.16)

5.1 Background

99

Fig. 5.2 MR monotube damper model schematic layouttwin-rod damper

Including the piston and rod assembly inertia yields



Fd = mr v r + Pr Ap Ar Pc Ap + Ffr + Ffp + Ffg

(5.17)

In the above equation the friction forces Ffr , Ffp and Ffg were modelled using
the generic sliding friction model presented in Appendix A assuming the symmetric
case and equal static and dynamic friction forces.
Analytical treatment of pressure losses due to the MR effect required a separate
and in-depth explanation which was given in Chap. 4.
By removing the gas chamber and making the piston symmetric, the monotube
damper model can be reduced to the one shown in Fig. 5.2. Again, using the continuity
equations results in the following equation set

(Ap Ar )vp Qp

P r = (Pr ) V (A A )x
r,0
p
r p
(Ap Ar )vp + Qp

Pc = (Pc )
Vc,0 + (Ap Ar )xp

(5.18)

The motion of the lumped mass of fluid is governed by Eq. (5.11), whereas the
equivalent bulk modulus can be calculated derived from Eq. (5.6). Then, combining
the above equation set (5.18) incl. Eq. (5.11) yields a third-order model that describes
the time-varying behaviour of the double-rod damper.
Finally, when forces acting on the piston are considered, the damping force Fd
incl. friction forces Ff at the rod guide and the piston-cylinder interface can be
calculated in the following manner


Fd = Ap Ar (Pr Pc ) + Ff

(5.19)

5.1.2 Double-Tube Damper

First, let us the hydraulic circuit illustrated in Fig. 5.3. Accounting for the inertia
of the lumped mass of fluid in the MR valves annulus in a manner illustrated in
Sect. 5.1.1 yields the force balance equation

100

5 Damper Modelling

Fig. 5.3 MR damper model

schematic layout
double-tube damper

r
r

v1 =
Q


Ag 
Pr Pg Pa PH
Lg

(5.20)

where Pa refers to the field-induced pressure drop along the annular gap, and PH
denotes total losses due to fluid flow through the holes in the cylinder. Furthermore,
fluid continuity expressions for the pressures above and below the piston imply that
P r = (Pr )

(Ap Ar )vp (Qv1 + Qv2 )

Vr0 (Ap Ar )xp

(5.21)

P c = (Pc )

Ap vp + (Qv2 + Qv3 )
Vc0 + Ap xp

(5.22)

where (P) refers to the combined bulk modulus due to the fluids compressibility
and cylinder compliance; the effects of wall expansion with pressure are combined
with the influence of fluids bulk modulus (compressibility) as in Sect. 5.1.1.
Gas pressure in the pressure chamber (reservoir) can be expressed assuming the
adiabatic process

5.1 Background

101


Pg = Pg0

Vg0

Vg0
(Qv1 Qv3 )dt

n
(5.23)

Again, global cavitation effects are simply modelled by imposing a constraint

(lower bound) on the pressures Pr and Pc during simulations so that Pr Pv and
Pc Pv .
Additional pressure loss due to the fluid flow through the sets of holes in the
cylinder is
PH = 2

Qa2
sign(Qv,1 )
2(CH AH )2

(5.24)

where CH is the discharge coefficient, and AH denotes the cross-sectional area of

the holes. Moreover, the check valve in the piston allows for flow in one direction
only, therefore, the following expression can be devised for the flow rate Qv2 through
the piston


|P P |
C2 A2 2 r c Pr Pc < 0
(5.25)
Qv2 =

0
Pr Pc 0
Similarly, the flow rate Qv3 through the check valve 3 is
Qv3 =


C3 A3 2
0

|Pc Pg |
Pc Pg < 0

(5.26)

Pc Pg 0

The inertia of check valves is neglected, and it is assumed that both check valves
open instantaneously with no delay. Finally, when forces acting on the piston are
considered, the damping force Fd incl. friction Ff can be calculated in the following
manner


Fd = Ap Ar Pr Ap Pc + Ff

(5.27)

To summarize, Equations from (5.21) to (5.27) form a set of expressions for

simulating the output of an MR damper in a twin-tube configuration.
Perhaps it is worth clarifying the asymmetric nature of the device. In steady-state
conditions and assuming incompressible fluid, the flow continuity equations for the
upper chamber can be rewritten as follows


Ap Ar vp Qv1 Qv2 = 0

(5.28)

However, during the rebound motion the flow rate through the piston Qv2 = 0. Thus,
the flow rate through the MR valve reduces to Qv1 = (Ap Ar )vp . Similarly, the

102

5 Damper Modelling

(rebound) base valve flow rate is

Ap vp + Qv3 = 0

(5.29)

For comparison, during the compression, the respective flow balance equations for
the upper and the lower fluid chambers become



Ap Ar vp Qv1 + Qv2 = 0
Ap vp Qv2 = 0

(5.30)

The above condition for the compression portion of the stroking cycle implies immediately that Qv1 = Ar vp , Qv2 = Ap vp and Qv3 = 0.

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

Following the review of expressions governing the damping force output for the
above damper structures, this section is focused on simulations of the behaviour of
damper structures, and the impact damper internal state-space variables (pressures,
flow rates) have in the force variation against displacement, velocity and yield stress.
The analysis is limited to damper structures only. Simulations of control valves are
presented in Chap. 4. Therefore, the rationale behind this section was to provide basis
for comprehending the behaviour of damper structures when the inputs were varied
and the response analysed.

5.2.1 Single-Tube Damper

This section deals with fixed yield-stress level simulations of the single-tube damper
structure. The lumped parameter model outlined in Sect. 5.1.1 is subjected to largestroke as well as small-stroke displacement inputs across a range velocity inputs in
order to briefly highlight the impact they have on the models state-space variables,
i.e. pressures, flow rates.

5.2.2 Geometry, Material Properties

All numerical calculations are performed using the data in Table 5.1 and the piston
geometry is shown in detail in Figs. 4.14 and 4.19 (see Chap. 4) as well as Fig. 5.1.
The section utilizes the parameter set given in Sect. 4.3.1. Additional geometric parameters and material properties are outlined in Table 5.1. The calculation procedure
used the Simulink model shown in Fig. 5.4.

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

Table 5.1 Damper geometry
Symbol
Description
Lr0
Lc0
Lg0
Ap Ar
Ap
tw
Pg0
n
mr
mt
mg
Ff
f
Es
Ta

Initial rebound chamber length (mm)

Initial compression chamber length (mm)
Initial gas chamber length (mm)
Upper chamber cross-section area (mm)2
Cylinder cross-section area (mm)2
Cylinder wall thickness (mm)
Initial gas pressure (MPa)
Adiabatic constant (-)
Piston and rod assembly mass (g)
Cylinder tube mass (g)
Floating piston mass (g)
Total friction (N)
Bulk modulus (MPa)
Youngs modulus (MPa)
Temperature ( C)

103

Value
107
89.5
39.5
1,508
1,662
1.8
2.4
1.4
1,500
1,200
20
70
1,500
2.1 105
30

Fig. 5.4 Mono-tube damper Simulink model

5.2.3 Results
In this section simulation results using the model given by Eqs. (5.14) and (5.16)
(or (5.17)) are presented in Figs. 5.5 through 5.11. All calculations were carried out
in the Simulink environment using the fixed-step rk4 ODE solver at a time step of
0.125 s. To illustrate the performance of the dynamic model, the model given by the
equation set was subjected to the sinusoidal displacement xt (t) = X t sin t applied
to the cylinder tube. Driving the cylinder by the prescribed displacement waveform
rather than the piston rod results in the input xp = 0 xt (t) = xt (t). The obtained
data are presented in the form of force-velocity and force-displacement loops as well

104

5 Damper Modelling

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 5.5 Simulated data: force-displacement and force-velocity, X p = 30 mm. a 0 = 0.5 kPa.
b 0 = 0.5 kPa. c 0 = 25 kPa. d 0 = 25 kPa

as pressure and flow rate plots versus displacement and velocity, respectively. The
illustrations show the generated data for the maximum peak velocity input of 1024
mm/s (and the peak-to-peak displacement amplitude of 30 mm). In the revealed simulations the yield stress level varied from 0.5 to 25 kPa. Specifically, Fig. 5.5 shows
the damping force output variation with the stroking velocity (and displacement) at
two levels of the yield stress 0.5 and 25 kPa, respectively. Next, Fig. 5.6 reveals the
force-displacement and force-velocity loops at two different levels of the displacement amplitude, namely, 5 mm and 30 mm, and the mid-range peak piston velocity
of 382 mm/s, respectively. Additionally, accompanying Figs. 5.7 and 5.8 show the
variation of the state variables Pr , Pc and Pg with displacement and velocity, respectively. Finally, Fig. 5.9 illustrates the impacts of the orifice size on the damping force,
Fig. 5.9 demonstrates the impact of low gas charge, Pg and the resulting cavitation in
the rebound chamber of the damper, whereas Fig. 5.11 shows the influence the piston
model has on damper characteristics. All Figures from 5.6 to 5.11 were generated
for the peak velocity of 382 mm/s.
Specifically, as shown in Fig. 5.5, the yield stress change results in the damping
force output variations according to the identified coupling between the magnetic
field strength level (or flux density) and the fluids yield stress. Moreover, the hysteresis between the force and the velocity can be observed as well. The hysteresis is
due to the compliance of the fluid chambers in the damper and the fluids lumped mass

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

105

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 5.6 Plots of force versus velocity and force versus displacement, Vp = 382 mm/s. a 0 = 0.5
kPa, X p = 30 mm. b 0 = 25 kPa, X p = 30 mm. c 0 = 0.5 kPa, X p = 5 mm. d 0 = 25 kPa,
X p = 5 mm. e 0 = 0.5 kPa, X p = 30 mm. f 0 = 25 kPa, X p = 30 mm. g 0 = 0.5 kPa, X p = 5
mm. h 0 = 25 kPa, X p = 5 mm

106

5 Damper Modelling

(a)

(b)
4.5

3.6

Pr

Pr
Pc

3.4

Pg

Pg

3.5
p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

3.2
3
2.8

3
2.5

2.6

2.4

1.5

2.2

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

t, [s]

(c)

Pc

0.5

0.65

0.7

0.75
t, [s]

0.8

0.85

0.9

Pc

3.4

3
2.5

2.6

2.4

1.5

2.2
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100

100

200

300

400

Pg

3.5
p, [MPa]

3
2.8

Pc

Pg

3.2

1
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100

500

(f)

vp, [mm/s]

3.8

100

200

300

400

500

vp, [mm/s]

4.5
Pr

3.6

Pc

3.4

Pg

Pr
Pc

Pg

3.5

3.2

p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

0.95

Pr

Pr

p, [MPa]

0.6

4.5

3.6

(e)

0.55

(d)

3
2.5

2.8
2

2.6

1.5

2.4
2.2

(g)

-30

-20

-10

0
xp, [mm]

10

20

30

(h)

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

xp, [mm]

Fig. 5.7 State variablesPr , Pc , Pg ; X p = 30 mm, Vp = 382 mm/s. a 0 = 0.5 kPa. b 0 = 25

kPa. c 0 = 0.5 kPa. d 0 = 25 kPa. e 0 = 0.5 kPa. f 0 = 25 kPa. g 0 = 0.5 kPa. h 0 = 25 kPa

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

(b) 4

Pr

2.65

Pc

2.6

Pg

3.5
3

2.55

p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

(a) 2.7

107

2.5

2.5

2.45

2
2.4

Pr
1.5

2.35

Pc
Pg

2.3
0.08

0.09

0.1

0.11

(c)

0.12

0.13

0.14

0.15

0.16

0.08

0.1

0.11

(d)

t, [s]

0.12

0.13

0.14

0.15

0.16

400

500

t, [s]
4

2.7

Pr

Pr
2.65

Pc

2.6

Pg

3.5

Pc
Pg

2.55

p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

0.09

2.5

2.5

2.45

2
2.4

1.5

2.35
2.3

-500 -400 -300 -200 -100

(e)

100

200

300

400

-500

500

-400 -300 -200 -100

100

200

300

vp, [mm/s]

(f)

vp, [mm/s]

2.7
Pr

2.65

Pc

2.6

Pg

3.5

p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

3
2.55
2.5
2.45

2.5
2

2.4

Pr
1.5

2.35

Pc
Pg

2.3
-6

(g)

-4

-2

1
-6

xp, [mm]

-4

-2

xp, [mm]

(h)

Fig. 5.8 State variablesPr , Pc , Pg ; X p = 5 mm, Vp = 382 mm/s. a 0 = 0.5 kPa. b 0 = 25

kPa. c 0 = 0.5 kPa. d 0 = 25 kPa. e 0 = 0.5 kPa. f 0 = 25 kPa. g 0 = 0.5 kPa. h 0 = 25 kPa

108

(a)

5 Damper Modelling

(b)

Fig. 5.9 Influence of orifice size on damping force output; Vp = 382 mm/s, 0 = 25 kPa. a Fd
versus xp . b Fd versus vp

inertia. Also, a rotation of the force-displacement ellipses into the second quadrant
of the force-displacement plane can be observed at higher frequencies of the excitation input. Again, this effect is due to the lumped mass of fluid inertia and the
driven cylinder inertia. Oscillations at piston motion reversal points can be seen in
the presented graphs, too. Clearly, the effect is due to the lumped mass bouncing on
the compliant oil chambers. The frequency and the magnitude of the oscillations are
different in the piston motion upward (rebound) stroke than in the downward portion
of the stroking input (compression); the compliance of the damper upper chamber
and the compliance of the combined gas and the damper lower chamber are not identical. The contribution of the numerical ODE (ordinary differential equation) solver
in Simulink to the damping force oscillations when solving the damper equations of
motion is to be addressed in Chap. 8 in which the model is verified against experimental data. It also becomes apparent that as in the case of a damper in monotube
configuration, the damping force is controlled by the pressure changes in the rebound
(upper) chamber of the dampersee Figs. 5.7 and 5.8. For the presented range of
displacement (and velocity) inputs pressures in the compression chamber and the gas
chamber are a function of piston position. The difference between the compression
pressure and the gas pressure, however, varies with the displacement and the input
frequency (for a given piston velocity input). At low-frequency large-displacement
inputs the floating piston inertia can be neglected, and the pressure difference is
largely controlled by the friction at the interface between the floating piston and the
cylinder tube. Remarkably, the pressure in the compression chamber drops below gas
pressure in the rebound portion of the stroking cycle. Moreover, it can be observed
that as the frequency of the excitation increases (and the displacement amplitude
decreases) the pressure difference Pg Pc grows which has an additional impact on
the damping force Fd .
Cavitation was generated by setting the gas pressure to 1 MPa (see Fig. 5.10).
The illustration shows the cavitation occurring in the rebound chamber.
Finally, including the flow bypass model (see Fig. 5.11) allows for modelling the
force roll-off effect at low piston velocity inputs and selecting an appropriate model
setting for specific applications.

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

(a)

109

(b)

Fig. 5.10 Influence of low gas charge on damping force output; Vp = 382 mm/s, 0 = 25 kPa.
a Fd versus xp . b Fd versus vp

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.11 Influence of piston model on damping force output; Vp = 382 mm/s, 0 = 25 kPa,
BPBingham plastic, BVbi-viscous, BPPbi-plastic Bingham. a Fd versus xp . b Fd versus vp

5.2.4 Twin-Tube Damper

This section contains simulation results that demonstrate key features of the material
developed in Sect. 5.1.2. The double-tube damper is inherently a device that generates
asymmetric damping forces. Therefore, the authors show the influence of rod area
change on the damping force output as well as the impact that the excitation frequency
has on the damper model behaviour. As the key parameters are varied by the authors,
damper internal pressures and flow rates are recorded and illustrated against model
inputs.

5.2.5 Geometry, Material Properties

The simulations were carried out for a twin-tube damper with an internal MR valve
subjected to an oscillatory sinusoidal loading applied to the piston rod as shown in
Fig. 3.4a. All numerical calculations were performed using the damper data compiled

110

5 Damper Modelling

Table 5.2 Twin-tube damper model inputs

Symbol
Description

Value

Lr0
Lc0
Aeff = Ap Ar
Ap
Vr0
Vc0
Vg0
A2
A3
C2
C3
AH
CH
tw
La
L
h
w
Pg0
n

Ff
C
f

Es

Ta

Initial rebound chamber length (mm)

Initial compression chamber length (mm)
Upper chamber cross-section area (mm2 )
Cylinder cross-section area (mm2 )
Initial rebound chamber volume (mm3 )
Initial compression chamber volume (mm3 )
Initial gas chamber volume (mm3 )
Check valve flow area (mm2 )
Check valve flow area (mm2 )
Discharge coefficient (-)
Discharge coefficient (-)
Cylinder holes area (mm2 )
Discharge coefficient (-)
Cylinder wall thickness (mm)
Active length (mm)
Annulus length (mm)
Annulus height (mm)
Mean circumferential width (mm)
Initial gas pressure (MPa)
Adiabatic constant (-)
Air contents in the MR fluid (-)
Total friction force (N)
Flow coefficient (-)
Bulk modulus (MPa)
Fluid density (g/cc)
Base viscosity (cP)
Youngs modulus (steel) (MPa)
Poisson coefficient (-)
Temperature ( C)

150
150
683.48
804.24
1.206 105
1.025 105
0.861 105
220
220
0.7
0.7
301
0.7
1.8
25.8
37
0.89
88.60
0.8
1.4
0.001
70
0.1
1,500
2.68
62.5
2.1 105
0.29
30

in Table 5.2. The friction force estimate was obtained from a damper with same
internal gas pressure as the one set in the model.
The piston geometry used in this study, coil parameters, the yield stress ratio and
the viscosity ratio variation against current are identical to the multi-stage piston
configuration modelled by Goldasz and Sapinski (2012); the reader should refer to
this paper for details on the identification method and other relevant details on the
MR piston. With this specific piston design, the power consumption is appr. 32 W at
the maximum coil current. Shortly, the identified viscosity ratio was varied from
0.0175 at the coil current Ic of 1 A through 0.0167 at 3 A to 0.0149 at the maximum
coil current level of 5 A. Accordingly, the yield stress ratio varied from 0.179 (Ic =1

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

111

3
2.5

pa, [MPa]

2
1.5
1
1A
3A
5A

0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5
2
Qv1, [mm3/s]

2.5

3.5
5
x 10

Fig. 5.12 Twin-tube damper: control valve pressureflow rate characteristics; pa versus Qv1

A) through 0.363 (Ic = 3 A) to 0.492 (Ic = 5 A). In this study, the MR piston is
simply characterized by the steady-state pressure versus. flow rate characteristics in
Fig. 5.12. The pa Qv1 characteristics in Fig. 5.12 were calculated based on the

Fig. 5.13 Twin-tube damper model-Simulink

112

5 Damper Modelling

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 5.14 Influence of rod area (diameter) change on the damping force; X p = 30 mm, Vp = 1024
mm/s. a Fd versus xp : Dp = 12.4 mm. b Fd versus vp : Dp = 12.4 mm. c Fd versus xp : Dp = 22
mm. d Fd versus vp : Dp = 22 mm

geometry and material properties, and they became inputs into the Simulink model
shown in Fig. 5.13.

5.2.6 Results
Based on the Table 5.2 data, the results obtained using the model given by Eq. (5.21)
through (5.27) are presented in Fig. 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 and 5.17b. All calculations were
carried out in the Simulink environment using the fixed-step Runge-Kutta ODE solver
at a time step of 1 s. To illustrate the key features of the model, it was subjected to
the sinusoidal displacement waveform xp (t) = X p sin t applied to the piston rod.
The obtained data are presented in the form of force-velocity and force-displacement
loops as well as pressure and flow rate plots versus displacement. In the simulations
the effects of velocity, coil current and piston rod size on the damping force output
were duly calculated and examined.
Specifically, Fig. 5.14 reveals the influence the piston rod diameter (area) has
on the damping force of the twin-tube damper. The effect is diverse. As seen in
Fig. 5.14ac, smaller diameter piston rods (Dp =12.4 mm) contribute to a significant
asymmetry in the damping force. The rebound-to-compression ratio (asymmetry

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

113

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 5.15 Graphs of force-displacement and force-velocity; X p = 30 mm, Ic = Imax = 5 A. a Fd

versus xp : Dp = 12.4 mm. b Fd versus vp : Dp = 12.4 mm. c Fd versus xp : Dp = 22 mm. d Fd
versus vp : Dp = 22 mm

ratio) for the damping force exceeds 5:1 for the peak velocity of 1024 mm/s. In the
examined cases, the rebound forces decreased when the piston diameter increased
up to 22 mm. The asymmetry decreased (compression forces improved), however,
at the cost of degrading rebound forces at the same time. It can be shown that as the
piston rod is in compression, the check valve 2 in the piston is opened and the check
valve 3 in the base valve is closed, so that the volume flow rate through the annulus
in the MR valve is directly related to the rod area Ar . Therefore, the smaller the rod
diameter the larger the asymmetry in the damping forces is developed in the damper.
Also, increasing the piston rod size contributes to a significant increase in the
hysteresis between force and velocity (see Figs. 5.14 b, d and 5.15) and rotating the
damping force ellipses into the first quadrant of the force-displacement plane due to
the restoring gas force. Moreover, the hysteresis is larger on the compression side
than on the rebound one. Again, it can be shown that the change in the restoring (gas)
force is directly related to the rod area, and the magnitude of the gas force change
increases with the piston rod size.
Also, Fig. 5.16 reveals the variation of pressures in each chamber of the damper
with piston displacement and velocity. For example, it is obvious that when the
damper is in rebound the pressure in the lower chamber drops below gas pressure.
As a result, the check valve 3 in the base valve opens, and there is flow through the
check valve 3 from the reservoir and into the compression chamber. Similarly, in

114

5 Damper Modelling

(a)

(b)

3.5

3.5

Pr
Pc

Pg
Pr

2.5
p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

2.5
2

Pc
2

1.5

1.5

0.5

Pg

0.5

-30

-20

-10

10

20

xp, [mm]

(c)

-1000

30

-500

500

1000

vp, [mm/s]

(d)
3

3
Pr
Pc

2.5

Pg

Pr
p, [MPa]

p, [MPa]

2.5

1.5

1.5

0.5

Pc

Pg

0.5
-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

-1000

xp, [mm]

-500

500

1000

vp, [mm/s]

Fig. 5.16 Graphs of pressuredisplacement and pressurevelocity, X p = 30 mm, Ico = Imax = 5

A; Pr -rebound pressure, Pc -compression pressure, Pg -reservoir pressure. a p versus xp : Dp = 12.4
mm. b p versus vp : Dp = 12.4 mm. c p versus xp : Dp = 22 mm. d p versus vp : Dp = 22 mm

compression, the pressure in the lower chamber is nearly equal (yet lower) to that
in the rebound chamber. As a result, the check valve in the piston opens and there
is flow from the compression chamber into the rebound one. It can be observed that
pressure in the rebound chamber will dominate regardless of the damper operating

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.17 Influence of frequency, Vp = 382 mm/s. a Fd versus vp : Dp = 12.4 mm. b Fd versus vp :
Dp = 22 mm

5.2 Damper Behaviour Simulations

115

conditions. As already mentioned, gas pressure in the outer reservoir is related to the
piston rod size (area) and the displacement magnitude.
Finally, the influence of frequency can be observed in Figs. 5.17a, b for the two
distinct frequencies2 Hz and 20 Hz. Note that the force-velocity hysteresis at zero
piston velocity increases with the excitation frequency.

5.3 Summary
The solutions presented in this chapter as well as in Chap. 4 can be useful tools in
simulating the behaviour of MR damper configurations. This chapter deals mostly
with complex phenomena occurring outside of the control valves, whereas the contents of the previous chapter focuses on calculations of the pressure drop across the
control valve. Specifically, in this chapter the authors develop and describe a systematic math-based approach towards predictions of the highly non-linear response of
the MR devices and handle key configurations of MR dampers, namely, single-tube
damper, double-tube damper and double-rod dampers, and develop expressions governing pressure variations in damper fluid chambers. The expressions become the
basis for damping force calculations. Once the equations were obtained, a series of
numerical simulations followed in order to demonstrate and highlight key features
of the damper models considered here. Owing to its resemblance to a single-tube
damper, the double-rod damper model was not studied here in a manner the two
remaining models were. For the two major damper structures, the authors studied
the effect of input magnitude on the internal variables, i.e. pressures, flow rates. As
the input parameters were varied, each model response was studied and analysed.

Chapter 6

CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

6.1 Background
Detailed analytical solutions of MR/ER fluid flow by means of the Bingham model,
the bi-plastic Bingham material model described in detail in Chap. 5 or other have
been available only in few idealized cases involving simple geometries and uniform
distributions of the yield stress. Closed-form solutions for pressure gradient have
been documented for even fewer models as shown in Sect. 4.2. At the same time
modern CFD tools when used with a current state-of-the-art multi-core computing
hardware have reached the stage where multiple steady-state design scenarios can
be exercised within a fairly short period of time, and prior to a physical prototype
building process (Zheng et al. 2014). Full-scale unsteady problems are still somewhat
of a challenge that is difficult to be met within a reasonable timeline.
Therefore, there is a need for a systematic procedure to be used within a CFD
framework for addressing problems with complex geometries where the yield stress
is allowed to vary in terms of both the magnitude and position. The approach needs to
be tested and validated for a number of test scenarios involving the Bingham fluid in a
flow mode. Of the three operation modes (flow, shear, squeeze), the devices operating
in a flow mode have been long commercialized, and analytical solutions have been
available for simple geometries, specific material models, and the Bingham fluid in
particular as already described in previous chapters.
Therefore, in this chapter the authors explains the procedure by outlining the
apparent viscosity model used in the CFD calculations as well as the approach for
collapsing the calculated data into a dimensionless form (for data characterization).
The section does not involve any damper-specific geometry as the material presented
in this chapter is meant for illustration and outlining the numerical approach only.
The GS scheme is used in subsequent calculations. The calculations involving the
Bingham fluid in flow mode are carried out across a wide range of field-induced
material properties, and the selection of flow conditions makes it appropriate to
analyse it with a laminar flow solver.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_6

117

118

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

6.2 Theory
The sections below outline the apparent viscosity model that is used in the subsequent
CFD calculations. The Bingham model and the closed-form solution for the pressure
gradient have already been examined in Sect. 4.2.1 of Chap. 4.
The MR fluid behaviour can be described using the well-known NavierStokes
equations (Tannehill et al. 1997). Using the tensor notation, the conservation of
momentum equation for an incompressible non-Newtonian fluid can be written down
as follows
i, j
u i
p
u i
+ u j
=
+
(6.1)

t
x j
xi
x j
By definition, the apparent viscosity is the ratio of the fluids shear stress over the
local shear rate. Therefore, substituting the Eq. (4.1) into the above Eq. (6.1) yields
the expression below
0

(6.2)
app = + 
 u i 


x 
j
= app
and then,

u i
x j

u i
u i
p

+

=
+
+ u j
t
x j
xi
x j

(6.3)

 0 
 u i 


x 
j

(6.4)

where , , u i , p are the fluid density, shear stress, velocity, pressure, respectively,
whilst xi is the independent variable, (i = 1, 2, 3). The above equations govern the
behaviour of a Bingham fluid. The so-called apparent viscosity approach as defined
in Eqs. (6.2) and (6.3), respectively, is a common method when dealing with Bingham
fluids/materials, and ER/MR fluids in particular (Bullough et al. 2008; Chen et al.
2007). A similar approach is well-known in solid body mechanics in the form of the
equivalent viscous damping coefficient when dealing with dry friction (Coulomb)
dash-pots. Obviously, there is a singularity in the solution at the zero shear rate,
and the flow field cannot be computed as app approaches . The zero shear rate
singularity problem is often solved by limiting the apparent viscosity. Literature
sources indicate the maximum apparent viscosity is often selected on the order of
1,000 times the measured base viscosity of smart fluids. Effectively, such approach
leads to the bi-viscous model. In many CFD codes (Ansys FLUENT, OpenFOAM)
the apparent viscosity model can be programmed into a user-defined function (UDF)
in a manner illustrated by Eq. (6.2) (Bullough et al. 2008).

6.3 Flow Simulations

119

6.3 Flow Simulations

This section summarises the results of a numerical experiment for demonstrating the
application of the apparent viscosity model and outlines the test geometries, material
properties involved as well as simulation results.

6.3.1 Test Geometry and Material Properties

To illustrate and test the performance of the apparent viscosity model as defined in
Eq. (6.2), various tests on a two-dimensional (2-D) channel flow of a Bingham fluid
were performed. The testing conditions including boundary conditions as well as
ER/MR material properties are summarized in Table 6.1. The series of numerical
experiments was designed for a wide range of velocity inlet conditions, yield stress
levels and yield stress profiles (across the flow channel), and a number of mesh
densities (to investigate the effect numerical errors have on the obtained solution). The
flow conditions correspond to the maximum Reynolds number of 1,800. Therefore,
the solution could be investigated using a laminar solver. Moreover, the variation of
the yield stress translates into the Hedstrom number H e changes from 120 to 12,000.
Also, the geometry of the flow channel is symmetric at mid-plane, thus allowing for
the CFD model to be set-up with an appropriate (symmetry) boundary condition as
shown in Fig. 6.1. The series of experiments was designed in such a way as to allow
for the transition of the fluid from a near-Newtonian material to a near-solid one
(with the MRFs plug occupying nearly the entire channel width h).
To summarize, the following four scenarios were considered in the case of the
flow channel illustrated in Fig. 6.1:
Case 1 Non-zero yield stress across the channel length L.
Case 2 One-step profile of the yield stress across the channel length L 2 as shown in
Fig. 6.2.
Case 3 Two-step profile of the yield stress across the channel section length L 2 as
shown in Fig. 6.3. The profile is an example of flow conditions occurring
Table 6.1 Testing conditions and fluid properties
Symbol
Description
h
L = L1 + L2
L2
L3

0
vin

Gap (mm)
Channel length (mm)
Channel length (mm)
Channel length (m)
Fluid viscosity (cP)
Fluid density (g/cm3 )
Yield stress (kPa)
Inlet velocity (mm/s)

Value
1
100
40
L 2 /3
50
3.0
0.1, 1, 10
{1, 10, 30} 1000

120

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

Fig. 6.1 CFD experiment: 2-D flow channel geometryCases 13

Fig. 6.2 Case 2 yield stress profile

Fig. 6.3 Case 3 yield stress profile

6.3 Flow Simulations

121

0 ( y)

0 > 0

0 = 0

Non-active channel width

y/w, [-]

Fig. 6.4 Case 4 yield stress profile; flow is in the direction perpendicular to the paper plane

in MR pistons in which the fluid is energized over two near-equal sections

(magnetic poles) on the piston core.
Case 4 Flow through a 3D channel with a non-uniform yield stress distribution that
is typical to flux bypass configurationssee Fig. 6.4.
Also, the procedure used following mesh resolutions: 50 10, 50 20, 100
20, 100 40, 800 40, where the first number refers to the number of subdivisions
along the horizontal axis, and the second one to the number of subdivisions along
the vertical axis (perpendicular to the flow direction). The Case 4 mesh is presented
in Fig. 6.5.

Fig. 6.5 Case 4 meshtop view

122

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

1.5

u/uin, [-]

0.5

0=0.1103 Pa
0=1103 Pa
0=10103 Pa

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

z/h, [-]

Fig. 6.6 Variation of velocity profile with yield stress; vin =10,000 mm/s, grid 100 40

6.3.2 Results
The sections below contain the two-dimensional channel flow simulation data. Calculated results obtained with the use of the Ansys FLUENT software include the
velocity profiles across the channel gap, axial pressure drop, as well as scaling of the
obtained data in terms of the GS parameters. The data are presented in Figs. 6.6,
6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17. The calculated pressure drop numbers (exact solution) along with those obtained via CFD are shown in
Tables 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 for the selected mesh resolutions 50 10, 100 20, 800 40,
respectively.

Fig. 6.7 Velocity profile across the gap; 0 = 10 kPa, vin =1,000 mm/s, grid 50 10

6.3 Flow Simulations

123

Fig. 6.8 Velocity profile across the gap; 0 = 10 kPa, vin =1,000 mm/s, grid 100 20

Fig. 6.9 Velocity profile across the gap; 0 = 10 kPa, vin =1,000 mm/s, grid 800 40

Results obtained in Case 1 are illustrated in Figs. 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11.
In the figures the calculated velocity profiles were compared against the theoretical
solution (see Figs. 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10). The velocity data presented in the
illustrations were scaled with respect to the channel height h, and the inlet velocity
vin (or u inlet ). The effect of yield stress on the plug width (and the maximum velocity)
is shown in Fig. 6.6. In general, higher yield stresses develop wider plugs that tend
to occupy a significant portion of the channel width. As seen in the graphs and the
Tables 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4, the CFD data are in good agreement with the theoretical
predictions. However, as seen in Fig. 6.10, not all cases resulted in a fully developed
flow in the channel, and the maximum velocity predicted in those cases was slightly
lower than the value obtained with the exact solution (theory). In particular, that

124

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

Fig. 6.10 Velocity profile across the gap; 0 = 0.1 kPa, vin =30,000 mm/s, grid 100 20

Fig. 6.11 Influence of mesh resolution on CFD results; scaled GS data

refers to high Reynolds number cases with a low yield stress level across the channel
length. The other side of the analysis spectrum concerns low velocity (or Re) cases
with a high yield stress level resulting in a plug occupying almost the entire channel
width as revealed in Figs. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9. In such cases the fluid is near the lock-up
state, and the maximum predicted velocity is different than the value obtained with the
theoretical solution for coarser meshes in particular. The behaviour is common for low
Reynolds number/high Hedstrom number cases, revealing at least one shortcoming of
the apparent viscosity model (Eq. 6.3), which may bias the pressure drop estimation
in those flow regimes of ER/MR fluids (and the resulting damping force estimate at
the near zero piston velocity points).

6.3 Flow Simulations

125

Fig. 6.12 Case 2: pressure dropmean velocity, grid 100 20

Fig. 6.13 Case 2: scaled dataGS, grid 100 20

Rewriting the calculated data into the non-dimensional form is demonstrated

in Fig. 6.11. The GS relationship is shown in Fig. 6.11. Note the GS scheme
collapses the computed data into a curve (at least within the examined range of
velocity inputs, geometry and material properties). Again, the data show very good
agreement with the theoretical solution of the Eq. (4.14). At the same time, it becomes
obvious from the two graphs the computing grid resolution influences the results;
the data follow the exact solution, however, the dispersion of the data at both flow
regimes of the fluid (low yield stress and high velocity, high yield stress and low
speed) is evident and needs to be accounted for in future analyses.

126

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

Fig. 6.14 Case 3: pressure dropmean velocity, grid 100 20

Fig. 6.15 Case 3: scaled dataGS, grid 100 20

For comparison, the remaining Case 2 and Case 3 results were plotted in Figs. 6.12,
6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17. The data sets were generated using the yield stress
profile outlined in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3, respectively, and for the mesh resolution of
100 20 only. This mesh resolution was found by the authors to provide acceptable
results. The Case 2 yield stress profile is fairly typical of any flow mode ER device,
where the yield stress is induced typically over the entire area of the electrodes. The
Case 3 yield stress distribution illustrates the exemplary working conditions of any
MR hardware, where the fluid is usually activated over two magnetic sections of the
core (0 > 0). In the area between the two neighbouring poles (coil) the yield stress
is set to 0 (0 = 0). For simplicity, the 40 mm section length L 2 was subdivided into
3 equal-length sections (L 3 = L 2 /3).

6.3 Flow Simulations

127

Fig. 6.16 Case 3: pressure along channel length; vin =1,500 mm/s, grid 100 20

Fig. 6.17 Case 3: velocity profile change with length; vin =1,500 mm/s, grid 100 20

Figure 6.12 shows the effect of the increase in the pressure drop with yield stress
according to the yield stress distribution shown in Fig. 6.2 (Case 2). In the analysed
case the preceding section of the channel contains a Newtonian fluid, and the effect
of fluid deceleration (flow development) is evident in the generated data, and in the
high velocity/low yield stress cases in particular. The effect was also manifested upon
scaling the data into the GS pair in the form of deviation from the exact solution as
illustrated in Fig. 6.13; in the presented graph the CFD data were scaled with respect
to the energized section length L 2 .
Next, Fig. 6.14 reveals the influence of the the yield stress on the pressure drop
according to the Case 3 yield stress profile (see Fig. 6.3). As the total activated area
is reduced by 1/3 (when compared to the Case 2 geometry and flow conditions)
the result of the fluid deceleration (and acceleration) is even more evident. To some

128

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

Table 6.2 Calculated pressure drop (exact solution) versus CFD, grid 50 10 p (kPa); 0 (kPa)
v = 1,000 mm/s
v = 10,000 mm/s
v = 30,000 mm/s
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
0 = 0.1
0 = 1.0
0 = 10

35.16
125.88
932.04

35.80
128.50
924.44

243.23
351.73
1258.76

252.00
358.00
1284.95

737.32
835.91
1831.78

732.00
839.64
1844.77

Table 6.3 Calculated pressure drop (exact solution) versus CFD, grid 10020p (kPa); 0 (kPa)
v = 1,000 mm/s
v = 10,000 mm/s
v = 30, 000 mm/s
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
0 = 0.1
0 = 1.0
0 = 10

35.44
127.75
912.28

35.80
128.50
924.44

248.06
354.70
1277.26

252.00
358.00
1284.95

754.60
852.49
1839.71

732.00
839.64
1844.77

Table 6.4 Calculated pressure drop (exact solution) versus CFD, grid 80040p (kPa); 0 (kPa)
v = 1,000 mm/s
v = 10,000 mm/s
v = 30,000 mm/s
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
CFD
Theory
0 = 0.1
0 = 1.0
0 = 10.0

35.66
128.67
918.27

35.80
128.50
924.44

251.41
360.81
1290.29

252.00
358.00
1284.95

766.61
864.28
1844.78

732.00
839.64
1844.77

extent, it is again further demonstrated by collapsing the data into the GS form in
Fig. 6.15; in the graph the results were scaled with respect to the energized section
length 2/3 L 3 . Again, the data show some deviation from the theoretical solution at
the high velocity/low yield stress scenarios. In part, this deviation is due to neglecting
the pressure drop over the middle (non-energized) section. As shown in Fig. 6.16, the
most significant portion of the pressure drop is manifested to be generated over the
two activated poles. However, the amount of contribution of the activated sections
to the pressure drop level varies with the yield stress and the fluid velocity for the
examined geometry of the channel. Finally, the variation of the velocity profile at
particular sections of the flow channel is shown in Fig. 6.17. The surfaces Z 2 , Z 3 , and
Z 4 shown in Figs. 6.1 and 6.3 are positioned at half length of each of the observed sections. The surface coordinates are: Z 2 = L 3 /2; Z 3 = 3L 3 /2; Z 4 = 5L 3 /2. Again,
the fluid deceleration/acceleration is noted here. The incoming fluid decelerates over
the first activated section, then accelerates in the middle (de-activated) Newtonian
section, to slow down again in the second activated zone.
Finally, Fig. 6.18 demonstrates the impact the non-energized section width has on
the induced pressure difference. This study was performed using the yield stress profile of Case 4 (see Fig. 6.4). The results were obtained for the yield stress 0 = 10 kPa
and for a range of inlet velocities up to 5,000 mm/s. Pressure difference across the
flow channel and flow velocities were measured as the non-active section width was

6.3 Flow Simulations

129

Fig. 6.18 Case 4: pressure dropmean velocity, 0 = 10 kPa

Fig. 6.19 Case 4: scaled dataGS, 0 = 10 kPa

varied from 1 to 3 mm. For comparison, Fig. 6.19 shows the collapsed (rewritten)
data in the GS form. It seems that the effect of non-energized section results in
flow leakage at low piston velocities. Below the knee-point seen in Figure 6.18 the
impact the section width has on the pressure drop is rather dramatic, whilst above
the knee-point, it is neutral. The observation is further enhanced by the scaled data
presented in Fig. 6.19. The deviation of the data from the theoretical Bingham solution (see Eq. (4.49)) is evident at G < 1 in all examined cases. Qualitatively, the
observed behaviour is consistent with that of the biplastic Bingham model given by
Equation (4.43) in which similar characteristics were obtained by varying the parameters and . In real MR hardware identical dual-rate characteristics are present
in piston configurations with flux bypass-like features in the flow path.

130

6 CFD Study of the Flow of MR Fluids

6.4 Summary
The purpose of the present chapter was to test and validate the performance of the
steady-state apparent viscosity model for analysing the behaviour of Bingham-like
(ER/MR) fluids, as well as to prove that CFD can be a viable method for handling
such flow regimes in complex geometries even given the methods limitations. Due
to the singularity at the zero-shear-rate the conventional Bingham model given by
Eq. (4.1) cannot be handled directly by the CFD code, thus raising the need for the
equivalent (bi-viscous) apparent viscosity code (see Eq. (6.3)). In general, the model
performs very well provided there are at least 20 equal-size subdivisions across the
channel width h. However, the accuracy of the results is slightly impaired at both
extremes of the fluid flow regime. In particular, the effect of fluid flow development
degrades the quality of the results at higher speeds (or high Re)/low yield stress levels
(low H e). Another limitation of the apparent viscosity model becomes evident when
handling high yield stress/low velocity scenarios. In those cases the plug occupies
nearly the entire channel width h, and the solver is unable to accurately predict the
velocity profile for coarser meshes. Some improvement in either flow regime was
achieved by increasing the mesh resolution. Another alternative would be to employ
adaptive meshing schemes for the accurate prediction of boundary layers near the
channels walls.
Also, it seems from the presented examples the proposed dimensionless GS
group of Chap. 4 is a convenient way of analysing and characterizing the Bingham
fluids via CFD. The approach collapses the data onto a curve, and provides a quick
insight into the accuracy of the solution obtained from CFD codes as well as data
dispersion at various mesh resolutions.
Moreover, based on the results obtained from the CFD experiment and Case
4 in particular, it seems the dimensionless group of parameters may be effective
in characterizing the on-state behaviour of MR dampers in the low- and mediumvelocity operation range in particular. At higher velocities the solution diverges from
the theory, and establishing a correction factor is required. Finally, more work in this
regard involving realistic MR piston configurations should follow.
To summarize, the presented computational fluid dynamics approach is a convenient method for simulating and analysing the flow of Bingham-like fluids, and MR
(and ER) fluids in particular. Further improvement can be demonstrated perhaps by
employing adaptive meshing schemes.

Chapter 7

Power Drivers for MR Dampers

7.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses some aspects of power drivers for MR dampers based on pulsewidth modulation (PWM) amplifiers. These digital devices are inexpensive to make
when using modern module-based switching circuitry, offer significant benefits in
terms of lower power consumption and have been widely used within the automotive
industry.
The authors provide fundamental principles of PWM, and then discuss current
responses in the electrical circuit of an MR damper subjected to PWM type inputs.
The theory is followed by experimental investigation of an automotive MR damper
driven by a PWM power driver in open loop and closed-loop configurations, respectively.
PWM is a modulation technique that controls the pulse duration (width of the
pulse), based on a modulator signal information. The main use of the PWM is to
allow for the control of the power supplied to electrical devices to inertial loads e.g.
motor drives, MR dampers, etc. The average value of voltage (and current) applied
to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a
fast pace. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is
very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there
is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage
and current, will be close to zero in both cases. Because of PWM on/off nature and
the ease in setting the needed duty cycle d , it works well with digital controls. The
duty cycle d is defined as the ratio of the pulse duration Ton and the period of a
rectangular waveform Tw = Ton + Toff (the time it takes for a signal to complete an
on-and-off cycle) becomes
Ton
100 %
(7.1)
d =
Tw
This is illustrated in the sequence of PWM driver outputs in Fig. 7.1 (where U0 is
bus voltage). The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_7

131

132

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

u0(t)
Toff

Ton

Toff

Ton

U0

Ton

Fig. 7.1 Sequence of PWM driver outputs

Fig. 7.2 PWM driver for MR damper (Yang 2001)

the power supplied to the load. The PWM switching frequency has to be high not to
affect the load (the device that uses the power). Switching frequencies in the case of
MR dampers vary from 2 to 30 kHz (Pitcher 2010).
A typical PWM driver for a single-phase operation is shown in Fig. 7.2. The elements S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 are electronic switches controlled by the switching logic circuit,
also referred to as H-bridge. The electrical network in the form of the resistance Rco
and the inductance L co in series represents a model of the MR damper electrical
circuit (coil). The resistor RG N D is used to measure the output current.

7.2 Damper Electrical Circuit Response Subjected

to Controlled Voltage Inputs
Let us consider the MR damper electrical circuit as presented in Fig. 4.29a under the
input voltage u T (t) with a constant value of the duty cycle d as shown in Fig. 7.3.
This signal represents a single output pulse of PWM driver.

7.2 Damper Electrical Circuit Response Subjected to Controlled Voltage Inputs

133

Fig. 7.3 Single square pulse of input voltage

The voltage u T (t) can be expressed as follows

u T (t) = U0 [1(t) 1(t Ton )]

(7.2)

or using the Laplace transform

UoT (s) = U0

1 esTon
s

(7.3)

In the case of an infinite sequence of pulses the input voltage is given by

U0 (s) = UoT

1
1 esTon

= U0 
sT
1e
s 1 esT

(7.4)

Since the impedance of the dampers electrical circuit is Z co (s) = Rco + s L co , and
assuming initial condition of the current to be equal to zero, the current response can
be expressed as
i co (t) = L 1 {Ico (s)} = L 1

U (s)
Z co (s)


= i tr + i s (t)

(7.5)

where i tr (t) is transient current (limt i tr = 0) and i s (t) is steady state current
(lim t i co (t) = i s (t)). The steady state current is a periodic function of time with
the period T of input voltage which is valid in the range 0 t . Denoting
co = L co /Rco
1
1
1
1
=
=
(7.6)
Z co (s)
Rco + s L co
L co s + 1
co

the current response can be written as

134

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers


i co (t) = L

1
1
UoT (s)
L co s + 1


(7.7)

co

The current i T (t) corresponding to the input voltage u oT (t) is






t
t Ton
U0 
co
1e
1(t Ton )
1(t) 1
i T (t) =
Rco
co

(7.8)

and hence we get the current i tr (t) (Osiowski and Szabatin 1962)
i tr (t) =


vc

r es

1
1
U0
L co s + 1


(7.9)

co

where vc = 1/c . Finally, the steady state current corresponding to a single pulse
and thus for the nth pulse of an infinite sequence of pulses can be written as

i s (t) =

Ton
co

U0
1e
1(t)
1
T
Rco
1 e co
nT t nT + Ton n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

(7.10)

and

Ton
on
U0 1 e co
tT
i s (t) =
1(t) + e co 1(t Ton )

T
Rco
1 e co
nT + Ton t (n + 1)T

(7.11)

The plots of Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11) are shown in Fig. 7.4.

ico (t)
ismax (t)

ismin (t)
nT

Fig. 7.4 Steady-state current

nT+Ton

(n+1)T

7.2 Damper Electrical Circuit Response Subjected to Controlled Voltage Inputs

135

The minimum value of the steady state current for t = nT can be written as
Ton

i s,min

U0 1 e co
=
Rco 1 e T co

(7.12)

and the maximum value for t = nT + Ton , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Ton

i s,max

U0 T e co
=
e co
T
Rco
1 e co

(7.13)

The generic case in which the current in the damper electrical circuit under voltage
generated by power driver is governed by equation
L co

di co (t)
+ Rco i co (t) = u 0 (t)
dt

(7.14)

where u 0 (t) = U0 (Ton /T ) = U0 d is the equivalent output voltage of the power

driver. Given d = const the solution to Eq. (7.14) becomes
i co (t) =


Rco 
U0
d 1 e L co t
Rco

(7.15)

Equation (7.15) indicates that nearly 3L co /Rco seconds are required for the curve to
reach 95 % of the steady state current final value. This exponential response, however,
is usually insufficient for practical applications. Moreover, the fluctuation of power
line voltage will affect the bus voltage U0 . This in turns affects the steady state current,
and thus the damper force. To reduce the response time of the damper electrical circuit
let us consider the use of system whose diagram is shown schematically in Fig. 7.5.
In this feedback structure a proportional-plus-integral (PI) regulator is employed.
The device regulates the duty cycle d based on the error between the measured
current i co and the commanded current i cmd . The diagram in Fig. 7.5 is associated
with transfer block diagram provided in Fig. 7.6, where k proportional gain of
the controller output, k sensitivity of the current sensing, K r proportional gain,
Ti integral-acting factor of a PI regulator, i cmd reference signal.
Assuming that the duty cycle d is proportional to the controller output v0 and v0
is not saturated, Eq. (7.14) and the feedback loop

u 0 (t) = k U0 K r (i cmd k i co ) +

Kr
Ti

t

(i cmd k i co )d

are combined to yield governing equation for the PWM driver (Yang 2001)

(7.16)

136

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

Fig. 7.5 Diagram of the MR damper system with a PWM driver

Fig. 7.6 Transfer function block diagram of the system power driverMR damper electrical circuit

Rco + k d di co
i cmd
L co d 2 i co
d di cmd
+i =
+
+
k d dt 2
k d
dt
k
k dt

(7.17)

where d = k KTir U0 , d = k K r U0 . Equation (7.17) indicates that the steady state

current depends only on the reference signal i cmd and the sensitivity of the current
sensing k , and is equal to
i cmd
i s (t) =
(7.18)
k
It is readily apparent, that the coil resistance Rco and the bus voltage U0 have no
effect on the steady state current.
A typical response of a power driverMR damper electrical circuit to a step
reference signal is shown in Fig. 7.7. The optimal performance of the system will be
achieved if a relatively proportional gain K r is used. Therefore the regulator output
v0 is saturated at the beginning of the response when the error signal i is large.
The power driver applies maximum voltage to facilitate the current increase, and
the current is governed by Eq. (7.14) for d = 1. The current increase follows the
same pattern as that of 100 % duty cycle. As the current increases, the error signal
decreases. The regulator output v0 is no longer saturated, and the current is governed
by Eq. (7.17). The regulator controls the current to reach steady state current level
of i cmd /k . The comparison of exponential current responses in Fig. 7.7 reveals that
the use of the system can substantially reduce the current response time.

7.2 Damper Electrical Circuit Response Subjected to Controlled Voltage Inputs

137

(a)

icmd

icmd (t)

(b)

U0

u 0 (t)

(c)
tco(t)

100% duty cycle

Closed loop

Open loop

t
Fig. 7.7 Response of a system power driverMR damper electrical circuit under step reference
signal. a Reference signal. b Input voltage. c Current response

138

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

7.3 Experimental Testing and Analysis

Typically, MR dampers in vehicle applications are used with PWM-based current
regulators. As shown in the previous section, the control loop incorporates a PI type
regulator that varies the duty cycle in order to achieve the commanded (input) current
level (and minimize the error between the measured current and the commanded
current). That is a common technique that allows for the reduction in response time
in electromagnetic applications.
In this section the authors investigate the response of the dampers electrical
circuit subjected to a step input. A comparison is drawn between a constant voltage
supply and a circuit incorporating a PI current regulator. Moreover, the response of
the dampers circuit to arbitrary current command inputs is presented, and the effect
of current command frequency on the control coils output is studied.

7.3.1 Measurement and Control System

All tests were carried out using the full bridge motor driver VNH2SP30-E intended
for use in various automotive applications (ST Microelectronics 2013). This device
operates within the supply voltage range from 5.5 to 16 V and can deliver a continuous
current output of 14 A (30 A max.). In the experiments the H-bridge was connected
to coil terminals of a BWIs production MR damper for a German passenger vehicle
(model year: 2013). The damper is a standard monotube damper with one annular
gap in the piston assembly. The coils maximum rating is 5 A, and the number of
coil turns in the piston assembly is 100. The block diagram of the data acquisition
system is shown in Fig. 7.8.
As shown, the system incorporates a PC computer, an I/O A/D RT-DAC4\PCI type
board, and the control circuit developed within the MATLAB/Simulink environment.
The signal sampling frequency was 1 kHz, and the battery voltage was 12 V. The input

Fig. 7.8 Block diagram of the data acquisition system (Rosol et al. 2014)

7.3 Experimental Testing and Analysis

139

IN is supplied with the PWM type signal. The maximum signal frequency is 20 kHz.
The duty cycle d determines the coil current level (output OUT1). The control
circuit was developed with the Simulink environment, and the input voltage level
was calculated by the control logic within the range (12, +12) V. The duty cycle
varied from 0 to 1.

7.3.2 Results and Analysis

In this subsection an experimental investigation of the MR damper control circuit
was performed for a range of voltage and current inputs using the data acquisition
system of Fig. 7.8.

7.3.2.1 Regulator Settings Identification

Rosol et al. (2014) analysed the current response of an MR damper and calculated the
current regulator settings using the first-order control circuit model. The coil model
was represented by the Laplace transform of the following form
G co (s) =

K co
Ico (s)
=
Uco (s)
co s + 1

(7.19)

where K co = 1/Rco and co = L co /Rco . The parameters were computed by minimizing the objective function
J P I = Ts

n

[i co (k) ico ]2 0

(7.20)

k=0

where Ts sampling time interval, i co (t)measured current at the time t = kTs ,

ico (k)current (model) estimate, (k)error estimate. The study involved the
dampers coil subjected to a range of current step inputs followed by the least-squares
calculations of the parameters K co and co . The obtained results are illustrated in
Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 PI controller settings

Parameter
i cmd = 1 A
K co (1 )
co (ms)

0.999
138.89

i cmd = 2.5 A

i cmd = 5 A

i cmd = var

0.399
125.93

0.1979
30.89

0.3
37.29

140

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

7.3.3 Open Loop System

First, the performance of the dampers control circuit driven by the constant input
voltage u co signal with d = const was considered. Predictably, the current amplitude
followed the increase of the duty cycle d see Fig. 7.9 in which the response of the
circuit is revealed for a duty cycle range from 10 to 50 %. That is consistent with the
analysis presented in Sect. 7.2. Next, Fig. 7.10 illustrates the coil performance under
a voltage step input. In this case the input voltage was varied in order to achieve the
desired current output of 1, 2.5 and 5 A for comparison against the data obtained by
10%
30%
50%

ico, [A]

4
3
2
1
0
1.5

2.5

3.5

t, [s]
Fig. 7.9 Influence of the duty cycle d on the MR damper coils current response; d =
{10, 30, 50} %
1A
2.5 A
5A

ico, [A]

4
3
2
1
0
0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

t, [s]
Fig. 7.10 MR damper coils response under voltage step input; i max = {1, 2.5, 5} A

7.3 Experimental Testing and Analysis

141

employing the PI current regulator. Note that it takes 37 ms for the current to achieve
95 % of the maximum current level (5 A). Similarly, the time that is needed for the
current to fall below 95 % of the peak current magnitude is 32 ms.

7.3.4 Current Driver

Figures 7.11, 7.12 and 7.13 illustrate the MR dampers coil response under a current command step input. Specifically, Fig. 7.11 reveals the performance of the circuit subjected to current step inputs from 1 to 5 A, whereas Fig. 7.12 presents the
6

icmd =1 A
icmd=2.5 A
icmd=5 A

ico, [A]

4
3
2
1
0
-1
0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

t, [s]
Fig. 7.11 Coil current response to the current command i cmd ; i cmd = {1, 2.5, 5} A
6
Open
Controlled

ico, [A]

4
3
2
1
0
-1
0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

t, [s]
Fig. 7.12 Coil current response comparison: controlled versus uncontrolled, i cmd = 5 A

142

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

(a)
10
8

uco, [V]

6
4
2
0
-2
-4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.2

1.4

t, [s]

(b)
5

ico, [A]

4
3
2
1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

t, [s]
Fig. 7.13 Example of the current response to a complex control signal. a Supply voltage. b Coil
current

comparison between the circuit response due to the voltage step input and the current
command step input at the maximum current of 5 A. Next, Fig. 7.13 illustrates the
current response to an arbitrary sequence of current command step inputs. In this
scenario the coil current reaches 95 % of the desired maximum current level within
11 ms. For comparison, the 95 % decay time is 13.5 ms (at the initial commanded
current level of 5 A). Thus, the dampers dynamic performance increased threefold
while employing a PI regulator in the closed loop. That observation is further confirmed by the data in the Bode plot of coil current amplitude versus frequencysee
Fig. 7.14. The illustrations reveal the variation of the gain L f with the frequency f

7.3 Experimental Testing and Analysis

143

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.14 Coil frequency response comparison: controlled (closed loop) versus uncontrolled (open
loop). a i cmd = 2.5 A, b i cmd = 5 A


|L f | = 20 log10

Ico ( f )
Icmd ( f )


(7.21)

where Ico ( f ) and Icmd are RMS values of the currents i co (t) and i cmd (t), respectively.
The data were obtained by applying a sinusoidal signal of current at frequencies from
0.1 to 100 Hz. It is clear that the closed loop current driver increases the dampers
bandwidth from appr. 6.8 (open loop) to nearly 74 Hz (closed loop: i cmd = 2.5 A).
At the same time observations showed that the frequency bandwidth of the system
decreased at higher coil current command inputs as in Fig. 7.14bthe evidence of
inherent non-linearities of the dampers system.

144

7 Power Drivers for MR Dampers

7.4 Summary
PWM drivers are the power supply technology of choice in semi-active vehicle
dampers. They offer low power consumption and are effective in reducing the
response time of solenoid-based applications.
In this chapter operating principles of PWM current controllers are discussed.
The chapter provides the background necessary for comprehending the contents of
Chap. 8 in which the dampers electro-hydraulic response to step current inputs is
analysed. The authors highlight the governing equations and the application of a
PWM current controller in a feedback loop of a control circuit of an automotive MR
damper. Specifically, the dynamic behaviour of a control system incorporating the
PWM controller is investigated and the dampers coil in open loop as well as closed
loop configurations examined respectively. The obtained results have revealed the
systems non-linear characteristics. They proved that employing a current regulator
for controlling the coil current is effective in terms of a faster response time and a
wider frequency bandwidth of the driver-damper system. The current driver expands
the systems bandwidth and reduces the response time. Further improvements aimed
at accelerating the dynamic response of MR dampers can be explored using, e.g. flux
controllers (Nehl et al. 2007) as well as force controllers (Yang 2001). Flux control
would use the magnetic flux in the gap that is induced by the coil current as the
control variable. Additionally, a force controller implementation would command
the coil current to drive force to the required level.

Chapter 8

Experimental Verification
of an MR Monotube Damper Model

This chapter describes the experimental work and numerical simulations performed
for the purpose of monotube damper model verification. To validate the modelling
scheme outlined in the previous chapters and Chap. 5 in particular, several monotube
damper prototypes were subjected to a range of velocity, displacement and commanded current inputs. The acquired data provide the background for the presented
modelling work.
Simply, the following case studies were considered
Case 1 reveals the performance of an MR fluid damper having a piston with no
secondary flow paths (bypasses). In this piston configuration the flow of
MR fluid occurs only through the annulussee, e.g. Fig. 3.7 or 4.14.
Case 2 illustrates the performance of an MR fluid damper having a piston with a
secondary non-magnetized flow path. In this piston configuration the flow
of MR fluid occurs through the annulus and the bypass path for force roll-off
effect. The piston geometry is explained in detail in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20.
Case 3 shows the performance of an MR fluid damper having a piston with a flux
bypass feature for modifying the fluids breakaway pressure drop across the
MR piston. In this piston configuration the flow of MR fluid occurs through
the annulus. The piston geometry is shown in Fig. 4.15.
The dampers differ in terms of their low-velocity performance characteristics. This
chapter is split into two related parts. First, experimental work including all three
prototype dampers is presented and results discussed. Finally, based on the prototype
geometry and properties of the fluid and damper components materials, the authors
carry out simulations of the damper behaviour and compare them against the real-life
data.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_8

145

146

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

8.1 Experimental Studies

Investigated characteristics include the response of the damper to sinusoidal displacement inputs as well as ramp (step velocity) inputs at various levels of coil current
level, respectively. Fluctuating magnetic fields are included in the scope through
damper transient tests involving step-like current excitations.

8.1.1 Damper Geometry, Test Inputs

Briefly, testing was done on three MR damper prototype units (in monotube coilover
shock configuration) shown in Fig. 8.2. The geometry of all damper units and fluid
data are contained in Table 8.1. The material properties of the fluid are illustrated
in Fig. 8.1. Specifically, Fig. 8.1a shows the magnetisation (BH) characteristics as

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.1 MR fluid properties. a Magnetisation curve: BH, b Viscosity: T

8.1 Experimental Studies

147

Fig. 8.2 MR damper test setup

well as yield stress variation against flux density, whereas Fig. 8.1b illustrates the
fluids off-state viscosity change versus temperature. The information corresponds
to the schematic layout presented in Fig. 5.1. All prototypes were identical except
for their low-velocity leakage path geometry. In all three units the piston assembly
contained one coil of 100 wire turns (wire size: 0.511 mm in diameter) in the core
assembly so that the maximum number of ampere turns was 500 A.
Regardless of the test type each prototype damper was tested on an MTS (Mechanical Testing Systems Corp.) shaker. During the tests the damper cylinder was driven
according to a prescribed sine-wave (or linear ramp) displacement waveform, while
the piston rod assembly was held fixed. Time, displacement, force, current, voltage and temperature were recorded during the tests at a sampling frequency of
1 kHz, whereas the velocity was calculated on-line via differentiationsee Fig. 8.2.
Throughout testing each unit temperature was maintained at 40 1 Cthe temperature was measured with a thermocouple attached to the cylinder. Moreover,
all (fixed current as well as transient) tests involved a customized BWI power
driver module. The closed-loop current control is provided by a regular discrete
PI controller with a feed-forward gain; proprietary controller details cannot be
disclosed.
The testing programme included the following series of experiments
Large-amplitude testingall dampers were subjected to large-stroke sinusoidal
displacement inputs across a range of peak velocities from 10 to 1024 mm/s and
through a range of (fixed) coil currents from 0 to 5 A, respectively. The excitation
peak-to-peak amplitude was 60 mm.

148
Table 8.1 MR damper
geometry and material
properties

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

Symbol

Description

Value

h
w
Aeff
Ap
tw
L
La
Ac
f

n
Pgo
Vgo
Vro
Vco
Es
Db
Do
hf
bf
mt
mr
mp
Ff
Rco
Ta

Gap size (mm)

Gap mean width (mm)
Piston effective area (mm)2
Piston effective area (mm)2
Cylinder wall thickness (mm)
Annulus length (mm)
Active length (mm)
Window area of the coil (mm)2
Bulk modulus (MPa)
Fluid density (g/cm)3
Fluid viscosity (cP) (T = 40 C)
Adiabatic constant (-)
Gas charge (MPa)
Gas chamber volume (mm)3
Rebound chamber volume (mm)3
Compression chamber volume (mm)3
Young modulus (MPa)
Unit 2 bypass size (mm)
Unit 2 orifice size (mm)
Unit 3 bypass depth (mm)
Unit 3 bypass width (mm)
Tube assembly mass (g)
Piston and rod assembly mass (kg)
Floating piston mass (g)
Total friction (N)
Coil resistance ()
Damper temperature ( C)

1
120.32
1,508
1,662
2
27
18.5
46.96
1,500
2.68
45
1.4
2.4
75,188
86,708
129,010
2,10000
2.5
1.9
2.0
1.5
925
690
530
90
0.98
40

Small-amplitude testingall dampers were subjected to small-stroke sinusoidal

displacement inputs across a range of peak velocities from 10 to 262 mm/s and
through a range of (fixed) coil currents from 0 to 5 A. The excitation peak-to-peak
amplitude was 5 mm. This series of experiments involved Prototype 3.
Linear ramp testingPrototype 3 was subjected to trapezoidal displacement inputs
of the peak-to-peak amplitude of 80 mm which yielded the input velocity constant
and equal on the waveforms ascending (positive) edge and on the descending (negative) edge. The ramp velocity was 262 mm/s. As the damper was being extended
(compressed) at the constant velocity the current was turned on (off) at midstroke,
and then turned off (on).

8.1 Experimental Studies

149

8.1.2 Damper Response to Sinusoidal Displacement Inputs

The response of the examined prototypes under the large-stroke sinusoidal excitation
is revealed in Figs. 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5. For example, a typical force-stroke diagram for
the sinusoidal displacement input and zero current conditions is shown in Fig. 8.3a
(and the corresponding force-velocity loops in Fig. 8.3b). Increasing the coil current
results in diagrams with nearly rectangular force-stroke dependence. That indicates
the dominant Coulomb-like damping force development that is typical for all MR
damper configurations examined by the authors.
Specifically, note that the piston of Prototype 1 is rid of any secondary flow paths,
and the flow through the piston takes place in the magnetized annulus. As a result
the breakaway pressure (force) at zero piston velocity is excessively high. Due to
the piston symmetry the force change magnitude at piston motion reversal points
(from rebound into compression and vice and versa) is twice the breakaway force
and contributes to the damping force oscillations as the fluid mass travelling through
the annulus bounces on stiff yet compliant columns of fluidsee also Fig. 8.3. As
observed, the magnitude of force oscillations varies with piston velocity (acceleration) and frequency for a given displacement amplitude. Steady-state force-velocity
maps of Prototype 1 are shown in Fig. 8.6. The damping force variation of Prototype
1 with velocity and current is rather typical of a controlled MR damper with no
secondary flow path features. Note, however, the force roll-off that can be observed
in all experimental data for coil currents larger than 1 A. The observed effect may
be attributed to the presence of a small yet finite non-magnetic (plastic) insulation
(Fig. 8.7). The non-magnetic region that is located on the outer surface of the core
has a similar impact on the damping force of Prototype 1 as the flux bypass feature
in the piston of Prototype 3 (see Fig. 8.8).
In the case of Prototype 2, Fig. 8.4 shows the damping force variation with piston
velocity and stroke at different levels of the coil current for selected piston velocity
inputs, and Fig. 8.7 shows the steady-state maps of damping force versus piston
velocity. Clearly, due to the presence of flow bypass in the piston assembly the
performance of the damper is rather typical of an automotive semi-active damper
where various bypass features are employed for optimizing the force roll-off at nearzero piston velocity inputssee Fig. 8.7. By far, the magnitude of the force change
at low piston velocity inputs is smallest of the three damper units.
In the case of Prototype 3 with the flux bypass feature in the piston the experimental
results are presented in Fig. 8.5 as plots of force versus displacement and force versus
velocity as well as steady-state force-velocity maps, respectively. Again, Fig. 8.5
shows the damping force variation with piston velocity and stroke at different levels of
the coil current for selected piston velocity inputs, and Fig. 8.8 reveals the steady-state
maps of damping force. Except for the flux bypass feature in the annulus, the piston
geometry is identical to that of Prototype 1.
Again, due to the presence of the flux bypass feature that disturbs the magnetic
field in the annulus the performance of the damper 3 is rather typical of an automotive
semi-active dampersee Fig. 8.8. Note, however, that in this design case the force

150

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.3 Experimental data: Prototype 1, Xp = 30 mm, Vp = {10, 132, 262, 524, 1024} mm/s.
a Ico = 0 A, b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

8.1 Experimental Studies

151

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.4 Experimental data: Prototype 2, Xp = 30 mm, Vp = {10, 132, 262, 524, 1024} mm/s.
a Ico = 0 A, b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

152

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(g)

(f)

(h)

Fig. 8.5 Experimental data: Prototype 3, Xp = 30 mm, Vp = {10, 132, 262, 524, 1024} mm/s.
a Ico = 0 A, b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

8.1 Experimental Studies

153

Fig. 8.6 Prototype 1: experimental force-velocity maps

Fig. 8.7 Prototype 2: experimental force-velocity maps

roll-off at near-zero piston velocity inputs was achieved by locally interrupting the
magnetic field distribution in the annulus rather than by adding an additional flow
path as with Prototype 2. Again, it shows the flux bypass contributes to a lower
intercept force at zero piston velocity input and a lower force increase rate in the
region below the knee-pointsee Fig. 8.8. Also, the force roll-off effects can be
clearly seen in all energized test scenarios.
Moreover, it is interesting to observe that the impact the flux bypass has on the
damping force level (when compared against Prototype 1 with no secondary flow
paths) is almost negligible in the post-yield flow regime (past the knee-point of the
damper force-velocity characteristics in Fig. 8.8). Effectively, the dampers turn-up
ratio in that flow regime is larger than that of Prototype 2 (with the flow bypass

154

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

Fig. 8.8 Prototype 3: experimental force-velocity maps

in the piston) although at the expense of a higher breakaway force in the case of
Prototype 3.
For comparison, Prototype 3 response under the small-stroke sinusoidal excitation is shown in Fig. 8.9 for the three selected peak velocities{10, 132, 262} mm/s,
revealing an interesting behaviour. Although the measured peak force does not considerably change, as the frequency (or the velocity) of the excitation increases the
force-displacement loop is rotated or skewed in to the second and fourth quadrant of
the force-displacement graph. That can be clearly seen in e.g. Fig. 8.5a. At the same
time the hysteresis that is shown in accompanying force-velocity loops increases with
the velocity. The nature of the phenomenon shows an increase in the accelerationdependent component of the measured force output.

8.1.3 Damper Response to Step Current Inputs

The force responses presented so far were obtained when the input current was
maintained at a constant (fixed and time-invariant) level. Effectively, each damper
was operated in a manner of a passive suspension device. However, the optimal
performance of a control system that employs semi-active dampers requires the
electrical input to be varied in real-time. To recognize the damper unsteady characteristics, measurements were performed to get a better insight into the dynamic
behaviour of the device. Since all damper units featured nearly identical electrical circuit characteristics, the authors decided to test Prototype 3 only under trapezoidal displacement inputs and step currents. The trapezoidal displacement waveform should ensure a constant velocity across the prescribed piston travelpositive

8.1 Experimental Studies

155

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.9 Experimental data: Prototype 3, Xp = 2.5 mm, Vp = {10, 132, 262} mm/s. a Ico = 0 A,
b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

156

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

velocity on the ascending portion of the stroking cycle, and negative (yet equal) on
the descending portion of the waveform.
This section reveals the results of experimental testing throughout which Prototype 3 was subjected to the displacement input shown in Fig. 8.10. The slope of the
trapezoidal displacement waveform corresponds to the piston velocity of 262 mm/s.
As seen in the figure the position of the piston varied from a fully compressed one
to a fully extended one and vice and versa. In other words, the piston was initially
positioned at -40 mm which corresponded to the fully collapsed condition. As the
damper was extended at the constant velocity of 262 mm/s, the current was input at
midstroke, and then further removed. On reaching the fully extended position, the
damper was then compressed back to the initial position at the same constant velocity. Specifically, the conditions shown in Fig. 8.11a, b illustrate the damper behaviour
while in rebound. In those figures the magnitude of the current step input varied from
0 A (initial condition) to 5 A (max). For comparison, Fig. 8.11a, b reveal the damper
while in compression and under same current command conditions. Next, current
(and force) decay can be observed in Fig. 8.11c, through 8.11d. As MR dampers
generate symmetric (rebound vs. compression) forces no significant difference on
either side of the stroking cycle could be revealed.
Using the PI current driver, the current applied is based on the commanded value
of the current. The current input is formed by the voltage output of the controller.
The non-linear behaviour of the damper under the step inputs can be clearly deduced
from the presented data. Moreover, it can be seen that the coil current reaches the
saturated value faster than the damping force. While inlined with the current input
in the initial time instants following the current change the damping force variation
with time is further slowed down by eddy currents induced in the piston.
To assess the dynamics of the (controlled) electrical circuit both coil current rise
and decay times were estimated from the experimental data. In the case of the rising
current, the authors measured the times to reach 63 and 95 % of the commanded value.

Fig. 8.10 Displacement profile and current command history; Imax = 1 A

8.1 Experimental Studies

157

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 8.11 Prototype 3 transient response; Vp = 262 mm/s. a Rebound, off-on, b Compression,
off-on, c Rebound, on-off, d Compression, on-off

158

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

Similarly, for the falling current, the authors measured the times for the current to drop
below 37 and 5 % of the initial peak current level. For the maximum commanded
current of 5 A the rise times were 3.5 and 6.7 ms, respectively. For comparison,
switching of the coil current resulted in the respective decay times of 2 and 7.1 ms.
The results show that the coil circuit performs initially (and marginally) faster for the
decreasing current for the first 3 ms following the change in the current command
level.

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

This section presents modeling results for the three presented damper prototypes.
Each prototype damper has distinct features in the control valve that determine the
application of the biplastic Bingham approach of Chap. 5. The benefits of using this
approach are discussed in more detail.
This section deals with two categories of MR damper models. First, steady-state
models are applied to the obtained experimental data, and numerical simulations are
compared against real-life results at fixed current levels. Second, the response of
the damper model is analysed subject to current step inputs. Nearly all input parameters are the geometry, measured material properties, and electromagnetic circuit
characteristics, which makes the models suitable for engineering studies.

8.2.1 Response to Sinusoidal Displacement Inputs

In this section numerical tests were done on a monotube damper model subjected to
an oscillatory loading applied to the cylinder tube as shown in Fig. 8.2. Again, we
show the results for all prototype dampers in the large-stroke cases, whereas smallstroke predictions were assessed based on the geometry and material characteristics
of Prototype 3 only. The verification results are presented in Figs. 8.13a through 8.20.
All calculations were performed using damper data highlighted in Table 8.1.
Steady-state gap flux density Bg variation with the coil current Ico was estimated
from two-dimensional axi-symmetric finite-element simulations of the damper magnetic circuitsee Fig. 8.12c. Exemplary illustrations of flux lines at various coil
current levels are given in Fig. 8.12a, b. The finite-element simulations were supported by the FEMM software ver. 4.2. The knowledge of the flux density in the
annulus was essential for accurate estimates of the average yield stress level. The
BH properties of a low-carbon SAE 1010 steel grade material were assumed in
relevant components of the damper and piston assembly (Table 8.2).
First, Fig. 8.17 shows the damper dynamic model performance against experimental data for the piston velocity of 1024 mm/s. The model is based on on Eq. (5.14)
in Sect. 5.1.1. As already mentioned, the damping force variation of Prototype 1
with velocity and current is rather characteristic of a controlled MR damper with no

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

159

(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

Fig. 8.12 Exemplary FE calculations: flux lines, flux density and potential. a Ico = 1 A, b Ico = 5 A,
c Bg versus Ico , d A versus Ico

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.13 Identified versus current Ico and flux density Bg versus current Ico . a Prototypes 1
and 2, b Prototype 3

secondary flow path features. Note, however, the force roll-off that can be observed
in all experimental data for coil current levels larger than 1 A. The effect is likely due
to the fluid flow leakage past the piston. As such, the scenario was modelled using the

160

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

Table 8.2 Prototypes 1 and 2: Variation of the viscosity ratio with coil current Ico and flux density
Bg versus coil current
(-)
Bg (T)

Ico = 0 A

Ico = 1 A

Ico = 2 A

Ico = 3 A

Ico = 5 A

0.06
0.0

0.0133
0.26

0.0103
0.42

0.0089
0.52

0.0079
0.62

Fig. 8.14 Prototype 1: model versus experiment

Fig. 8.15 Prototype 2: model versus experiment

bi-plastic Bingham model of Equation (4.43). Efforts with the conventional Bingham
model failed to match the damping force characteristics of this particular prototype.
The Bingham model was unable to capture the small yet significant influence of the

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

161

Fig. 8.16 Prototype 3: model versus experiment

flux bypass-like behaviour due to the plastic insulation on the outer surface of the
core at low piston velocities (see Fig. 3.7).
Although the biplastic parameters (, ) could be obtained through flow simulations, the authors chose to proceed with an identification study involving the
experimental data of each prototype damper. Therefore, for the damper Prototype
1 the identified value of the yield stress ratio was 0.389it seems the parameter
is relatively invariant of the magnetic field strength in the annulus. The viscosity
ratio variation with coil current (gap flux density) is shown in Fig. 8.13a. Also, the
flow coefficient C that is important for high-velocity predictions was estimated to be
0.45 in all energized cases (Ico > 0) and 0.75 in the off-state condition (Ico = 0). The
behaviour due to combined flow development effects (as well as entry/exit losses)
is consistent with experimental observations. Effectively, the steady-state model
performance across the examined range of piston velocity inputs and coil current
is good as seen in Fig. 8.14. Also, based on the analysis of results presented in the
plots of Fig. 8.17 it is apparent that the dynamic model of Sect. 5.1.1 is capable of
capturing both the force-velocity as well as force-displacement relationships. The
hysteresis between force and velocity as well as the force oscillations occurring at
piston motion reversal points are well reproduced by the model.
In the case of Prototype 2 with the flow bypass feature in the piston the verification
results are presented in Figs. 8.15 through 8.18 as plots of force versus displacement
and force versus velocity as well as steady-state force-velocity maps. Numerical
calculations are illustrated in Figs. 8.18 (dynamic model) and 8.15 (steady-state
model output). Clearly, due to the presence of flow bypass in the piston assembly the
performance of the damper 2 is characteristic of an automotive semi-active damper
where various bypass features are employed for optimizing the force roll-off at nearzero piston velocity inputssee Fig. 8.15. By far, the magnitude of the force change

162

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.17 Prototype 1: model versus experiment, Vp =1024 mm/s, Xp = 30 mm. a Ico = 0 A,
b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

163

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.18 Prototype 2: model versus experiment, Vp =1024 mm/s, Xp = 30 mm. a Ico = 0 A,
b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

164

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.19 Prototype 3: model versus experiment, Vp = 1024 mm/s, Xp = 30 mm. a Ico = 0 A,
b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

165

at low piston velocity inputs is smallest of the three damper units. For the damper unit
the yield stress ratio was set to be 0.389 (as in the case of Prototype 1) and the viscosity ratio variation with coil current (gap flux density) was also that of Fig. 8.13a.
Moreover, the flow discharge coefficient for the sharp-edged orifice disc was equal
to 0.5. Effectively, the steady-state model performance across the examined range
of piston velocity inputs and coil current is again accurate as seen in Fig. 8.15. The
model captures the behaviour of the damper well in all flow regimes. Finally, as seen
in Fig. 8.18 the dynamic model performs well against the experimental data.
In the case of Prototype 3 with the flux bypass feature in the piston the verification
results are presented in Figs. 8.16 and 8.19. Except for the flux bypass feature in the
annulus, the piston geometry is identical to that of Prototype 1. Therefore, the flux
density variation with coil current is similar to the one shown in Fig. 8.13a.
Note, however, that in this design the force roll-off at near-zero piston velocity
inputs was achieved by locally interrupting the magnetic field distribution in the
annulus rather than by adding an additional flow path as with Prototype 2. As such,
similarly to the Prototype 1, the scenario was modelled by means of the bi-plastic
Bingham scheme. Again, three-dimensional geometric features in the flow channel
preclude the use of the Bingham plastic model in the verification process. However,
the identified yield stress ratio is nearly twice as smaller ( = 0.219) when compared to that of Prototype 1 (again contributing to a lower breakaway force at a zero
piston velocity input). Also, the identified viscosity ratio illustrated in Fig. 8.13b
and tabulated in Table 8.3 is larger when compared against Prototype 1 as the majority of fluid flow at low piston velocity inputs occurs in the annulus. It proves the
flux bypass contributes to a lower intercept force at zero piston velocity input and a
lower force gradient in the region below the knee-pointsee Fig. 8.8. Also, the force
roll-off effects can be clearly seen in all energized test scenarios. Effectively, the
steady-state model performance across the examined range of piston velocity inputs
and coil currents is very good as seen in Fig. 8.16. The model emulates well the
behaviour of the damper in all flow regimes (pre-yield, post-yield and high velocity).
Also, the dynamic model provides a good match to the experimental data as
revealed again in Fig. 8.19. Again, in addition to capturing the damping force magnitude both hysteresis between force and velocity as well as force oscillations due to
the fluid inertia are well predicted.

Table 8.3 Prototype 3: Variation of the viscosity ratio with coil current Ico and flux density Bg
versus current
Ico = 0 A
Ico = 1 A
Ico = 2 A
Ico = 3 A
Ico = 5 A
, (-)
Bg , (T)

0.06
0.0

0.0175
0.26

0.0128
0.42

0.0107
0.52

0.00958
0.62

166

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. 8.20 Prototype 3: model versus experiment, Vp = 262 mm/s, Xp = 2.5 mm. a Ico = 0 A,
b Ico = 0 A, c Ico = 2 A, d Ico = 2 A, e Ico = 3 A, f Ico = 3 A, g Ico = 5 A, h Ico = 5 A

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

167

Finally, Fig. 8.20 shows the numerical small-stroke results compared against
experimental data at the selected peak velocity of 262 mm/s and a range of coil
current levels from 0 to 5 A. To conclude, it seems that the model is capable of
predicting both the hysteresis between force and velocity as well as the rotation of
the force-displacement ellipse with frequency of the excitation. The unusual force
build-up at piston motion reversal points seen in, e.g. Fig. 8.20c is not predicted
by the modelthe phenomenon may be due to test fixture problems rather than
damper performance characteristics. Similarly, test fixture issues may contribute to
the oscillations at piston motion reversal points, e.g. when changing the direction of
motion and rebound to compression and vice and versa. The model reproduces the
damping force oscillations but their magnitude was underestimated in the simulated
output.

8.2.2 Transient Response

This section deals with simulations involving the monotube damper model of Chap. 5
and various lumped parameters representations of the MR coils electrical circuit
illustrated in Sect. 4.4.3. To examine its transient response, the damper model was

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.21 Implementation of electrical circuit modelsSimulink/Simscape. a LR circuit model

see Fig. 4.29a, b Second-order network modelsee Fig. 4.30

168

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.22 Transient response: coil currentmodel versus experiment, Vp = 262 mm/s. a off-on,
b on-off

subjected to constant velocity (trapezoidal displacement) inputs and step coil currents
(shown in Fig. 8.10).
In particular, two modelling variants of the coil circuit were considered, namely
the basic LR (inductorresistor) model (see Fig. 8.21a) and the second-order network
model illustrated in Fig. 8.21b. For instance, an observation of the comparison illustrated in Fig. 8.22 leads to a conclusion that the basic first-order LR circuit model
predicts well both the coil current rise and current decay type responses. However, the damping force is not well captured by the first order model as revealed in
Fig. 8.23. The basic model does not account for the higher-order dynamics observed
experimentally. As a result, the model overestimates the damping force output when
approaching the steady-state force level. In general, the basic model was found to

8.2 Monotube Damper Model Verification

169

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.23 Transient response: coil currentfirst-order LR circuit model versus experiment,
Vp = 262 mm/s. a off-on, b on-off

be incapable of providing fair unsteady force predictions, although the current timevariant behaviour was well copied.
The LR network model yields better quality results. As shown in Figs. 8.21b
(and 4.30 in Chap. 4) the closed loop represents the eddy current circuit. In the
parasitic circuit the current is induced based on the current in the main circuit and the
coupling between the main coil and the auxiliary inductor. Based on the observations
of the obtained data in Fig. 8.24. it seems the model predicts well both the current
and the force. The force rate changes before reaching the steady-state value(s) are
well duplicated by the network model. In this series of experiments the coupling
coefficient was kc = 0.5, and the parasitic loop resistance Rc2 = 3e4 .
It is likely that the accuracy of the force predictions versus time achieved with
the network model can be improved by increasing the number of secondary current
loops.

170

8 Experimental Verification of an MR Monotube Damper Model

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.24 Transient response: coil currentsecond-order network model versus experiment,
Vp = 262 mm/s. a off-on, b on-off

8.3 Summary
The contents of this chapter builds on the steady-state models and dynamic (lumped
parameter) models described in Chap. 5.
This chapter summarizes the experimental results obtained for three customized
MR damper units. The dampers were experimental prototypes designed for the purpose of the mathematical model verification. The experiment series was designed
in such a way as to cover key flow regimes of MR damper operation from low- to
high-speed. First, the units were subjected to sinewave displacement inputs of large
amplitude for a range of piston velocities up to 1024 m/s (resulting in the excitation
frequencies of 6 Hz max.) and coil current levels (0 to 5 A). In small-stroke testing the
highest piston peak velocity did not exceed 262 mm/s, thus resulting in frequencies
of appr. 16 Hz.

8.3 Summary

171

Specifically, one damper unit featured only a primary flow path in the annulus,
the second one employed the so-called flow bypass for best force roll-off effects at
low piston velocity inputs, whereas the third one utilized a flux bypass feature to
disturb and lower the magnetic field strength in the annulus so that the flow of MR
fluid can be initiated at lower pressure differences across the MR piston. Effectively,
the additional geometric features in the piston have an impact on the damping force
output and in the low-velocity regime of damper operation in particular.
One has to bear in mind that MR dampers are dynamic devices, and it was appropriate to model the prototype response to fluctuating magnetic fields. As such, a
second series of experiments involving ramp (constant velocity) displacement inputs
and step current excitations was planned and carried out in that regard. The tests
were performed for a selected velocity input and for a range of step-like coil current
excitations from 1 to 5 A. Modelling results showed that a simple (yet non-linear)
LR circuit model is sufficient to capture the current variation in time but not the force
output. An extension of the model was then proposed in the form of the second-order
electrical network model. It seems the model performs well, and it may provide a
sound basis for more in-depth studies.
The presented results demonstrate that the approach based on the GS scheme
is capable of capturing all key performance characteristics across the wide range of
piston velocity inputs. In addition to predicting the force increase due to the yield
stress change the models account for high-velocity losses, hysteresis and fluid inertia.
Moreover, the modelling approach relies on geometric data and material properties
only for damping force prediction. Only the viscosity ratio and the yield stress ratio
of the bi-plastic Bingham model need to be estimated from experimental data or
numerical simulations of fluid flow.
Based on the outcome of the modelling efforts it is evident that both damper
models can be a valuable tool for use in damper studies and simulations.

Chapter 9

Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

9.1 Introduction
Energy-harvesting dampers have received a great deal of attention since the early
1990s. An attractive feature of these dampers is their ability to recover kinetic
energy normally dissipated by conventional dampers. In the last two decades considerable research efforts have been made, evidenced by numerous publications.
Many researches have explored different ideas, principles and designs of energyharvesting dampers, and a number of solutions have been patented. Major efforts
have been devoted to investigate these devices in various applications, e.g. automobiles (Sung and Choi 2008), railway vehicles (Wang and Liao 2009a, b), civil
structures (Gordaninejad et al. 2010), etc.
Harvesting the energy from vibrations, also known as power harvesting or energy
scavenging, is one the most promising technologies that has recently attracted a
great deal of scientific and engineering interest. A typical vibration energy harvesting system consists of a mechanical system with external excitation, a transducer
that converts the vibration energy into electrical energy, mechanisms for motion
transmission and magnification, power electronics and energy storage elements, and
energy management and control strategies (see Fig. 9.1).
Energy-harvesting from vehicle suspensions has attracted a lot of attention due to
its potential to recover large amount of kinetic energy which is traditionally wasted
in oil dampers.
The current expertise in energy-regenerative suspension systems for vehicle was
reviewed by Zhang et al. (2013). The authors divided these suspensions in two types,
according to working principle, i.e.: mechanical and electromagnetic regenerative
suspensions. The mechanical suspensions, reformed from the traditional hydraulic
(pneumatic) ones, absorb the kinetic energy of suspensions and convert into potential hydraulic (pneumatic) energy to be stored in accumulators (Aoyama et al. 1990;
Jolly and Margolis 1997; Noritsugu 1999). In recent years more attention has drawn
the electromagnetic regenerative suspensions which transform the shock energy into
electric energy that is more convenient to reuse. These suspensions can be divided
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_9

173

174

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.1 Block diagram of a vibration energy harvesting system (Zuo and Tang 2013)

in six types: direct-drive electromagnetic suspensions (Nakano and Suda 2004), ball
screw electromagnetic suspensions (Zhang et al. 2008), rack-pinion electromagnetic suspensions (Pei 2010), planetary gear electromagnetic suspensions (Kawamoto et al. 2007), hydraulic transmission electromagnetic suspensions (Levant Power
2014) and self-powered MR suspensions (Choi and Wereley 2009; Kim et al. 2010;
Sapinski 2011). The latter suspensions employ so called energy harvesting MR
dampers (EHMR dampers) which contain electromagnetic transducers enabling
the vibration energy to be converted into electrical energy. Thus the vibration energy
is not dissipated into heat and wasted as in case of typical MR dampers.
Recent years have witnessed a major interest in MR dampers in the area of
energy harvesting. Major advances have been made, enabling MR dampers to be
self-powered and to improve the efficiency of electromagnetic energy extractors.
The idea of using energy recovered from structural vibrations for powering MR
dampers was first suggested by Scruggs and Lindner (1999). Since then a growing
number of research projects have been undertaken. For example, Cho et al. (2004)
devised an MR damper with an electromagnetic induction (EMI) device for a civil
engineering application and showed that the system performance is comparable to
that of conventional MR damper-based system. Also, Cho et al. (2005) demonstrated
that the system consisted of the MR damper and the EMI device could be feasible for
a civil engineering application. Choi et al. (2007) proposed a special structure of an
EMI device to be used with the MR damper. Hong et al. (2007) investigated an MR
damper with an EMI device and verified the system effectiveness in a seismic protection application. Choi et al. (2007) devised and investigated experimentally a smart
passive control system comprising an MR damper and an EMI device to generate
electrical power. Choi and Wereley (2009) studied the feasibility and effectiveness of
a self-powered MR damper using a spring-mass electromagnetic induction device.
Lam et al. (2010) developed and evaluated the performance of an MR damper with
dual-sensing capability (with an embedded piezoelectric force sensor and a displacement transducer) to facilitate closed-loop vibration control. It was revealed experimentally that the device demonstrates the reliable force and displacement sensing
capabilities, and exhibits potentials in fulfilling real-time feedback control applications for mitigating structural vibrations in a simple manner. Wang et al. (2009b)
proposed a semi-active MR damper-based vibration control system with the energy
regeneration which consisted of: a rack pinion mechanism, a linear permanent magnet
DC generator, a current adjustment MR damper and a control circuit. The numerical
study of the system applied to an elevated highway bridge revealed that the system is

9.1 Introduction

175

feasible and has good performance. Zhu et al. (2012) examined the feasibility of using
linear motion electromagnetic devices in civil infrastructures for vibrations damping
and energy harvesting. The theoretical and experimental results indicated that the
damping and energy harvesting features of the developed devices are considerably
improved by the external circuit connected to the damper.
It has been established that it is possible to extract information about relative
velocity across the damper from voltage generated by an EMI device and this enables
energy-harvesting MR damper to be self-sensing i.e. to act as a velocity sensor. For
example, Jung et al. (2009a) investigated experimentally the sensing capability of
an EMI device incorporated in the MR damper-based vibration control system and
demonstrated that the device may be considered as a velocity-sign sensor. Next, Jung
et al. (2009b) investigated a smart passive control system based on MR damper and
EMI device for the benchmark highway bridge model subjected to historic earthquakes. Jung et al. (2010a) demonstrated experimentally that an EMI device incorporated in an MR damper-based system may act as a velocity-sign sensor. Also, Jung
et al. (2010a) while studying a sensing capability of such system showed that the
EMI device could act as a relative velocity sensor for common control methods for
MR damper-based systems. Wang et al. (2009a) proposed an integrated relative displacement self-sensing MR damper to realize the integrated relative displacement
sensing and controllable damping. Based on the extension of the presented idea, the
prototype of such MR damper was designed, fabricated and tested by Wang and Bai
(2013). The operating principle of the developed device was based on frequency
division multiplexing of the exciting coil and function multiplexing of the pick-up
coil and induction coil. Chen and Liao (2010) reported that it is possible to engineer
an MR damper with the power generation feature which integrates energy harvesting,
dynamic sensing and MR damping technologies in a single device. Also, Chen and
Liao (2012) performed theoretical and experimental studies of an MR damper prototype which had self-powered and self-sensing capabilities. The patent application
for the conceptual design of the device was filed accordingly (Liao and Chen 2012).
The proposed device requires an efficient energy harvester and a special method to
extract accurate velocity information. Zhu et al. (2012) focused on self-powered and
sensor-based MR damper systems since such systems could be particularly useful in
large-scale civil structures where the power supply is impractical. Li et al. (2013b)
presented an innovative concept of a so-called mechanical motion rectifier which
converts bidirectional motion into unidirectional motion. The device may significantly improve the reliability by reducing impact forces and increase the efficiency
by reducing the impacts of friction thus enabling the electrical generator to rotate
unidirectionally at a relatively steady speed with higher energy efficiency.
A great deal of attention has been given to regenerative vehicle MR dampers that
enable energy recovery from suspension vibrations. Those dampers can be classified
in two categories, the first being that of linear dampers based on the special designs of
linear generators which employ an electromagnetic transduction mechanism to generate power arising from the relative motion between magnets and coils. The second
category is that in which the linear suspension vibration is converted into oscillatory
rotation and uses rotational permanent magnetic DC or AC generators to harvest

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9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

energy by employing various mechanisms. In the field of regenerative car damper

technologies, efforts have also been devoted to other dampers (viscous, friction and
viscoelastic dampers) which use the electromagnetic transduction mechanism of
energy conversion. For example, Lafarge et al. (2013) presented a conceptual design
of a wheel/damper system integrating energy harvesting taking into consideration
the variation of road conditions and enabling the quantification of harvested energy.
The proposed recovery system can be integrated e.g. in MR dampers and applied
in various type of vehicles. Li et al. (2013a) devised a new retrofitable design of a
damper based on permanent magnets and rack-pinion mechanism that can generate
electric power from the road-induced suspension vibration of vehicles, characterized
damping property of the device and demonstrated its energy harvesting capacity in
road tests.
In this chapter the authors are concerned with an EHLMR damper which is able
to recover energy from vibrations and to adjust itself to external excitations. The
device comprises three main components: an MR damper, a power generator and a
conditioning electronics unit, as shown schematically in Fig. 9.2.
This chapter is based on the previous works of the authors, addressing the following aspects: the nondimensional approach to the flow mode MR dampers design
suggested and verified in previous chapters for MR mono-tube dampers with the
piston configuration as that in the developed EHLMR damper. It was shown that
the proposed model can also be successfully applied in this case. Furthermore, the
work is recalled by Sapinski (2011) which focused on the MR damper-based vibration control system including separate components. As shown in the present work,
the MR damper and the power generator are integrated into a stand-alone device.
Also, the structure of the power generator proposed for the devised EHLMR damper
ensures better efficiency than those studied by Sapinski and Krupa (2013).
The chapter is organized as follows. Section 9.2 outlines the design structure of
the power generator and its operating principle basing on the formulated electromagnetic field equations and discusses the results of its experimental testing compared against numerical data. In Sect. 9.3, the design structure and model of the
MR damper are described, and next experimental characteristics of the device are
compared with those obtained in numerical procedures. Section 9.4 summarises the
simulation results of the conditioning electronics unit conducted at the design stage,
the structure of the engineered unit and results of measurements. Section 9.5 explores
the design structure of the EHLMR damper and its experimental testing. Finally,
conclusions are given in Sect. 9.6.

Fig. 9.2 Schematic diagram of energy recovery in the EHLMR damper

9.2 Power Generator

177

9.2 Power Generator

The schematic diagram of the generator is shown in Fig. 9.3 and the dimensions of
its major components are summarised in Table 9.1. The diagram presents the longitudinal section of the device in the rz coordinate system, associated with the magnet
systems. The position of magnet systems with respect to the center of the coil winding sections shown in Fig. 9.3 has relevance to the case for z = 0 mm. It is assumed
that this position can vary in the range (10, +10) mm.
The structure of the generator is shown in Fig. 9.4. The generator is axially symmetrical and complete with three systems of permanent magnets (three magnets
in each), two inner and two outer spacers, and the coil with two winding sections
incorporating 273 turns each, wound on a carcass with copper foil with one-sided
insulation (foil thickness0.05 mm, insulation thickness0.03 mm). The magnets

Fig. 9.3 Schematic diagram of the generator

178
Table 9.1 Dimensions of the
piston and rod assembly

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Component

Parameter (mm)

Value

Magnet

hm
dmi
dmo
Hh
gh
Hca
gca
Hc
dci
dco
Hd
hsi
hso

5
12
30
50
12
20.5
1
18.5
31
77
5
9
6.5

Housing
Carcass
Coil

Spacer

made of the NdFeB grade N35 magnet (Technologies 2014), are ring-shaped and
display axial magnetisation with direction indicated by arrows.
The magnets and spacers are mounted on a non-magnetic stainless steel shaft. Coil
winding sections, placed inside a housing, are connected such that as the moving part
moves with surrounding vibration, they experience a change in flux linkage and thus
induced voltages should sum up. The coils housing and spacers are made of a lowcarbon alloy steel. The generator components are placed inside the housing, locked
with the lower and upper covers. Sleeves provided in the cover ensure the axial
movements of the piston rod. The fixture to hold the generator is attached to the
lower cover.

Fig. 9.4 Structure of the generator: 1 upper cover, 2 shaft, 3 magnets, 4 coil, 5 housing, 6 fixture,
7 lower cover

9.2 Power Generator

179

To clarify the operating principle of the generator, let us formulate electromagnetic

field equations in the cylindrical system of coordinates r, , z. The magnets generate
the magnetic field of flux density B(r, z) whose distribution in the generators region
is determined by configuration of magnets and their position with respect to the
ferromagnetic coil-housing system. The magnets moving along the z axis with the
velocity vp induce the electric field in the coil. Assuming that the velocity of magnets
is low, the effects of eddy currents induced in conducting elements of the generator
may be neglected and Maxwells equations applicable to this case are
divB = 0
rotH = 0

(9.1)
(9.2)

B = m H

(9.3)

div2 A = 0

(9.4)

By introducing B = rotA we get

For the permanent magnet region, the magnetisation vector M is introduced in the
form of magnetisation characteristics B = f (H). Magnetic field in those regions is
governed by the equation
H=

1
BM
m

(9.5)

The differential form of electromagnetic induction in the generator can be written as

rotE =

B
+ rotvp B
t
rotH = 0

(9.6)
(9.7)

Since the velocity vp is low, the second term in Eq. (9.6) can be neglected. The
magnetic flux (t) associated with the coil varies in time as a result of magnets
displacement. Re-writing Eq. (9.6) in the integral form we obtain


B
Edl =
dS
(9.8)
t
S

where dS is elementary surface of the coil housings cross section area, dl is an

element of a spiral curve along the coil windings. The electromotive force (emf) in
the coil is defined by
e=
and hence

d
dt

(9.9)

180

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

e=

d dz
d
=
vp
dz dt
dz

(9.10)

To illustrate how the magnetic field will be changed in the generator, the numerical
calculations were performed, supported by the FE software Opera 2D. Figure 9.5
shows the magnetic flux distribution for three positions of the magnet with respect
to the coil: 0, 5, 10 mm. It is apparent that the coils housing and a portion of the
magnet systems is permeated by the magnetic flux linkage encompassing the coil
turns. Sapinski and Krupa (2013) demonstrated that the relationship between the
magnetic flux linkage and the coordinate z in the generator with the predefined
structure appears to be linear.
The engineered generator was extensively tested in the laboratory set-up, comprising a testing machine and the measurement data acquisition system (system Compact DAQ complete with a control bus and analogue input card NI 9205 connected
to a computer via an USB interface and supported by the LabView software for the
Windows XP). Testing was done under the idle run and under load applied as the sine
and triangular displacement excitations of magnets z with the amplitude 10 mm and
the frequency f in the range (0.5, 6) Hz varied with 0.25 Hz increments. The ambient
temperature during the tests was 22 C. Magnets displacement and electromotive

Fig. 9.5 Magnetic flux density maps in the generator: a z = 0 mm, b z = 5 mm, c z = 10 mm

9.2 Power Generator

181

Fig. 9.6 Schematic diagram of the generator-MR damper circuit

force (emf) were measured under the idle run. Measurements under load were taken
of magnets displacement, voltage, current in the MR damper control coil, and of the
cogging force. In both cases the measurements were taken of the generator resistance
force, to determine the cogging force. Each quantity was recorded in 10 cycles of 6
displacement inputs with the sampling frequency 1 kHz per cycle.
Measurement data were compared against calculated results. The calculation procedure used the equivalent electric circuit of a generator and an MR damper (see
Fig. 9.6) and was supported by MATLAB program. The procedure used the parameter values determined at the stage of electromagnetic field analysis: resistance and
the inductance of the generator coil Rgo = 2.45 , Lgo = 141 mH, resistance and
inductance of the MR damper coil Rco = 3.6 , Lco = 71 mH.
Plots of measurement data are graphed in black, the calculation data are indicated
by grey lines. Plots in Fig. 9.7 represent the time patterns of emf e(t) in the generator
coil (idle run) whilst plots in Figs. 9.8 and 9.9 show the time patterns of voltage uco (t)

Fig. 9.7 Time patterns of emf in the generator coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

182

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.8 Time patterns of voltage in the MR damper coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.9 Time patterns of current in the MR damper coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

and current ico (t) in the MR damper coil (under load). The discrepancies between
the calculated and measured data of the electromotive force, voltage and current
level in the generator coil in Figs. 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9 are attributable to differences
in the values assumed for calculations and the actual material parameters of the
generators components, as well as the imperfections of the generators construction.
Figure 9.10 provides time patterns of the voltage uco (t) and current ico (t) which were
used to determine time patterns of instantaneous power pEH (t) in the MR damper coil,
shown in Fig. 9.11. The relationships between erms , ico,rms and the piston velocity vp
determined in the range (60, 240) mm/s, are given in Fig. 9.12. It appears that these
quantities vary almost linearly with piston velocity.

9.2 Power Generator

183

Fig. 9.10 Time patterns of voltage and current in the MR damper coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm,
f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.11 Time patterns of instantaneous power; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

An inherent property of the considered generator is the occurrence of the cogging

force, resulting from permanent magnet-ferromagnetic interactions. This force is
most unfavourable and should be reduced through the control of parameters of the
magnetic circuit components. The formula expressing the cogging force is derived
basing on the surface stress tensor method developed by Maxwell. In the generator
configuration and for the magnetic field with flux density B, an element of a system
having the volume V enclosed by the surface S is subjected to the force

(9.11)
F = fm dV
V

184

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.12 RMS values of emf in the generator and current in MR damper coil versus velocity; sine
excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

where fm is the force density

fm = j B =

1
(rotB B)
m

(9.12)

The major component

 of the force F is the component Fz . This component is
expressed by Fz = V fz dV. Taking into account Maxwells surface stress tensor,
the component fz of the force density fm can be determined by

fz =

1 (Bx Bz )
1 (By Bz )
1 (Bz2 B2 /2)
+
+
m x
m y
m
z


(9.13)

The component Fz was defined as the cogging force in the generator and calculated
using the software Opera 2D.
In Figs. 9.13 and 9.14 we compare the calculated cogging force Fc against the
experimental data. Figures 9.13 shows the plots of cogging force in the function of
time and Fig. 9.14 plots the relationship between this force and the coordinate z. It
is readily apparent that the cogging force reaches higher values when magnets move
upwards (z > 0) than during their downward movement (z < 0). Certain discrepancies between the calculated and measurement data are attributable to differences
in the values assumed for calculations and the actual material parameters of the
generators components, constructional inaccuracy and the characteristics of the test
machine used in the testing program.

9.3 Damper

185

Fig. 9.13 Time patterns of the generator cogging force; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.14 Cogging force of the generator versus piston displacement; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm,
f = 3 Hz

9.3 Damper
The schematic diagram of the damper piston and rod is shown in Fig. 9.15 and their
dimensions are summarised in Table 9.2. The damper structure is shown in Fig. 9.16.
It is an axially-symmetrical single-tube damper with a circumferential slit. The piston
rod made from non-magnetic austhenitic stainless steel is attached to the piston via
ferromagnetic kidney plates and sealed with rings. The rings together with the sleeves
are placed in two co-axial guides to guide the piston rod. The damper coil is made of
copper wire 0.4 mm in diameter wound on the carcass, forming 306 windings. The
coil is placed on the core made from the ferromagnetic steel SAE 1215. The lead
power-supplying the control coil is let out via a hole in the piston rod. The damper

186

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.15 Schematic diagram of the dampers piston and rod

housing, made from a ferromagnetic steel grade SAE 1025, is locked on both ends
by covers made from austhenitic stainless steel. The damper contains 36.5 ml of the
MR fluid type BASONETIC 4035 (Corp. 2013).
The calculation procedure used the model of the MR damper suggested by
Sapinski (2012). Expressions governing the rate of change of MR fluid pressure
in the chambers above and below the piston, respectively, and the flow rate in the
annular slit are given by Eq. (5.18). The calculation procedure assumed the biplastic model (already highlighted in Sect. 4.2 and further illustrated in Sect. 4.3.2. The
force generated by the damper was derived from Eq. (5.19). Finally, the contribution
of friction was estimated using the model shown in Appendix A.

9.3 Damper

187

Table 9.2 Dimensions of the piston and rod assembly

Symbol
Description (mm)
Ddp
Ldp
Ddr
Ddp2
Ddc
Ldp1
Hdc
Ldc
Ldp2
Ddp3
Ddp1

Piston diameter
Piston length
Piston rod diameter
Sleeve inner diameter
Core diameter
Core length
Coil window depth
Active length
Plate height
(Plate) kidney hole inner diameter
(Plate) kidney hole outer diameter

Value
41
47
14
34
32.4
35
5.2
24
6
29
37

Fig. 9.16 Structure of the damper: 1 wire, 2 cover, 3 cylinder, 4 coil, 5 core, 6 rod, 7 rod guides

The authors used the biplastic model with the following parameters: 0 = 8.5 kPa
(yield stress at the current level of 0.3 A), = 0.8, = 0.05. In the friction model
the coefficient values were f1 = 90 N, f2 = 500 N, f3 = 90 N, f4 = 500 N, f5 = 90 N,
f6 = 500 N, f7 = 90 N, f8 = 500 N, c1 = 35 s/mm, c2 = 35 s/mm, c3 = 50 s/mm
c4 = 35 s/mm, c5 = 35 s/mm, c6 = 50 s/mm. The viscosity of the fluid was 30 cP,
the density = 2.65 g/cm3 , whereas c = 800 MPa (compliant fluid).
The damper was then subjected to extensive laboratory testing under identical
displacement inputs z as those applied when testing the generator. The thermocouple
fitted on the damper housing would control the admissible temperature of the cylinder, which was set to be 40 C. Measurements were taken of the damper force Fd and
the piston displacement z at various current levels in the damper coil. Measurement
results were compared against the numerical data. Characteristics based on measurement data are graphed with black lines, those derived from calculation results

188

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.17 MR damper force versus piston displacement, sine excitation: Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.18 MR damper force versus piston velocity, sine excitation: Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

are indicated by grey lines. Figure 9.17 shows the relationship between the damper
force and the piston displacement Fd (z), and the relationships between the damper
force and piston velocity Fd (vp ) under the sine excitation of the amplitude Xp = 10
mm and the frequency f = 3 Hz and for the current in the coil 0 and 0.3 A are given
in Fig. 9.18. It appears that calculation data agree well with measurement results.

9.4 Conditioning Electronics

The conditioning electronics unit creates circuits for improving the generator output voltage. The unit was designed taking into account experimental data obtained
during the testing the power generator and of the MR damper summarised in

9.4 Conditioning Electronics

189

Fig. 9.19 Block diagram of the system in case 1 and case 2

Sects. 9.2 and 9.3. The experimental data were utilised in computer simulations of the
unit. The purpose of the simulation procedure was to find the voltages and currents
in the system to support the selection of the DC/DC converter converting the output
voltage from the generator. Simulations were performed in the MATLAB/Simulink
environment, using the SimScape toolbox. Two cases, as shown in the block diagram
in Fig. 9.19, were considered in the simulation procedure. In the case 1, the damper
coil was not supplied whilst in the case 2, the damper coil was supplied with voltage
controlled by a photo relay equipped with a controller. Simulation models of blocks
are shown in Fig. 9.20ac.
The simulation procedure used the following data set:
resistance and inductance of the generator coil and the MR damper coil as those
assumed in Sect. 9.2,
parameters of the Schottky diodes obtained from the technical specification (voltage in the conduction direction Uf = 0.25 V, resistance in the conduction direction
RON = 0.3 , conductance in the blocking direction GOFF = 108 1 ) and parameters of a photo relay (resistance in the on state RON = 0.3, resistance in the
off state ROFF = 108 ), the capacitance Co = 470 F
time history of emf (see e in Fig. 9.20c) in the form of a chirp signals, registered
in the course of the generator testing.
Thus obtained time patterns of voltage and current levels in the damper coil are shown
in Fig. 9.21. It is readily apparent that the higher the emf frequency, the higher the
voltage u1 and the current i, their maximum values being: u1 = 2.5 V and i = 0.45 A.
Plots in Fig. 9.21b demonstrate an attempt to stabilise the current level of 50 mA.
It appears that the current can be stabilised on the level from a certain critical emf
frequency only. The analysis of simulation data reveals that the DC/DC converter
in the conditioning electronics unit should guarantee the predetermined (stabilised)
level of the output voltage for the emf value being as low as possible. That prompted
the selection of a DC/DC, which switches on at u1 = 1.2 V and is off at u1 = 0.8 V.
The selected output voltage u1 = 5 V DC/DC is associated with the fact that the

190

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.20 Simulation

models: a generator coil,
b Graetz bridge, c coil in the
MR damper

maximum current level in the damper coil is assumed to be 1 A. Accordingly, the

engineered unit should incorporate the converter 0.8 V/5 V.
In Fig. 9.22 we show a block diagram of the designed conditioning electronics.
The unit incorporates: a Graetz bridge, a converter 1 (0.8 V/5 V) and a converter 2
(5 V/15 V), a Hall sensor based on the ACS 712 system (Allegro MicroSystems
LLC 2013), a block measuring and processing the signals, and a controller equipped

9.4 Conditioning Electronics

191

(a)

(b)

Fig. 9.21 Time pattern of voltage and current in the damper coil: a case 1, b case 2

with a microprocessor PIC 18 (Microchip Technology Inc. 2010). Voltage u produced by the generator is rectified and delivered via the converters (converter 1 and
converter 2) and a photo relay Ka used to activate the loading (damper coil). The
controller regulates the photo relay Ka and supervises the interaction with the PC
via an USB port. The Printed Circuit Board (PCB) of the engineered unit is shown
in Fig. 9.23.
The conditioning electronics unit was tested under the idle run and under load
under the sine displacement inputs z applied to the generator magnets and having the
amplitude Xp = 10 mm and frequency f in the range (0.5, 6) Hz, which was varied
at the step 0.25 Hz. Selected results of tests are shown in Fig. 9.24. Figure 9.24a gives
plots of voltage at the output of the generator and converter 1 in the function of time,
under idle run, whilst 9.24b gives the time patterns of those voltages under loading
conditions. On account of very small resistance of the Hall sensor and of the photo
relay Ka being in the on-state (of the order of several m), the assumption can be

192

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.22 Block diagram of the conditioning electronics

Fig. 9.23 PCB of the conditioning electronics

made that voltage at the output from the converter 1 is equal to that registered at the
output from converter 2 and to the voltage behind the relay Ka . It was established
that for the applied excitation with the frequency 6.5 Hz, the amplitude of the output

9.4 Conditioning Electronics

193

(a)

(b)

Fig. 9.24 Time patterns of the generator output voltage and converter 1 output voltage; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz: a idle run, b loaded

voltage from the generator would be about 8 V. This voltage is higher by about 3 V
than the maximal admissible voltage at the output from the converter 1 (5 V) and the
unit performs well under lower-frequency excitations.

9.5 EHLMR Damper

The structure of the EHLMR damper is presented in Fig. 9.25. The configuration
shown is that in which the generator coil is directly connected to the damper coil.
The device was created by placing the generator and damper on the joint rod. In
order to do that, the upper cover of the generator (see Fig. 9.4) had to be replaced by
one cover of the damper and a brass connector was provided to connect the damper

194

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.25 Structure of the EHLMR damper: 1 lead, 2 rod, 3 damper coil, 4 damper housing,
5 connector, 6 shaft, 7 generator coil, 8 magnets, 9 generator housing, 10 generator fixture, 11 lower
cover of the generator

housing to that of the generator. Besides, this connector acts as a sealing element and
enables the rod to be stably guided. The conditioning electronics is installed outside
this device, between the clamps of the generator coil and the damper coil.
The general view of the EHLMR damper is shown in Fig. 9.26. The laboratory
testing of the device was done on the tester (see Fig. 9.27), the same as that used for
testing the generator and MR damper. The device was investigated under the load in
the case when the damper coil was supplied directly with the voltage produced by
the generator (DS case) and with voltage generated by conditioning electronics unit
(CE case). Measurements were taken of magnets displacement, voltage and current
in the damper coil, and force generated by the device. Selected results of testing of
the EHLMR damper under the sine displacement inputs z applied to the generator
magnets, having the amplitude Xp = 10 mm and the frequency f = 3 Hz, are shown
in Figs. 9.27 and 9.28. Plots represent the time patterns of voltage and current in the
damper coil (see Figs. 9.28 and 9.29) and of the force generated by the device (see
Fig. 9.30) for the DS case and CE case. It appears that when the damper coil is powered
directly from the generator, the maximal current in the damper coil approaches 0.5 A,
and supplying the damper coil with rectified voltage via the conditioning electronics
system gives rise to the current of about 0.18 A. The resulting maximal damper forces
approach about 900 N (DS case) and 670 N (CE case).
Figures 9.31 and 9.32 plot EHLMR damper force versus piston displacement
FEH (z) and piston velocity FEH (vp ) determined under idle run (IR) and under the
load for the DS case and CE case under sine excitation with the same parameters. It

9.5 EHLMR Damper

195

Fig. 9.26 Assembled

EHLMR damper

Fig. 9.27 EHLMR

dampertest rig

appears that in each case the actual shape of those characteristics differs from those of
the damper given in Sect. 9.3 (see Figs. 9.17 and 9.18). This is attributable to impacts
of the cogging force, stiffness force in the system, friction force in the sealing nodes,
the air resistance. The contribution of those forces to the force generated by the
EHLMR damper can be established by comparing the plots Fc (z) (Fig. 9.14) and
FEH (z) (Fig. 9.31, idle run), at the same time recalling Fd (z) (Fig. 9.17, current 0 A).
However, the exact contribution of each force component and their influence on the
device performance was not identified in details. These forces should be minimised
in the final version of the EHLMR damper. Figures 9.31 and 9.32 show that the

196

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.28 Time patterns of voltage in the EHLMR dampers coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm,
f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.29 Time patterns of current in the EHLMR dampers coil; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm,
f = 3 Hz

largest force values are registered in the DS case. Lower force values in the CE case
are attributable to voltage drops across the diodes in the Graetz bridge. Obviously,
the smallest forces are registered under the idle run, when the current level in the
damper coil becomes zero.
In Figs. 9.33 and 9.34 we compare the plots of force generated by the EHLMR
damper versus piston displacement FEH (z) and piston velocity FEH (vp ) under the
same sine excitation (CE case) with MR damper characteristics Fd (z) and Fd (vp )
obtained under identical inputs and for the damper coil supplied with direct current
0.18 A (see Figs. 9.17 and 9.18). When analysing the plots, it appears that maximal
forces generated by the two devices are similar and the MR damper supplied from

9.5 EHLMR Damper

197

Fig. 9.30 Time patterns of EHLMR damper force; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.31 EHLMR damper force versus piston displacement; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm,
f = 3 Hz

the external power source by the current 0.18 A is able to dissipate energy of about
24 J whilst the EHLMR damper that uses the energy recovered from vibration the
energy handles about 12 J.
The data registered during EHLMR damper testing revealed the self-sensing
capability of the device. The EHLMR damper could provide the velocity information across the damper by utilizing the sensing function which is very useful dynamic
information for controlling system dynamics. The self-sensing capability was a major
challenge for researchers investigating the devices reported by Jung et al. (2010b)
and Sapinski (2011) as well as Chen and Liao (2010) and Liao and Chen (2012).
Jung et al. (2009b) indicated that the voltage induced from the engineered electromagnetic induction device is linearly proportional to the relative velocity across the
MR damper. Further, Sapinski (2011) demonstrated that the relationship between

198

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.32 EHLMR damper force versus piston velocity; sine excitation Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz

Fig. 9.33 MR damper and EHLMR damper force versus piston displacement; sine excitation
Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz, Ic = 0.18 A

these quantities is linear in the developed MR damper-based vibration control system in the tested frequency range. Chen and Liao (2010) proposed and validated a
velocity-sensing method for the prototype of the self-sensing MR damper with power
generation. This method, however, requires real-time signal processing. It is reported
that the presented sensing function can be applicable to various control algorithms.
Through the use of appropriate control algorithms, the developed damper will have
good performance for broad vibration-damping applications. The above device and
the reported method was already patented (Liao and Chen 2012).
Figure 9.35 shows the output voltage of the generator ugo and the piston velocity
of the damper vp obtained from measurements (see black dotted lines). The approximated linear relationship between these quantities ugo = EH vp + EH is indicated

9.5 EHLMR Damper

199

Fig. 9.34 MR damper and EHLMR damper force versus piston velocity; sine excitation
Xp = 10 mm, f = 3 Hz, Ic = 0.18 A

Fig. 9.35 Output voltage of the generator versus piston velocity

in this figure by grey continuous line. The values of the directional coefficient d and
the shift coefficient EH were identified based on the voltage u and the velocity vp
data registered for each input sine excitation with the amplitude of Xp = 10 mm and
the frequency in the range (0.5, 6) Hz, which was varied at 0.25 Hz increments. The
identification procedure used the function polyfit available in MATLAB. The plot of
EH and EH values against velocity is shown in Fig. 9.36. Averaged values of these
parameters, used to plot the dependence in Fig. 9.36, are EH = 39.989 Vs/m and
EH = 0.221 V.

200

9 Energy Harvesting MR Dampers

Fig. 9.36 Directional coefficient and shift coefficient versus frequency

9.6 Summary
The chapter investigates the structure of the developed EHLMR damper prototype.
The device has three major components: an MR damper part, a power generator and
a conditioning electronics unit. It should also be noted that the reported EHLMR
damper was engineered in only one unit piece and dedicated for research purposes. It
is demonstrated that the EHLMR damper is able to recover energy from vibrations
and displays the self-powered and self-sensing capabilities.
Individual system components were thoroughly tested before the main test program. Then the device was investigated under the load in the case when the MR
damper coil was supplied directly with voltage produced by the generator and with
voltage processed by conditioning electronics. The modelled characteristics of an MR
damper part and of a power generator show a good agreement with those obtained
experimentally. The characteristics of the conditioning electronics reveal that the
newly-designed unit performs well though only in the limited range of the output
voltage from the generator, this constraint being due to the assumed range of MR
damper piston velocity.
Research results have led the authors to the following conclusions:
the generators efficiency needs to be increased (for instance through providing an
additional systems of magnets and sectioning of the coil windings) since under
the assumed excitation parameters, the energy recovered from vibration may not
be sufficient to power the MR damper, particularly for low piston velocities (when
voltage generated by the power generator is rather small and further decreased by
voltage drops across the diodes in the Graetz bridge),
it is recommended that the cogging force, caused by interactions between permanent magnets and ferromagnetic components in the generator, should be reduced,

9.6 Summary

201

the range of force generated by the MR damper has to be increased and friction in
the sealing nodes ought to be reduced,
the voltage range handled by the conditioning electronics unit has to be extended
since the unit performs well under applied excitations with such parameters that
the output voltage from the generator should not exceed 5 V,
the PCB dimensions of the conditioning electronics should be minimised such
that the three main components of the EHMR damper should be fitted within one
housing.
It is expected that any further research efforts will concentrate on
increasing the stroke and reducing the weight and dimensions of the EHLMR
damper,
validation of velocity-sensing method under higher frequencies of excitations
applied to the MR damper piston,
investigation of the device under higher frequencies of applied excitations to
account for the eddy current effects.

Chapter 10

Concluding Remarks

The research material that was presented in the study is primarily concerned with
flow-mode MR shock absorbers and so-called MR suspension dampers in particular.
The progress that has been made in the development of MR dampers has transformed
them from a scientific toy to a relatively mature high volume product. Although
MR devices have attracted lots of scientific and engineering interest over the years,
modelling and engineering an MR device to meet specific engineering needs still
remains a challenge. The task is further complicated by the multidisciplinary nature of
the MR phenomenon. The devices require specialist knowledge from several research
areas: solid body mechanics, fluid mechanics, power electronics, chemistry. Given
the fact that the number of geometric and material variables involved is relatively
large, and many existing models are valid for limited flow conditions and idealized
geometries, the engineering and scientific challenges become even more complex.
Specifically, the authors focused on configurations of MR dampers and their
control valves as used in automotive applications. The authors obtained models of
selected damper structures and validated them for a range of electrical and mechanical inputs. Relevant control aspects were also included through the analysis of PWM
controllers and their application in the electrical circuit of the dampers.
In conclusion, Chap. 1 provides the background information on smart materials
and systems and MR fluids/devices in particular. The authors carry out a general
review of the technology followed by a discussion on pros and cons of the developed
materials. Finally, a brief history of adaptive vehicle dampers is outlined.
Next, Chap. 2 provides the reader with the background information on MR fluids.
Underlying mechanisms of chain formation and yield stress development, physical
composition, discussion on solid phase, liquid phase materials, additives, rheology
and performance metrics are reviewed and highlighted throughout the chapter.
Chapter 3 refers to basic structures of the smart dampers and their control valves.
The authors review the most common configurations of automotive dampers, namely,

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4_10

203

204

10 Concluding Remarks

the single-tube structure and the dual-tube structure, highlight operating fundamentals and reveal performance benefits. That is followed by a discussion of control
valves. Of particular interest were valves with flow bypass features for low- and
medium-velocity performance tuning, performance boosters through flux maximisation, coil arrangement, and the application of high-permeability materials. Sensory
structures and valves were discussed, too.
Then, Chap. 4 deals with various modelling aspects of control valves of MR
dampers. The chapter covers the development and application of a non-dimensional
group for damper modelling and performance characterisation followed by a description of a computing scheme for the valves. The attention was focused on modelling
of control valves with one annular flow path and multiple flow paths, as well as
configurations incorporating hydraulic and/or magnetic flux by passes.
Chapter 5 illustrates the application of the dimensionless scheme to selected MR
damper structures and various phenomena occurring outside of the control valve
and in fluid chambers were investigated. These included: compressibility of the
fluid, inertia of the lumped mass of fluid bouncing against compliant columns of
oil, variation of the fluids bulk modulus with pressure, elasticity of the cylinder
as well as friction. The authors implement them in both single-tube and dual-tube
dampers, and reveal their influence on the damping force output through numerical
simulations.
The theoretical material described in Chaps. 4 and 5 is supplemented in Chap. 6
with the application of Computational Fluid Dynamics methods for solving the
steady-state flow of MR fluids. A discussion on the apparent viscosity model is
followed by numerical simulations of the MR (Bingham) fluid in planar flow. A study
on several semi-realistic cases of fluid flow is performed and the results are revealed
when the input velocity and yield stress are varied. Limitations of the apparent viscosity approach are debated, too. Application of CFD tools has been always considered
to be time-consuming. However, modern CFD tools allow for exercising a number
of design scenarios within a fairly short period of time, and it was natural to include
such material in the book.
Chapter 7 handles fundamentals of PWM drivers and their application in controlling the dynamic behaviour of MR dampers. Special attention is given to the practical
aspect of accelerating the current response of the dampers electrical circuit through
current feedback. The authors implement an experimental procedure to establish
controller settings, and further reveal the improvement in the response time of the
electrical circuit of the damper and the frequency bandwidth through the closed loop
control approach.
Chapter 8 reviews the results of an experiment for the verification of the damper
models presented in the earlier chapters. Steady-state behaviour, dynamics of the
fabricated damper prototypes operating at fixed currents and fluctuating current
inputs within small-stroke and large-stroke regimes are assessed, and models verified
against the prescribed mechanical and electrical inputs.
Finally, Chap. 9 presents research results on energy-harvesting dampers. That
particular application has gained wide interest over the last couple of years and could

10 Concluding Remarks

205

not be omitted in the book. The authors reveal the development of a generator-damper
prototype supported by experimental results of extensive performance tests.
The authors are of the opinion that the presented theoretical considerations and
models can be effectively used for analysing and modelling of various aspects of
the damper operation, dynamic range and optimization studies, component-level as
well system level analyses. The material provides an insight into the phenomena
occurring both inside the damper and those due to the MR fluids intrinsic properties. In fact, engineering and research opportunities seem numerous. They include
parametric (sensitivity) studies for examining the impact geometric variables (piston
geometry) have on the force-velocity characteristics of MR dampers and reporting
the influence of material properties (iron fraction contents, fluids magnetization B
H curve, viscosity, bulk modulus and the like). For the first time such studies can be
realized using tools incorporating models of realistic piston configurations.
At the same time there are a number of important topics that have been found
outside of the scope of the book. MR dampers concern give rise to a wide range of
engineering and scientific topics, and it was hardly possible to handle them all in
one book only. For example, modelling of vehicle long manoeuvres usually requires
incorporating heat transfer capability into damper models, whereas high-speed events
may need a more sophisticated hydraulic loss model than that outlined in the book.
More detailed work on steady-state and transient magnetics with a focus on material
property characterization, magnetic flux optimisation, response time acceleration and
alternative topologies of control valves should follow this material, too. Wherever
energy-harvesting aspects are important, mechanisms for increasing the EH devices
efficiency and lowering the overall cost might be explored as well.
In certain aspects the book is limited to providing a fundamental information on
MR fluid based dampers, though its other aim is to raise an awareness of complexities
involved in the process of developing a reliable and well-performing device.

Appendix A

Sliding Friction Model

A.1 Model Overview

The model of friction that is used in the damper model of Chap. 5 is similar to the
phenomenological model derived by Powell (1994) for the purpose of studying the
response of an ER fluid subjected to oscillatory loadings. As shown in Fig. A.1, it is
versatile and allows for modeling of complex dependencies often observed in friction
data. Table A.1 contains model parameters used in the exemplary simulations. Here,
for the purpose of modeling the friction at the interface between the floating gas cup
and the cylinder tube in a damper the model was extended to allow for an additional
asymmetry in friction forces that was observed experimentally in monotube dampers.
The phenomenological model includes eight parameters for controlling the friction
force magnitude and another six ones for modifying the force decay/rise with relative
velocity. In the model the relationship between force and velocity is as follows


f 2 f 1 (c1 |x|)
tanh c x;

3
f1 1 +
f1
x 0  F =



tanh c x;
f 3 1 + f 4 f 3 e(c2 |x|)
3
f3


f 6 f 5 (c4 |x|)
tanh c x;

6
f5 1 +
f5 e
x < 0  F =



tanh c x;
f 7 1 + f 8 f 7 e(c5 |x|)
6
f7

x x > 0
x x < 0
x x > 0
x x < 0

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4

207

208

Appendix A: Sliding Friction Model

Fig. A.1 Friction model

Table A.1 Friction model parametersci [s/m], f i [N]
Figure
1
2
3
4
A.2(a)
A.2(b)
A.2(c)
A.2(d)

ci
fi
ci
fi
ci
fi
ci
fi

7104
100
7104
100
7104
100
7104
100

7104
100
7104
140
7104
140
7104
140

7104
100
2105
100
2105
100
2105
100

7104
100
7104
140
7104
140
7104
60

7104
100
7104
100
7104
40
7104
100

7104
100
2105
140
2105
80
2105
140

100

100

40

100

100

140

80

60

Appendix A: Sliding Friction Model

209

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. A.2 Friction model: forcevelocity maps

Glossary

1D
2D
3D
ABS
A/D
BP
BPP
BV
CAN
CFD
CI
CIP
DAC
DAE
EMI
EHLMR
ER
FE
I/O
LF
LR
LDE
MR
MagneRide
NVH
ODE
PDE
PI
PID
PADM

One-Dimensional
Two-Dimensional
Three-Dimensional
Anti-lock Braking System
Analog/Digital
Bingham Plastic
Bi-Plastic Bingham
Bi-Viscous
Controller Area Network
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Carbonyl Iron
Carbonyl Iron Powder
Data Acquisition
Differential Algebraic Equation
Electro-Magnetic Induction
Energy Harvesting Linear (MR Damper)
Electrorheological
Finite-Element
Input/Output
Left-Front
Left-Rear
Life of a Device Estimate
Magnetorheological
Magnetorheological Fluid-based Vehicle Suspension System
Noise, Vibration, Harshness
Ordinary Differential Equation
Partial Differential Equation
Proportional-Integral
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
Porsche Active Drivetrain Mount

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

J. Godasz and B. Sapinski, Insight into Magnetorheological Shock Absorbers,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13233-4

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212

PM
PWM
RF
RR
RT
RMS
SCM
SMC
SMS
TC
UDF

Glossary

Permanent Magnet
Pulse-Width Modulation
Right-Front
Right-Rear
Real-Time
Root Mean Square
(Ferrari) Magnetorheological Suspension System
Soft Magnetic Composite
Smart Material System (or Structure)
Traction Control
User-Defined Function

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