Professional Documents
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Oxidation is a chemical process that a material combines with oxygen. During this process, energy is
given off in form of heat.
The burning vapour produces heat that release and ignites more vapour from the material concerned
thus staring a chain reaction.
2.1 THE FIRE TRIANGLE AND THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON
If any element of this fire triangle is removed, a burning fire will die out.
If a fourth element chain reaction is added to this basic fire triangle, it will result in the formation of
fire tetrahedron that represents a continuously burning fire. It illustrates how flaming combustion is
supported and sustained through chain reaction.
a. Surrounding air: Refers to the oxygen content of the surrounding air. To support flaming
combustion, oxygen volume in the air should be minimum 16%. Smouldering combustion can
however continue with oxygen volume in air as less as 3%.
b. Shipboard solid fuels include cordage, canvas, dunnage, wiping rags, furniture, mattresses and a
wide variety of solid cargo.
c. Shipboard liquid fuels include oil cargo, bunker fuels, lubricating oils, paints and thinners.
d. Diesel oils and kerosene.
e. Onboard a ship, heat can be obtained from a flame of a matchstick or cigar, sparks caused by
ferrous metals striking together, heat generated by friction, lightening, an oxy-acetylene torch cutting
or welding metal, electric short circuit, electric arc between conductors or overheating of an electric
motor.
f. Also sufficient heat can be produced internally by spontaneous ignition
8. FIRE EXTINCTION
As stated before, if any of the 3 elements viz fuel, oxygen, heat is removed, the fire will die out. If the
chain reaction is broken, resulting reduction in vapours and heat production will rapidly extinguish the
fire.
Removal of Fuel Starvation:
a. Remove combustible material away from seat of fire. e.g. drain fuel burning fuel tank or discharge
cargo from a ship on fire.
b. Cut off liquid or gaseous fuel supply to seat of fire by shutting off proper valves.
Removal of Oxygen or Smothering:
Any fire will be extinguished if oxygen level in the air surrounding the seat of fire drops below 16% by
volume.
Carbon dioxide or foam will smother the fire and starve the fire off oxygen.
Exceptions of this phenomenon are oxidising substances that release oxygen when heated or when
they come in control with water. These substances include hypo chlorites, chlorates, nitrates,
chromates, oxides and peroxides. Thus burning oxidisers cannot be extinguished by smothering
them. Instead copious amount of water will have to be used for this purpose.
Removal of Heat or Cooling:
Fresh as well as seawater is an excellent heat absorber, if applied directly to the seat of fire, quickest
heat reduction can be achieved.
Breaking the Chain Reaction or Inhibition:
Fire will be extinguished rapidly once the chain reaction sequence is broken. Dry chemicals are
commonly used to attack chain reaction and inhibit combustion. These chemicals rapidly and directly
attack the molecular structure of compounds formed during the chain reaction sequence. Break down
of these compounds adversely affect the flame producing compatibility of the fire.
Point to note is these chemicals do not cool a smoldering fire or a liquid container heated above the
liquids ignition temperature. So a cooling medium like water must be subsequently used to cool the
smoldering embers or the sides of the container.
Fire Extinguishing Agents
8.1 Water
Water acts as a cooling agent, absorbs heat and cools burning material more effectively than any
other fire-extinguishing agent.
Water when used to douse a fire will keep absorbing heat till its temperature rises to 100o c. at this
temperature, water will absorb more heat to convert itself into steam thus moving a large chunk of
absorbed heat away from burning material.
Steam being almost 1700 times more voluminous than water from which it generates, acts as
smothering agent, smothers the burning material and starves it off oxygen.
Seawater is just as effective for Fire Fighting as Fresh Water
a. It is a conductor of electricity.
b. Can damage cargo or machinery.
c. If use in large quantities, may cause stability problems for vessel.
d. Cannot be used on cargoes that flammable gases in contact with water.
8.2 Foam
Foam is the most suitable for extinguishing fires involving flammable liquids.
Foam forms a blanket of small bubbles on the surface of burning liquid preventing fuel vaporising and
restricting oxygen supply. Water portion in the foam also cools down the surrounding structure below
the ignition temperature of the flammable liquid and hence it is important that the foam blanket is
maintained even after the flames have been extinguished.
Ideally, consistency of foam solution should be such that it should be able to flow freely to cover
burning liquid rapidly, maintain a vapour tight blanket and must retain water to provide a long lasting
seal.
The foam solution should be light enough to float on the material on fire and heavy enough to resist
winds.
Chemical Foam
Chemical foam is the product of a chemical reaction when an alkali solution (like sodium bicarbonate,
Na2Co3) is mixed with an acid solution (aluminium sulphate, Al2So4). Carbon dioxide gas is also a by
product of this reaction but has no fire extinguishing value. Only purpose it serves is to inflate foam
bubbles.
For each unit volume of water, 7 to 16 volume units of foam is produced.
1. Protein Foam
Derived from natural protein solids. Produce dense viscous foam of high stability, high heat resistance
and good resistance to burn back. It is non toxic, biodegradable after dilution and cheapest in cost.
Either 3% or 6% concentrates are available for shipboard use.
2. Fluoroproteins Foam
Contains fluorinated surface active agents and ideal for subsurface injection for tank fire fighting. Non
toxic and biodegradable but more expensive than a protein foam. Used for fire fighting in oil refineries
and short storage tanks.
3. Alcohol Resistant Foam
In case of fire, water soluble organic flammable liquids such as alcohols, enamel and lacquer thinners,
Ketones, Ethers, Acrylonitrile, acetates, amines and Aldehydes will break down ordinary protein foam
if used.
Alcohol resistant foam concentrates are proprietary compositions of several types containing protein,
flour protein or AFFF base and are blended with an insoluble soap to permit its use on water soluble
organic flammable liquids.
This type of foam concentrate is used on a chemical tanker and its application rates are higher than a
protein foam.
4. Aqueous Film Forming Foam (A F F F)
Surfactants include detergents, wetting and liquid soaps and are widely used to produce AFFF or
aqueous film forming foam. This product was initially developed by us naval research laboratory.
AFFF controls the vaporisation of flammable liquids by means of a water film that foam as the foam
applied. It also cools and blankets the material on fire like any other foam. This double action gives a
highly efficient quick acting foam cover for combustible liquid spills.
One end of surfactant molecule is polar and water soluble whereas other end is non polar and oil
soluble. When a surfactant is mixed with water before application, polar end will dissolve in water but
the non-polar end would remain intact. Once sprayed on a flammable liquid, this non-polar end
dissolves in the liquid fuel and polar end drags water along with it.
As water is always heavier than fuel, this polar end should sink in the flammable liquid as per law of
gravity. But the surface tension holding non-polar end being greater than the force of gravity on polar
end, an extremely thin water film (to the tune of 003 cm) floats on top of flammable liquid.
Remainder free water in the solution would sink below the fuel surface to the bottom of the container.
This thin water film keeps flammable vapours beneath its surface and prevents them to reach flames,
ceasing flame production.
On ships, AFFF is used normally in Portable Fire Extinguisher.
8.2.2 Foam: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
a. Effective smothering agent provides cooling as secondary effect.
Carbon dioxide can be compressed easily to liquefy it. Its critical temperature is 31o c, which means
above this temperature, it will only remain as gas regardless of pressure.It is a non-conductor of
electricity and does not deteriorate in quality with age.
To be effective, quantity of carbon dioxide required amounts to 30% volume of the space to be
protected.
Can be effective on fires involving flammables oils and greases, electrical & electronic equipment
paints and thinners.
It can be used for total flooding of machinery space, pump room, paint locker and bow thrusters
space.
Disadvantage:
Cylinders are heavy and maintenance difficult. Once used, CO2 cylinders will have to be recharged
ashore prior another use and this facility may not be available or expansive if available at many ports.
8.5 DRY CHEMICAL IN POWDER FORM
Sodium Bicarbonate:
Very economical dry chemical, which is extensively used for fire fighting in galley, range, hood and
duct fires as it is particularly effective on animal fats and vegetable oils.
If used on fires involving inflammable liquids, there is a possibility of fire flash back.
Potassium Bicarbonate:
Most effective on liquid fuel fires in driving flames back and eliminating flash back. More expensive
than sodium bicarbonate.
Potassium Carbonate:
Fire extinguishing properties are as good as that of potassium bicarbonate. It however causes
corrosion after it has extinguished fire.
Urea Potassium Bicarbonate:
Very effective fire fighter but not used widely due to high costs.
Monoammonium Phosphate (A B C Multipurpose)
Effective on class A, class B and class C fires.
Once in contact with the fire, the phosphate changes into met phosphoric acid, a glassy fusible
material and covers solid surfaces with a fire retardant coating.
Disadvantage:
1. Forms an opaque cloud on release affecting visibility.
2. May cause breathing difficulty for fire fighters.
3. Not effective on materials which release oxygen if heated as well as combustible metals likes
sodium, magnesium, potassium etc.
4. May deposit an insulated coating on electronic or telephonic equipment on fire.
5. If moisture is present, dry chemical may corrode or stain surface on which it settles.
6. May not be able to extinguish a deep-seated class a type fire.
8.6 DRY POWDERS
Dry powders were developed to control fires involving combustion metals like sodium, potassium,
magnesium etc.
They compose of mainly graphite, which cools the fire and creates very heavy smoke, which will
smother the fire.
Applied to seat of fire by shovels or scoops.
8.7 SAND
Can be used for fighting small fires and to be applied by shovels or scoops. Will another the fire once
applied.
8.8 HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
Halogenated extinguishing agents consist of carbon and one or more of halogen elements like
fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
IMO prohibits new fixed fire extinguishing installations, which use halogenated hydrocarbons.
Also as of now many countries have prohibited non-maritime use of any of the halogenated
hydrocarbons.
Amongst halogenated hydrocarbons, Halon 1211 and Halon 1301 are most used.
Halon 1310 is an odourless and colourless gas as well as a nonconductor of electrically. It is stored
and shipped as a liquid under pressure. Once released onto a seat of fire, it is propelled by its storage
pressure and acts as a chain inhibitor.
Halon 1211 is colourless but has a faint sweet smell. It is non-conductor of electricity. It is stored and
shipped as a liquid, pressurized by nitrogen gas. Once released upon a seat of fire, it will act as a
chain inhibitor.
Advantages:
1. Effective on class A, class B and class C fires.
2. Non-corrosive and non-abrasive.
3. Leaves no residue to clean up. Thus can be used on fires in electrical and electronic equipment.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to obtain and difficult to dispose of.
2. Relatively toxic.
3. Cannot be used on combustible metals and hydrides
powders.
9.2 Accommodation
Causes Include:
a. Combustible material.
b. Smoking and careless disposal of burning matchsticks, cigarettes and ash.
c. Textiles adjacent to hot objects such as radiators and lamps.
d. Defective or overloaded electrical systems.
e. In laundry, incorrect installation of tumbler dryer or failure to keep it clean.
Methods of Detection Include:
a. Smoke, heat and flame detectors.
b. Sprinkler systems.
c. Fire patrol.
Methods of Containment Include:
a. Construction of main horizontal and vertical zones using approved non-combustible material.
b. Fire doors and fire dampers.
c. Sprinkler systems.
d. Fire retardant deck covering and furnishing.
Location of Fire Extinguishers in Machinery Spaces.
a. Maine Engine 1 No
b. D O Boiler 1 No
c. Purifier 1 No
d. L .O Purifier 1 No
e. D.O Transfer 1 No
f. M.E Booster 1 No
g. Reduction Gear 1 No
h. A/E Port and stbd side 2 No
i. Main Electrical Panel 1 No
Fire Extinguishing Systems and Appliances Includes:
a. Water hydrants and hoses.
b. Portable extinguishers using water, foam, dry chemical powders and carbon dioxide.
9.3 Ships Galley
Causes Include:
Use of either rubber or plastic lined hose or a hose with PVC lining is strongly recommended for
shipboard use.
A fire hose must stand up to high pressure, be flexible, should be unaffected by oils, acids, alkali,
sunlight, mildew and seawater
Jet type, Spray type or Dual purpose type (jet and spray)
A jet nozzle will direct a solid stream of water directly at seat of fire. Only a small portion of this water
(about 10% by volume) comes in actual contact with fire.
Comparatively, a fog or a spray nozzle breaks the water stream into extremely fine water droplets.
These droplets have a much larger total surface area as compared to water jet thus can absorb much
more amount of heat. Also most of the amount of water easily turns to steam once it hits the seat of
fire.
m. Deck E ___________
n. Deck E ___________
o. Deck E ___________
p. Deck D ___________
q. Deck D ___________
r. Deck B ___________
10.4 International Shore Coupling
Each vessel must carry at least one portable international shore connection, which can be connected
matching fittings that are available at most ports and terminals throughout the world.
Thus in case of a fire onboard while in port, a vessel can take advantage of water pumping capability
of the shore installation.
Location of international shore coupling onboard must be easily accessible and conspicuously
marked.
A suitable gasket, four nos nuts and blots 16 mm dia x 50 mm long and 8 nos washers must be kept
ready with each international shore coupling.
OPERATION OF FIXED FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
b. Open valve A from emergency fire pump to engine room fire extinguishing with water.
d. Open valve C from fire pump to from proportionator adjust pressure max to 8.5 kg / cm3.
Note:
After using of foam system close valve on foam tank. Adjust the proportionate to 5% and clear the
foam line with water.
10.5 Fire Control Plans
Must be approved by administration. Fire plans will be checked periodically to ensure they are legible
and up to date.
Copy of an updated fire control plan will be located in a weather tight enclosure outside each
accommodation entrance from main deck.
IMO resolution a.602 (15), revised guidelines for marine portable fire extinguishers, recommends
standards for the construction, performance, test specifications, markings, periodical inspections and
A portable fire extinguisher because of its limited capacity and duration must only be used in the early
stage of a fire.
According to the fire extinguishing agent they contain, portable fire extinguishers are divided into 4
categories.
a. Water
b. Foam
c. Dry chemical powder
d. Carbon dioxide
A portable extinguisher will be placed next 7to locations with major fire risks (e.g. galley, radio
console) and also near exit points of escape routes.
So that they can be readily seen and used by crew following an escape route.
a. Manufacturer
b. Type of fire on which the extinguisher is suitable
c. Type and quantity of extinguishing medium
d. Approval details
e. Operating instructions in pictorial form
f. Recharging instructions
g. Year of manufacture
h. Test pressure
i. Temperature over which the extinguisher will operate satisfactory
Operation:
Range is between 3-9 meters with 8-30 seconds discharge time as to capacity.
Chemicals used are sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, urea potassium bicarbonate,
potassium chloride and monoammonium phosphate.
For effective results, stand upwind of the seat of fire about 1.5 to 2.5 meters away and direct the
stream near the seat of the fire progress forward, moving the nozzle rapidly with to side in a sweeping
motion.
Once the fire is extinguished, fire fighting should move closer to burning debris and coat at fuel
surfaces thoroughly with short intermittent bursts.
Maintenance:
a. Dry Chemical Extinguishers are unaffected by temperature variations and thus can be stowed
anywhere on the vessel.
b. They do not deteriorate or evaporate and thus need not be recharged periodically.
c. Recharge immediately after use.
d. Ensure hose and nozzle are not clogged.
e. Examine cartridges every 6 months, in case punctured or weighing 14.2 Gms lesser than the
indicated weight, it must be renewed.
f. Inspect stored pressure type extinguisher gauge every month to ensure internal pressure is within
operating range.
Operation:
Grasp the insulated handle of the hose horn. Do not hold the hose as the co2 being released will
expand and thus cool down very quickly as it leaves the extinguisher. The horn gets cold enough to
frost over and this may cause extinguisher capacity ranges between 2.3 to 9.1 kg of co2.
The extinguisher shell retains carbon dioxide in liquefied form under pressure (850 psi @ 21 c). The
cylinder is filled with this charge to about two-thirds by weight of its total water capacity.
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are used for putting out fires in oils, petroleum fires, gaseous
substances under pressure, and on sophisticated electrical and electronic apparatus.
Operation should stand upwind, direct the jet at the fire, starting at one edge and sweeping the
discharge horn across the surface of the burning material.
The range varies between 1.8 to 2.4 met and the duration between 8-30 seconds as per capacity.
Release of carbon dioxide makes quite a noise and the operation must be aware of it distracted, he
may misdirect the gas jet for few vital seconds.
Maintenance:
a. Protective clothing material for shielding skin against heat radiation and burns and scalding by
steam. The outer surface must be water resistance.
b. Boot and Gloves made from electrically non conductive material.
c. A rigid helmet providing effective protection against impact.
d. An electric safety lantern of electric battery type with a minimum burning period of 3 hours. Means
must be provided for the lamps to be attached to the wearer at waist level.
e. A fire axe with a spike as well as a cutting edge, wooden or insulated handle and a belt and pouch.
f. A self-contained breathing apparatus.
For each breathing apparatus, a fireproof lifeline of sufficient length and strength with a snap hock will
be provided.
A human being requires oxygen and this will be absorbed in boold stream at a rate depending on
amount of work body is performing. Once we breath in 4% of oxygen inhaled is attached into the
blood stream.
Any self-contained breathing apparatus must be able to supply air at the rate of 4G liters / minute.
Compressed air breathing apparatus sets are popular on vessels due to following
a. Simple Design
b. Need less maintenance
c. Possible recharge onboard.
d. Staff can be trained easily as donning and use.
A typical set consists of a single steel cylinder mounted on a stainless steel back plate secured by two
quick release cylinder straps and. This is supported on a wearers back an adjustable shoulder
harness and a waist belt.
Each cylinder will have 1200 liters of air stored at a pressure of 200 bars.
Upon opening the air valve on the cylinder, high pressure air is routed thro a reducing valve that
reduce the air pressure to the region of 4 bars. This air is then fed to a whistle warning unit and
facemask with a demand valve incorporating a positive pressure mode.
Once air amount is reduced to 10 minutes of use, a whistle sound continuously warning user.
The demand valve will supply fresh air to the facemask only upon inhalation and will pass this air
along visor to prevent misting.
Upon exhalation, expended air is passed out to atmosphere thro positively closed extinguisher valve.
It is important to note that the facemaske is designed to snug fit human face and prevent toxic gases
from entering respiratory system. This facemask will only snug fit if the mask rubber seal makes close
contact with skin.
There must not be any facial hair, side burns and stubble in this area.
The endurance of the set depends upon the work being carried out.
Predonning Checks:
a. Open cylinder air valve slowly and fully. Check the pressure gauge reads 200 bars
b. Shut cylinder air valve and listen for any air leak. The pressure drop if any must not exceed 10 bars
within a minute.
c. Vent face mask slowly and confirm that the warning whistle at appropriate pressure
A Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus must always be donned completely and put to use while the
users are still in fresh air.
A self- contained breathing apparatus must be used for fire fighting purposes.
An Emergency escape breathing device is a compressed air, constant flow. Short duration emergency
life saving apparatus used for making good an escape from a toxic or oxygen deficient atmosphere.
a. NAVIGATION BRIDGE.
b. OFFICER DECK OUT SIDE ACCOMODATION STBD SIDE ( SAFETY LOCKER)
c. .
d.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Each team will consist of 3 to 6 members but no more than 8 as far as possible.
Emergency team must include Chief Officer and 2nd Engineer and unto 6 additionally who should be
selected on the basis of their knowledge, physical strength and agility as these people will actually
deal with any kind of emergency on board.
Every member of emergency team must be familiar with location and use of:
All crewmembers must be aware of firefighting procedures for engine room, accommodation spaces,
galley, paint lockers, cargo tanks and cargo manifolds.
a. Ensure that emergency response team is supplied all equipment required without undue delay.
b. To replace emergency response team members in order to test them if required.
c. To prepare lifeboats for launching.
a. Stand by for medical assistance with first aid kit and a stretcher.
A firefighter must wear protective clothing and self- contained breathing apparatus.
Direct contact with flames can result in serious skin burns and damage to respiratory tract.
Temperatures above 50o c are hazardous to human beings even after wearing protective clothing and
self- contained breathing apparatus.
It is common to experience temperatures in the range or 93o c to 427o c in a enclosed area with fire
raging inside.
This heat will cause dehydration, heat exhaustion, burns and blockage of the respiratory tract a
firefighter exposed to excessive heat over a long period could develop hypothermia that can
eventually damage his nerve centers.
Most common gases produced by any fire are carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Carbon monoxide is extremely dangerous as when air with carbon monoxide is inhaled: human blood
absorbs co gas before absorbing oxygen.
Thus even a low concentration of carbon monoxide in air (1.3 % by volume) will result in oxygen
deficiency for body and brain and death in a few minutes.
Once carbon dioxide concentrations in air goes up, oxygen content in the air is reduced and human
respiratory system is starved off oxygen.
If oxygen content in the air drops to 15% by volume, human muscular control is reduced. With oxygen
levels hovering between 10% and 14% judgment is impaired and fatigue sets in.
Once oxygen levels in airdrop below 10% rapid unconsciousness will set in.
Smoke consists of carbon and other unburned substances in the from of suspended particles. It may
additionally carry vapours of water, acids and chemicals that may be poisonous or irritating if inhaled.
Smoke reduces visibility around seat of fire to a great extent and irritates eyes, nose, throat and lungs
It is a combustion process in which a flammable material burns with insufficient oxygen to achieve
complete combustion of the material. e.g. Making of a charcoal.
A chemical reaction will result from addition of one or more of the following substances to a chemical.
a. Water or steam
b. Heat
c. Oil
d. Carbon dioxide
e. Sand
Chemical reaction will result in:
a. Explosion.
b. Spontaneous combustion.
c. Generation of toxic fumes.
d. Generation of smoke.
Response procedures to fire on dangerous goods can be found in the emergency schedules
procedures for ships carrying dangerous goods.
Response procedures to fire in bulk cargoes can be found in emergency schedules of the code of
safe practice for solid bulk cargoes.
Fires occur in exhaust pipes, economizers and waste heat boilers of ships.
Cause of such a fire is accumulation of carbon deposits with or without oil, which become overheated
and catch fire.
a. Inaccessibility of all sections of the uptake. ( Particularly in the upper section of the engine room).
b. The economizer tubes reaching a temperature of 700o c when the following can take place.
The iron in the tubes will start burning in steam. This reaction is self-sustaining and generates
considerable heat. Thus burning of iron tubes in steam does not need oxygen supply and produces
black iron oxides and hydrogen. In case air is introduced at this stage, hydrogen produced will burn
and explode.
Continue cooling till it is safe it opens the economizer for examination and thorough cleaning.
* Suffocation (asphyxiation)
* Poisoning
* Burns to skin and tissues
* Pain
* Shock
a. Suffocation
It is a condition in which the lungs do not get sufficient supply of air for breathing . In case continued,
breathing and heart action stops and death will occur. Any casualty who cannot breathe normally or
ceased to breathe should be immediately administered artificial respiration.
b. Poisoning
A poison may enter the human body ingestion, injection, inhalation or absorption.
Airborne toxins resulting from fire will normally enter body by absorption or inhalation.
A casualty overcome by an airborne toxin should be immediately shifted to fresh air and resuscitated.
A casualty overcome by an airborne toxin should be immediately shifted to fresh air and resuscitated.
Burns result from dry heat, flames, contact with wire carrying high-tension electrical current.
Scales are caused by moist heat due to boiling water, steam, oil, and hot tar etc.
Chemical burns are caused by storing acids or by strong alkalis.
Nuclear burn is caused by instant flash or intense heat from a nuclear explosion.
Danger from burns depends on the area of the burns rather than the degree. It must be noted that in
the same person, different parts of the body may show different degrees of burns.
Any casualty with burns over 30% irrespective of the degree of burns must be hospitalised at the
earliest opportunity.
In order to determine the area affected by burns, human body is divided into several parts. Each part
is allocated percentages as follows:
Face: 9%
Each hand : 9%
Back and chest : 9 % each
Abdomen front and back: 9 % each
Each thigh : 9 %
Each calf and foot : 9 % each
Genitals : 1 %
d. Pain
e. Shock
Results from excessive loss of body fluids. In case body loses large amount of blood due to internal or
external injuries, blood circulation will fail and the person will go in a shock. Exposure, fear and pain
will only make shock worse.
Any medical emergency that results from fire fighting may not be restricted to burns and may range
from small burns to life threatening problems.
During fire fighting, fire and smoke may cause thermal burns, poisoning of victims, falls and trips,
respiratory arrests, heart attacks and also drowning in water filled compartment.
Diagnostic signs are set of indicators that the rescuer should use in evaluating the patients condition.
a. Respiration
b. Pulse
The pulse is an indication of heart action. The normal pulse rate in adults is 60 to 80 beats per minute.
c. Blood Pressure
It is the pressure that circulating blood exerts against the walls of the arteries.
Systolic pressure is the pressure exerted while the heart is contracted (when the heart contracts and
blood is pumped thro the arteries) whereas the diastolic pressure is the pressure exerted while the
heart is relaxed.
Normal systolic pressure for men is 100 plus the age of the man.
For women, both pressures are about 10 mm lesser than the men.
As the skin regulates the body temperature, changes in skin temperature indicate changes occurring
within the body.
To determine the skin temperature, feel the skin surface at several locations with back of your hand.
Mainly the blood circulating in blood vessels just below the skin determines skin colour.Thus a change
in colour reflects the increase or decrease in blood flow or changes in the blood chemistry.
Reddish skin indicates high blood pressure, carbon monoxide poisoning or heart attack.
The pupils of the eyes are good indicators of the condition of the heart and central nervous system.
When the body is in normal state, the pupils are the same size and they respond to light.
h. Level of Consciousness
When confronted with several accident victims, sometimes rescuers tend to care first for those who
scream the loudest or whose injuries appear to be serious.
Accident victims should be sorted into three groups and treated according to their injuries.
* Burns
* Major multiple fractures
* Back injuries
* Minor fractures
* Minor injuries
* Obvious death
* Obviously mortal wounds is that death appears reasonably certain
In the absence of pulse and breath, immediately start with cardio pulmonary resuscitation
In case the human brain cells are deprived of oxygenated blood for more than four minutes,
irreversible brain damage would occur.
For this reason, a casualty not breathing normally or where breathing has ceased, it is of utmost
importance to start artificial respiration without wasting any more time.
For an effective artificial respiration, the air passage from mouth to lungs should be open and clear so
that air can flow unrestricted into the lungs and then out.
* Mouth to mouth
* Hoiger nieison method
* Schafers method
If a casualty is unconscious, the airway may be narrow or blocked making the breathing difficult.
Muscular control in the throat may be lost and as a result tongue may block the air passage. As the
reflexes are impaired, saliva or vomit may lie at the back of the throat blocking the air passage.
Place the casualty on his side and strike three or four sharp blows between the shoulders to clear the
windpipe.
* If victims face is burnt, prop him up and keep him under continuous observation for any breathing
difficulty.
* Do not open any blister.
* If the person has any items like ring, chain, bracelets, and belt on him, take them off quickly before
limbs begin to swell.
17. RESUSCITATION.
Introduction
Basic life support as an emergency life saving procedure that consist of recognizing and correcting
failure of the respiratory or cardiovascular systems. Any procedure that consist of recognizing and
correcting failure of the respiratory or cardiovascular systems, any profound disturbance of the airway
Basic life support comprises the ABC steps which concern the airway, breathing and circulation
respectively. Its prompt application is indicated for.
a. Airway obstruction
b. Breathing or respiratory arrest
c. Circulatory or cardiac ( heart) arrest.
Basic life support requires 40 instruments or supplies and the correct application of the steps for
dealing with the above three problems can maintain life until the patient recovers sufficiently to be
transported to a hospital where he can be provided with advanced life support must be taken with the
maximum sense of urgency and any inadequacy or absence of breathing or circulation must be
determined immediately.
* If breathing alone is inadequate or absent all the as necessary as either to open the AIR WAY or to
apply ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
* If circulation is also absent artificial circulation must be started.
* HEART COMPRESSION in combination with artificial respiration
* If breathing stops before the heart stops enough oxygen will be available in the lungs to maintain life
for several minutes. However if the heart arrest occurs first, delivery of oxygen to the ceases
immediately.
* Brain damage is possible if the brain is deprived of oxygen for 4-6 minutes beyond 6 minutes without
oxygen brain damage is very likely.
* Once you have started basic life support do not interrupt if for more than 5 seconds for any reason
except when it is necessary to move the patient even in that case interruption should not exceed 15
seconds each.
A for airway-clearance
B for Breathing-Assist in breathing
C for Circulation Establish circulation
Step-A (Airway)
* Lift the neck with one hand and apply pressure to the forehead with the other to lift the head back
ward.
* This extends the neck and moves the base of the tongue away from the back of the throat
* The head should be maintained in the position during the entire artificial respiration and heart
compression procedure.
* If the airway as still obstructed with any foreign material in the mouth or throat should be removed
* Once the airway has been opened the patient may or may not start to breath again.
* To assess whether breathing has retuned the person providing the basic life support must place his
ear about 2-3 cm above the nose and mouth of the patient.
* If the rescuer can feel and hear the movement of air and can see the patients chest and abdomen
move, breathing has retuned.
* With airway obstruction it is possible that there will be no air movement even though the chest and
abdomen rise and fall with the patients attempt to breath, also observing chest and abdominal
movement is difficult when the patient is full clothed.
Step-B (Breathing).
If the patient does not resume adequate, spontaneous breathing promptly after his bead has been
tilted backward then artificial respiration should be given by the mouth to mouth or mouth to nose
method or with other techniques regardless of the method used the preservation of an upon airway is
essential.
* Keep the patients head of a maximum backward tilt with one hand under neck.
* Place the heel of the other hand or the forehead with the thumb and index finger toward the nose.
* Pinch together the patients nostrils with the thumb and index finger to prevent air from escaping.
* Backward tilt of the head.
* Take a deep breath then from a tight deal with your mouth over and around the patients mouth.
* Blow four quick full breaths in first without allowing the lunge to deflate fully.
* Watch the patients chest while inflating the lungs. If adequate respiration is taking place the chest
should rise and fall.
* Remove your mouth and allow the patient to exhale passively. If you are in the right position, the
patients exhalation will be felt on your check.
* Take another deep breath, form a seal around the patients mouth and blow into the mouth again.
* Repeat this procedure 10-12 times a minute (one every five seconds) for adults and children over
four years of age.
* If there is no air exchange and an airway obstruction exists that is to be removes with fingers then
resume artificial respiration
In attempting to bring back to life a non breathing person whose heart has stopped beating heart
compression (external cardiac compression) should be applied along with artificial respiration
Compression of the sternum produces some artificial ventilation but not enough for adequate
oxygenation of the blood. For this reason artificial respiration is a always required whenever heart
compression is used.
* Effective heart compression requires sufficient pressure to depress the patients lower sternum
about 4-5 cms (in an adult)
* For chest compression to be effective the patient must be on a firm surface. If he in a bed a board or
improvised support should be placed under his back. However chest compression must not be
delayed by a search for a firmer support.
* Kneel close to the side of the patient and place the heel of the sternum
* Avoid placing the hand over the tip of the breast bone which extends down over the upper abdomen
as pressure on the lower and may tear the liver and lead to severe internal bleeding.
* Feel the tip of the sternum and place the heel of the hand about 4 cms. nearer the head of the
patient.
* Your fingers must never rest on the patients ribs during compression since this increase the
possibility of rib fracture.
* Place the heal of the other hand on top of the first one.
* Rock forward so that your shoulders are almost directly above the patients chest
* Keep your arms straight and exert adequate pressure almost directly downwards to depress an
adults chest for 4-5 cms.
* Compress the chest 60 times per minute for an adult if helper is available as this is enough to
maintain blow flow and slow enough to allow the heart to fill with blood.
* The compression should be regular. Smooth and uninterrupted. Compression and relaxation being
of equal duration.
* Under no circumstances should compression be interrupted for more than five seconds.
* It is preferable to have two rescuers because artificial must be combined with artificial respiration.
* The most effective artificial respiration and heart compression are achieved by giving one lung
inflation quickly after each five heart compression (5:1 ratio) the compression rate should be 60 per
minute if two rescuers are operating
* One rescuer perfumes heart compression while the other remains at the patients head keeps it titled
back and continue artificial respiration.
* A single rescuer have to perform both artificial respiration and artificial circulation using 15:2 ratio.
Two very quick lung inflation should be delivered after each 15 chest compression without waiting for
full exhalation of the patients breath
* A rate of 80 chest compressions per minute must be maintained by a single rescuer in order to
achieve 50-60 actual compressions per minute because o f interruptions for the lung inflations.
* Check the reaction of the pupils. If the pupils contract when exposed to light this is a sign that the
brain is receiving adequate oxygen and blood.
* Carotid (neck pulse) should be left after fist minute of heart compressions and artificial respiration
and every five minutes there after. The pulse will indicate the effectiveness of the heart compression.
* Return of color of skin.
Silvester Method
The Sylvester method is an alternative method of artificial respiration it can be used in cases of
swallowed poisons and if the mouth and nose are badly damaged.
SUMMARY
RESUCITATION
a. Airway Clearance
b. Artificial Respiration.
If present continue artificial respiration at a rate of one breath every 4-5 sec.
If absent pulse start chest compression
c. Chest Compression
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4. CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
8. FIRE EXTINCTION
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