Dissertation

A SYNERGY OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS
PROGRAMMING ON DEVELOPING WRITING COMPETENCE AMONG EIGHTH

STANDARD STUDENTS IN SITHANANDHA HIGH SCHOOL, PUDHUCHERRY.
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment For the award of the degree Master of
Education.
by
Reg. No. 1095839
School of Education
Pondicherry University
Under the guidance of

Dr.K.Chellamani, M.A., M.Phil, M.Ed., Ph.D.,
Reader,
School of Education, Pondicherry University.
School of Education,
Pondicherry University,
(A Central University)
R.V. Nagar, Kalapet,Pudhucherry – 605 014.
Dr. K. CHELLAMANI, M.A.,M.Phil.,M.Ed.,Ph.D.,
Reader,
Pudhucherry – 605 014.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Dissertation entitled “ SYNERGY OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING ON DEVELOPING
WRITING COMPETENCE AMONG EIGHTH STANDARD STUDENTS IN
SITHANANDHA HIGH SCHOOL, PUDHUCHERRY” is an independent research study
and work accomplished by . THILAGAVATHY (Reg. No. 1095839) in the School of
Education, Pondicherry University, Pudhucherry – 605 014, Under my guidance and
supervision for the award of the degree ofMASTER OF EDUCATION. Further, I certify that
this research work has not previously formed the basis for the award of any other Degree,
Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship or other similar title to any candidate of this or any
other University.
Place : Pudhucherry – 14
Date:
(K.CHELL
AMANI)
V.THILAGAVATHY,
M.Ed Student (2009- 2010),
Pudhucherry – 605 014.
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled “ A SYNERGY OF

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS
PROGRAMMING ON DEVELOPING WRITING COMPETENCE
AMONG EIGHTH STANDARD STUDENTS IN SITHANANDHA HIGH
SCHOOL, PUDHUCHERRY” Submitted to the Ponicherry University,
Pudhucherry, for the award of the Degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION is an
original and independent research work done by me under the guidance of Dr.
CHELLAMANI, Reader, School of Education, Pondicherry University,
Pudhucherry – 605 014 and it has not previously formed the basis for the award of
any other Degree, Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship or other similar title to any
other candidate of this or any other University.
(V. THILAGAVATHY)
Place: Pudhucherry – 605 014
Date:
Dr.M.S. LALITHAMMA, Dr. K. CHELLAMANI,

Countersigned and Coordinator Reader,
School of Education, school of Education,
Pondicherry University, Pudhucherry. Pondicherry University,
Pudhucherry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am indebted to Dr.M.S.Lalithamma, Professor and head, School of Education,

Pondicherry University, for having permitted me to take up this study and for all the
help given to me during the period of my study in the School of Education.
I express my sentiments of thanks and appreciation to my guide, Dr. K.
Chellamani, Reader, School of Education, Pondicherry University, for her
approachability, thought provoking insights, intellectual caliber and expert guidance
at every stage of this dissertation.
My heartful thanks to all teaching and non-teaching staff in the School of Education,
Pondicherry University for their moral support and timely help.
I wish to place on grateful to the Headmistress, teachers and students of Sithanandha
High School for their whole hearted cooperation towards this dissertation.
I am very much thankful to my dear classmates those who helped and encouraged me
to do this Project work.
My heartful thanks to my dear family members, who sacrificed their entire life for my
progress and comforts. I owe a lot to my beloved father Mr. T. Velayutham, for his
constant support throughout the study.
I am grateful to the staff of the Central Library in Pondicherry University,
Annamalai University and Madras University, for their kind help in getting
research materials for my study.
I extend my deepest sense of gratitude to God for showering His grace and blessing
for the completion of my research study.
“He indeed does all things wonderful in His time”.
(V. THILAGAVATHY)
CONTENTS
CHAPTER – I , INTRODUCTION
S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE : ITS IMPORTANT
1.2 POSITION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW
1.3 SKILLS INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
1.4 WRITING SKILLS ACQUISITON
1.5 WRITING – AN ESSENTIAL SKILL
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF WRITING
1.7 TECHNIQUE USED FOR STUDENTS' COMPETENTENCY
1.7.1 COMPOSITION COMPETENCIES
1.7.1.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES
1.7.1.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES
1.7.2 ANALYSIS COMPETENCIES
1.7.3 LANGUAGE COMPETENCIES
1.7.4 RESEARCH COMPETENCIES
1.7.5 PRESENTATION COMPETENCIES

1.8 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: COMPETENCE, PERFORMANCE

AND ACQUISITION
1.9 THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE:
1.10 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
1.11 THE MYTH OF PURE LANGUAGE
1. 12 LINGUISTIC CHAUVINISM
1.13 LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS
1.13.1 DISCRETENESS
1.13.2 ARBITRARINESS
1.13.3 OPENNESS
1.13.4 DUALITY OF PATTERNING
1.14 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
1.15 A UNIQUE CODE AND A GENERAL CODE
1.16 LANGUAGE AND THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM
1.17 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
1.17.1 REINFORCEMENTS
1.17.2 IMITATION
1.17.3 EXPANSION
1.18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS
1.19 WRITING SYSTEMS

1.20 LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN
1.21 THE STUDY OF THE BRAIN-LANGUAGE RELATIONSHIP
1.22 BRAIN STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE
1.23 THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE

1.24 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER – II , REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1 STUDIES BASED ON NEUROLINGUISTICS
2.2 STUDIES BASED ON PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
2.3 STUDIES BASED ON WRITING COMPETENCE
2.4 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER-3, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
3.3 NEED FOR THE STUDY
3.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
3.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
3.6 TITLE OF THE STUDY
3.7 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS
3.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
3.9 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
3.10 HYPOTHESES
3.11 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
3.12 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
3.13 SAMPLE
3.14 PLANNING OF THE TREATMENT
3.15 DURATION OF THE TREATMENT
3.16 THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY
3.17 INTERNAL VALIDITY
3.17.1 SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS
3.17.2 MORTALITY
3.17.3 LOCATION
3.17.4 INSTRUMENTATION
3.17.5 TESTING
3.17.6 HISTORY
3.17.7 MATURATION
3.17.8 STATISTICAL REGRESSION
3.17.9 SELECTION BIAS
3.17.10 EXPERIMENTER BIAS
3.17.11 IMPLEMENTATION
3.18 EXTERNAL VALIDITY
3.19 CONTROLLING THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
3.20 RESEARCH PHASES
3.21 PHASE – I ; PREPARATORY PROGRAM
3.21.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
3.21.2 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE
3.21.3 OBSERVING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
3.21.4 ANALYZING THE PREVIOUS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
3.21.5 COLLECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE
3.21.6 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS
3.21.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS
3.2.8 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
3.21.9 DEVELOPING AND ADMINISTERING THE PRE-TEST TOOL
3.21.10 INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT
3.22 PHASE – II ; PROCEDURE FOR THE EXECUTION OF THE STUDY
3.23 TREATMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULE
3.24 PHASE – III – TREATMENT PROGRAM
3.24.1 PREPARING AND SETTING THE STAGE
3.24.2 ORIENTATION
3.24.3 INTAKING PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES
3.24.4 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN INSTRUCTION
3.24.5 GIVING NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING
3.24.6 THINK ALOUD PROTOCOL
3.24.7 PEER GROUP DISCUSSION
3.25 PHASE IV :IDENTIFYING THE EFFECT OF THE STUDY
3.26 PHASE – V ; RESEARCH TOOLS AND DATA COLLECTION
3.26.1 DATA COLLECTION
3.27 PHASE – VI; SCHEME OF DATA ANALYSIS
3.28 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER – IV,DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
4.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE
4.2.2 CONCLUSION
4.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS
4.3.1 CONCLUSION
4.4 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
4.4.1 “t” TEST
4.4.2 CONCLUSION
4. 5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER – V, SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES
5.3 NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING
5.4 WRITING – AN ESSENTIAL SKILL
5.5 SYNERGISING EFFECT OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING IN
WRITING COMPETENCE
5.6 INFERENCES FROM THE REVIEW
5.7 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
5.8 NEED FOR THE STUDY
5.9 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
5.10 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
5.11 TITLE OF THE STUDY
5.12 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS
5.13 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
5.14 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
5.15 HYPOTHESES
5.17 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
5.18 PLANNING OF THE TREATMENT
5.19 RESEARCH PROCESS
5.20 SAMPLE
5.21 RESEARCH DESIGN
5.22 DURATION OF THE TREATMENT
5.23 THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY

5.24 INTERNAL VALIDITY
5.24.1 SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS
5.24.2 MORTALITY
5.24.3 LOCATION
5.24.4 INSTRUMENTATION
5.24.5 TESTING
5.24.6 HISTORY
5.24.7 MATURATION
5.24.8 STATISTICAL REGRESSION
5.24.9 SELECTION BIAS
5.24.10 EXPERIMENTER BIAS
5.24.11 IMPLEMENTATION
5.25 EXTERNAL VALIDITY
5.26 CONTROLLING THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
5.27 RESEARCH PHASES
5.28 PHASE – I ; PREPARATORY PROGRAM
5.28.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

5.28.2 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE
5.28.3 OBSERVING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

5.28.4 ANALYZING THE PREVIOUS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
5.28.5 COLLECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE
5.28.6 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS
5.28.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS
5.28.8 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
5.28.9 DEVELOPING AND ADMINISTERING THE PRE-TEST TOOL
5.28.10 INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT
5.29 PHASE – II ; PROCEDURE FOR THE EXECUTION OF THE

STUDY
5.30 PHASE – III – TREATMENT PROGRAM
5.30.1 PREPARING AND SETTING THE STAGE
5.30.2 ORIENTATION
5.30.3 INTAKING PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES
5.30.4 GIVING NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING
5.30.5 THINK ALOUD PROTOCOL
5.30.6 PEER GROUP DISCUSSION
5.31 PHASE IV :IDENTIFYING THE EFFECT OF THE STUDY
5.32 PHASE – V ; RESEARCH TOOLS AND DATA COLLECTION

5.32.1 DATA COLLECTION
5.33 PHASE – VI; SCHEME OF DATA ANALYSIS
5.34 FINDINGS
5.35 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER STUDY
5.36 DISSCUSSIONS
5.37 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
5.38 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Language is the most authentic means for optimum communication among humans. It
holds together society, as individuals share their needs with each through it. The
Oxford English Dictionary defines the word as “the whole body of words and of
methods of combination of words used by a nation, people or race, a tongue, which
implies that a language can exist in spoken as well as written forms”.According to
Edward Sapir, “Language is a purely human and non-instrinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily
produced symbols. These symbols are in the first instance auditory and they are
produced by the so called organs of speech.
Language is a complete yet highly versatile code used for communication. It is

exclusive to human race. The human language is a signalling system which uses vocal
sounds. It is based on man's ability to speak. Other devices such as gestures, signs,
drawings, sculpture, that we use to express.The nexus between language and our
ideas, thoughts and emotions, cannot substitued for language. Since it is both a cause
and outcome of man's social existence, it is in a state of constant flux.Thought is
interesting . We think through language and need language to express our thoughts.
This means man creates new knowledge through language and uses it to the store-
house of human culture civilization.
The imminent order in the four skills of communication highlight the primary of
speech over writing. This is an important aspects of language. The order in which the
four skills are presented is, listening with comprehension, speaking, reading and
writing. Language ensures that, one does not need to know how to write to
communicate. Capacity for speech is a characteristic of human beings only. The seven
characteristics of human speech are: duality, productivity, arbitrariness,
interchangebility, specialisation, displacement and cultural transmission. The written
language is derived from the spoken form. It is thus secondary in nature. The speaker
can move the listener active by means of words. Thus language can be said to have a
democratic nature. Rabindranath Tagore puts it aptly:”Man can speak and speech is
the force which combines a mind with others.”
1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE : its important:

Among the language in the world, English has gained universal acceptance because of
a number of factors. It is rich in literature, science, technology, medicine and social
science. It has creative works of the highest intellectual and creative standard.
According to media reports,50 percent of newspapers and scientific and technological
periodicals in the world are published in English. More than 60 percent of the radio
stations of the world use English as their medium. Besides , it is the language of the
international politics, communication, trade, commerce, industry and travel. And on
the academic front, it serves as a library language. The language deserves to be a
world language as it helps linking humans across countries.
French, remarks”By accidents of history and by the rapid spread of industrial

development, science and technology, international trade, and by all the factors which
have broken down frontiers and forced nations into closer interdependence, English
has become a world language. It is the means of international communication; there is
no other”.
English is the first language of the United Kingdom comprising Great Britain
(England, Wales and Scotland) and Northern Ireland, although Wales and Scotland
have preserved their own languages distinct from English. English is also the mother-
tongue of more than 300 million people living outside England, in the United States
of America, Canada, Australia and Newzeland. In addition, it is the second language
of millions of people in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, India, China, Japan and
South America. Thus English is now spoken and read by all educated people
everywhere in the world, and a very large number of children of different countries
study it in their schools either as the mother tongue or as a foreign language.
English is one of the six official languages of the UNO. It is also the link language of
the Commonwealth countries. French remarks:”No language, accident or modern can
be compared with English in number of geographical distribution of the homes,
factories and officers in which the language is spoken, written or read”.
Countries now-a- days need mutual cooperation in the fields of social, economic and
political matters. English meets the need here. Ghatak's observation is relevant here.
“It would be rash to cut ourselves from English language which keeps us in
continuous contact with the latest thought in Europe, in every field of life and
culture”. Nehru sees, the language as a window to the world outside.
1.2 POSITION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW:
English has many uses in India. Its status is more of a second language than a foreign
one. As someone says somewhere, it is like a bitter medicine that the patient does not
want to swallow but still swallows to get his illness cured. English still occupies an
important place in educational system and life of our country. In India English
continues to be the medium of instructions of colleges and universities and is also the
language of the administration. Emphasizing the role if English, one of the Education
Commissions has emphatically asserted, “For successful completion of the first
degree course, a student should possess adequate command of English, be able to
express himself with reasonable ease and felicity, understanding lectures in it and
avail himself of its literature. Therefore adequate emphasis will have to be laid on its
study as a language right from the school stage. English should be the most useful
library language in higher education and our most significant window on the world”.
For over a century and a half Indian intellectuals have been studying English and how
it has entered the fabric of Indian's culture. In plays an important role in various
fields.
I English is an official language of administration the status of Associate official
language of the Union for an indefinite period has been granted by an ace of
Parliamant in 1963.
II English is the court language.
III English is the language of international trade and industry.
IV It has an important role in social life; the highly educated and sophisticated
sections of our society find it more convenient to talk in English
V English is considered to be a a window on the modern worked through which
was are able to see the scientific technological, agricultural, commercial and
literacy development taking place.
VI Enligh is a link language;It is the only language which is understood in all
Indian states. In addition to being a unifying force in our country it also links
us with other countries of the world. The trade correspondence from one state
to another is mostly conducted in English. Without a knowledge of English,
there will be dialogue between persons from different states. English is a
unifying factor and helps national integration. India is a multilingual country
and more than 15 languages have been recognised by Indian constitution.
According to census of India more than 380 languages or dialects are spoken
in India. The constitution of India opted in 1950 provides for development of
Hindi is the National Language but today e€English is the link language.
English is the only language that is spoken and understood all over the country
in addition to the National Language.; The correspondence between Union
Government and the State Governments is mostly conducted in English.
VIIIt is a library language “Kothari Commission (1964-66)” has said that no
student be considered to have qualified for a degree unless he has acquired a
reasonable proficiency in English.; English as a library language are of two-
fold:
VIII a) All teachers in higher education should be essentially bilingual. They
should be able to teach in the regional language as well as in English.
IX b) All students, particularly post-graduate students, should be able to follow
lectures and use reading materials in the regional language as well as in
English.
1.3 SKILLS INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing are the four basic skills, which are very
important for acquiring a good command over a language. Listening and Speaking
precede Reading and Writing. In learning the mother tongue the child has ample
practice in speech before he/she starts reading. The child by using the listening skill
first learns certain sounds and structures unconsciously and slowly develops the skill
of speaking.
Listening and speaking are intimately related to each other, though listening is
recognition skill and speaking is production skill. Both skills (listening and speaking)
depend almost entirely on the learner's knowledge of the pronunciation of words and
the articulation of sounds in the language. That is why, in the teaching of English due
emphasis is given the development of skills of listening and speaking.
Listening and reading may be termed as passive or recognition skills (for in both these
processes we only recognize the meanings of word used by others) where as speaking
and writing may be termed as active or production kills. In the case of the latter, the
user requires an active use of language. The former two skills—listening and reading
—are also known as skills of comprehension, while the latter—speaking and writing
—are termed as skills of expression. The fulfillment language teaching is based on
both the skills of comprehension and expression.
Have you ever thought about how a child learns its mother tongue? First it passes
through a period of intense listening and then only it begins to speak, read and write.
So in a natural method of learning a language, listening comes first; then follows
speaking, reading and writing. Speech is the very foundation of any language. If one
becomes acquainted with the basic vocabulary and structures of language through
speech it is not difficult for him or her to learn read or write late. Learning to read aw
hat one has already learn t to speak becomes then an interlinked and for acquiring
good command over language all the four skills have to be thoroughly mastered.
1.4 WRITING SKILLS ACQUISITON:
Writing is different from the other skills because it aims at compactness and precision
as well as grammatical, idiomatic and orthographic accuracy. Learning to write is
learning to use grammar with ease and present facts in a sequential order. Writing
involves both accuracy and fluency. One should master the elementary mechanics of
written work viz. Handwriting, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, word order and
word division, and sentence structure and constructions before they are given a free
hand to develop ease and fluency in writing.
1.5 WRITING – AN ESSENTIAL SKILL :

Writing is a process of analysis. An appreciation of the full import of this analytical
process requires relative cognitive maturity and, in our literate society , also functions
as a promoter of such maturity. As with most of his other experiences the totality, or
gestalt, of the language before he begins to take it apart. To a child learning his native
language, writing comes as a pleasant discovery which greatly arouses his curiosity,
as do the innards of an alarm clock which a young boy has taken apart to see what
makes it tick. Compared to this pleasant discovery of writing, the reverse discovery of
the spoken form by a child brought up on R-W-L-S sequence is invariably a highly
disconcerning one, since he seems to have no clue how the bits and pieces of written
language that he has been given by the teacher add up to that awe-inspiring fluency of
the spoken form which the “Real” speaker of the language mouths with such
devastating ease! It is easy thereafter to feel cheated and frustrated, to feel that the
real language has somehow been missed altogether. And since usually this realization
comes rather late in the case of the second language, when other things in life have
begun to be more important, the best course seems to give up, or to just drift along.
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF WRITING:

Writing is one of the expressive skills to be developed in a language. Writing is of
immense importance. According to Bacon, “Reading maketh a full man, conference a
ready man and writing an exact man”. Emphasizing the importance of writing
Mahatma Gandhi said that “Fair and legible handwriting makes a man perfect in all
walks of life”. In the words of Bell, “Writing is a tool used to enable us to express
what is in our mind and for some people is almost as important as
speech”.S.S.M.Gaudar says, “Writing has an instrumental value in schools” He
further says, “It is a means of preserving the knowledge which the pupils have gained
or the judgment he has formed. It serves as a check on his foregoing useful items of
knowledge and ideas. The habit of making notes of what is read and of summarizing
helps the recollection of what has been studied”.
1.7 TECHNIQUE USED FOR STUDENTS' COMPETENTENCY:
I The student will become competent in composition, analysis, language,

research, and presentation.
II 1.7.1 COMPOSITION COMPETENCIES

The student will
1 Use a process of writing that includes independent and collaborative
prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing to produce unified, coherent,
and well-developed paragraphs and essays that support the expressed or
implied controlling idea.
2 Write under time constraints imposed by school and workplace
situations.
A 1.7.1.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES

The student will
1 Respond appropriately to a variety of specific writing tasks,
some out-of-class assignments, and some timed, in-class
assignments.
2 Engage in a variety of prewriting activities (e.g., brainstorming,
listing, freewriting, journal keeping, clustering) as a group
member before proceeding to individual prewriting in order to
develop both confidence and competency in the beginning
stages of the composing process.
3 Work through the stages of the writing process both in groups
and individually to develop ideas, select appropriate supporting
details, organize those details, write drafts, edit, and complete a
final product.
4 Read high-quality essays and identify both the controlling idea
and the organizational methods used to provide support.
5 Write essays demonstrating command of specific organizational
strategies, i.e., modes of discourse.
6 Share writing samples through both oral and written
presentations.
A 1.7.1.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

The instructor will
1 Evaluate both the student's writing process and the final product
—to include out-of-class and timed in-class assignments.
2 Use student self-assessment rubrics.
3 Use peer evaluation rubrics.
4 Score holistically using trained faculty teams.
5 Encourage holistic scoring by trained peers.
6 Use collaborative, small-group peer assessment.
7 Administer objective and essay exams to demonstrate student
command of course material.
8 Publish class "books" of student writing.
9 Schedule instructor-student conferences.
10 Evaluate portfolios of student writing.
I 1.7.2 ANALYSIS COMPETENCIES

The student will
1 Explore attitudes and beliefs in writing, reading, and speaking, valuing

cultural diversity.
2 Demonstrate critical thinking/problem solving skills.
3 Apply techniques of analysis, interpretation, and evaluation to works of
literature and to workplace documents and situations.

The student will
1 Complete writing and research tasks which require critical
thinking, i.e., planning and executing writing projects
individually and in groups.
2 Generate ideas through group brainstorming to help students
become aware of and use problem-solving skills.
3 Use reading strategies such as previewing, annotating, note
taking, and outlining.
4 Read selections representing various cultures and explore
different value/belief systems.
5 Discuss issues concerning writer's voice, point of view, tone,
and audience.
6 Compare/contrast both in writing and in discussion different
attitudes and values encountered through readings.
7 Identify techniques used to interpret literature, such as character
analysis, and apply these techniques in writing and discussion.
8 Apply critical skill used in literary analysis to analytical
techniques that students use in everyday situations, including the
workplace.

The instructor will
1 Evaluate student analytical work.
2 Use student self-assessment. Set up instructor/student
collaboration to establish evaluation criteria.
3 Encourage peer evaluation in small groups using established
evaluation criteria.
4 Have class members evaluate group or individual projects using
established evaluation criteria.
I 1.7.3 LANGUAGE COMPETENCIES

The student will
1 Practice standard usage in oral and written communications, including

conventions of grammar, punctuation, mechanics, spelling, diction, and
sentence structure.
2 Use appropriate diction, tone, voice, point of view, and figurative
language, depending upon audience and purpose.

The student will
1 Write sentences using prescribed sentence patterns.
2 Edit faulty sentences to correct usage errors.
3 Confer with instructor and revise works in process for
appropriate language use.
4 Define the audience for a given written work.
5 Create an audience analysis checklist.
6 Define various tones and points of view.
7 Analyze sentences, paragraphs, and whole works to identify
tone and point of view.
8 Produce written materials that demonstrate a variety of tones
and figurative language.
9 Demonstrate standard usage in group and class discussions and
in oral presentations.

The instructor will
1 Administer pretest and posttest on standard usage.
2 Administer standardized tests.
3 Evaluate student writing in process.
8 Use small-group peer assessments.
9 Administer objective and essay exams.
10 Publish class "books" of student writing.
12 Evaluate portfolios of student writing.
I 1.7.4 RESEARCH COMPETENCIES

The student will
1 Use a research process that includes selecting a topic and gathering
information from a variety of primary and secondary sources: oral, text,
and electronic.
2 Summarize, paraphrase, interpret, and synthesize information from a
variety of primary and secondary sources.
3 Incorporate relevant research findings into essays or reports,
documenting them appropriately to avoid plagiarism.

The student will
1 Tailor topics to suit the assigned scope of researched writing
projects.
2 Identify the kind of questions that should be answered to write
well on a topic.
3 Identify potential kinds and sources of information needed to
write well on a given topic.
4 Produce bibliographies in accordance with a required style
sheet.
5 Justify the inclusion of particular sources on a bibliography
according to such criteria as credibility, quality of writing, date
of publication, and established authority.
6 Identify in particular sources the material likely to be useful and
appropriate in a given paper.
7 Write précis of short texts.
8 Produce notes in which the mixture of direct and indirect
quotation and various forms of summarizing show an
understanding of how outside information is used in researched
essays and reports.
9 Produce appropriate notes on information in published tables,
charts, and graphs.
10 Use electronic and textual library research equipment, indexes,
and catalogues to identify and locate potentially useful sources
of information on various topics.
11 Write passages synthesizing and analyzing data collected from a
variety of sources and incorporate them in essays and reports of
substantial length.

The instructor will
1 Evaluate both the student's research process and the final
product.
4 Score holistically by trained faculty teams.
5 Score holistically using trained peers.
6 Use collaborative, small-group peer assessments.
7 Administer objective and essay exams to demonstrate command
of research procedures and standard conventions of
documentation.
8 Require oral defenses of findings and interpretations in major
essays and reports based on research.
10 Assign hands-on tests or exercises using appropriate research
technology in both electronic and print form.
11 Evaluate portfolios of research process.
I 1.7.5 PRESENTATION COMPETENCIES

The student will
1 Select or design appropriate academic and workplace communication

formats and styles and use them in oral or written presentations, both
individually and collaboratively, to achieve a specific purpose.
2 Use computer applications to write and format documents and to create
and integrate visual materials where appropriate to support text.

The student will
1 Format appropriately a variety of academic and workplace
writing tasks.
2 Prepare oral and written presentations acceptable to the intended
audience for either academic or workplace communication.
3 Prepare computer-generated documents using computer
graphics or other visual materials as appropriate.

The instructor will
1 Evaluate both the student's process and the final product.
6 Provide for evaluation by professionals in the workplace.
7 Use collaborative, small-group peer assessments.
8 Administer objective and essay exams to demonstrate student
knowledge of various academic and workplace formats and
graphics options.
9 Administer objective and essay exams which require the student
to respond using a computer.
11 Evaluate portfolios of documents for presentation effectiveness.
1.8 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: COMPETENCE, PERFORMANCE AND
ACQUISITION
Educationalist opine that it is possible to analyze a natural language at a number of

different levels: sounds (phonology), words (morphology), sentence structure
(syntax), meaning (semantics), and use (pragmatics). The task of linguistics is in part
to discover the appropriate units of analysis at each level and to state generalizations
in terms of these units that capture that regularities inherent in the language itself. But
languages are not just abstract structured systems. They are also used in thought and
communication, and it is the task of psycholinguistics (or psychology of language) to
discover how knowledge of language is represented in the mind/brain of a fluent
speaker, how this information is utilized in the production and comprehension of
expressions, and how speakers acquire these abilities.
Chomsky (1972) proposes that we construct three models. The first reflects what a
fluent speaker knows (what information is stored) about the sound-meaning relations
in the language—it a model of the speaker’s linguistic competence . This is to be
distinguished from a performance model, which reflects the actual processes that go
into producing and understanding language.Finally, a language acquisition model (or
device) reflects the changes in the competence and performance of a child during the
acquisition period and thus provides a model of the child’s language-learning
achievements .
COMPETENCE
Sounds MODEL Linguistic meaning
(Grammar)
Figure :1.1
A competence model
Communicative intention PERFORMANCE Sounds

MODEL
Figure :1. 2
A performance model
ACQUISITION PERFORMANCE
Language experience MODEL MODEL
Figure :1. 3
1.9 THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE:
People communicate in many ways—a look can kill, a tone of voice can indicate that
a speaker means the opposite of what he or she is saying, and a touch sometimes says
more than a book can. Two people will sometimes speak to each other quite
differently when they are alone than when a third person is present. A very large part
of modern psychology, from physiological studies of muscle control to the social
psychology of persuasion, could be considered relevant to the topic of human
communication. This book focuses on one mode of communication; it is about
language.
Language is surely the most important tool of communication that individuals have at
their disposal. Many people have claimed that the possession of language is the single
most important distinction between humans and lower forms of life. All humans, with
a few pathological exceptions to be discussed later, acquire language; it is a universal
human accomplishment. Up to this point, no non-human has acquired a language.
(This last claim has recently been disputed. We will also consider that issue later.)
Language permits people to communicate a tremendous range of attitudes and
information, biases and truths. It permits the building of a tradition through which a
person’s actions and thoughts can be influenced by the thoughts of someone who
lived hundreds of years earlier. It permits a degree of self-expression impossible to
any other species. When used to describe events, it has an evocative power rivaling
that of the events themselves. Further, language can be used to request information or
action, to challenge, to command, and to perform many other functions.
While it is obvious that language is our central tool of communication and that it has
great expressive and informative power, its actual nature is not so obvious. Usually
we do not think much about language itself; we simply use it. But in fact there are
many different ways to think about language. The point of view we will take is that of
psycholinguistics.
Psycholinguistics, as we will use the term here, is the study of language as a human
activity. It is the study of what people acquire when they acquire a language, of how
they acquire it, and of how they use it when producing and understanding messages.
As such, it is a sub-field of the general area of cognitive psychology, the psychology
of knowing or of thinking. Thus, psycholinguistics is an important part of the study of
how the mind is organized and how it works. It is clearly relevant to the study of
human communication, and it may have applications in many practical areas, such as
teaching reading skills, language acquisition by the deaf, learning foreign languages,
and others. But the present focus of the field is not directly on the topic of
communication. Rather, it is on the language abilities that make communication
possible. In addition, psycholinguistics does not yet have very much to offer in the
way of concrete proposals about practical problems. Some people, the present authors
included, believe that a study of the basic processes involved in acquiring,
understanding, and producing language will be a useful and necessary antecedent to
significant advances in these important fields. But for the present this is only a belief
and not an established fact.
1.10 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

The rule of thumb is that two people speak the same language if they are mutually
intelligible, while those who learn to speak a language in the same community are
said to speak the same dialect. But these are only rough and inadequate distinctions.
For example, it is sometimes said that speakers of Mandarin and Cantonese speak two
dialects of Chinese, even though they are not mutually intelligible. And speakers of
Norwegian can make themselves understood by Swedes, even though they are usually
said to speak different languages. The distinction between a language difference and a
dialect difference is not a sharp one. A whimsical linguist once suggested that a
dialect becomes a language when its speakers get an army and a navy! For the
present, that is good enough for our purposes.
There are two points about linguistic diversity that should be mentioned at the outset,
since a misunderstanding of the issues involved can badly distort one’s understanding
of the nature of language. We call these the myth of “pure language” and the problem
of linguistic chauvinism. They are related problems.
1.11 THE MYTH OF PURE LANGUAGE
In our experience, almost everyone who is new to the study of language believes in
the myth of pure language. According to this myth each language exists in some pure
or absolutely correct form. Any deviation from this form is looked upon as an
impurity, as sub-standard. This view is represented schematically in Figure1.1 A. At
the top of the figure is an L, representing the “pure” form of some language. This is
the ideal form in which, say, American English exists. Perhaps it is the English
spoken by an educated and articulate network news broadcaster. Related to L are
various dialects, D1, D2, etc. some of the dialects are quite close to L, for example
D1. This is the dialect of someone who speaks very much like the newsman, but has
some trace of impurity or difference, perhaps a broad Boston a. Further away are
other dialects, until we reach D7. This might be the dialect spoken by a poor
sharecropper who, when asked what his son does, would reply, “He be workin at
farmin.”
1. 12 LINGUISTIC CHAUVINISM
A second, related attitude toward linguistic diversity is linguistic chauvinism—the

belief that one’s own language is the best of all possible languages. This romantic
notion has been far from harmless, since a great deal of human strife has been caused,
at least in part, by one group of people trying to impose their language on another,
generally in the belief that their language was superior to the other, “heathen” tongue.
A rather harmless example was provided by the 1923 Illinois of a country has a
powerful psychological influence in stimulating and preserving the national ideal, be
it enacted: ‘The official language of the State of Illinois shall be known hereafter as
the “American” language and not as the “English” language,’” (Mencken, 1963, PP.
92-93). We wonder if those who voted “aye” knew that that very word has its roots in
Middle English!
Linguistic chauvinism often shows up in the claim that one language is more
“complex” than another. Depending upon the mood of the chauvinist at the moment,
this alleged fact may be used to condemn or to praise the language under discussion.
(For example, the language is complex and therefore overly complicated, confused,
and hard to learn. Or, the language is complex and therefore rich in expressive power
and useful for communication). Such claims presuppose a yardstick for measuring
complexity, for without one the chauvinist’s claims are simply empty. No such
yardstick exists.
1.13 LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS
A linguist might approach the question by asking how the rules of a grammar of
English are like those of a grammar of, say, Finnish, and whether these similarities
are also reflected in the grammars of other languages. Taking a more psychological
approach, we can ask about the similarities between what speakers of English and
Finnish know about their languages.
1.13.1 DISCRETENESS
“Discreteness. The possible messages in any language constitute a discrete repertory

rather than a continuous one”. (Hockett, 1966, p.10). That is, the messages in a human
language are built up form units (i.e., speech sounds), of which there is a limited
number. For example, you can say the word camel in a number of ways that differ
slightly from each other, but a hearer would probably regard all the pronunciations as
being variations of camel. The variations might indicate something about how
important the word was in what you were saying, about whether you were speaking
rapidly or slowly, or about your dialect; but they would all be taken as being the same
word.
1.13.2 ARBITRARINESS
“Arbitrariness. The relation between a meaningful element in language and its

denotation is independent of any physical resemblance between the two”. ( Hockett,
1966, p.10). That is, words do not have to sound or look like the things they stand for.
There are, in every language, a few words (e.g. names for animal noises) where there
is a relationship between the word’s sound and what the word stands for
(onomatopoeia). There also may be a few words in which some aspect of the word’s
sound appears to be related to the kind of thing the word means. For example, words
with vowels like ee (teeny) seem to refer to small things, while words with vowels
like oo (huge) appear to refer to large things (phonetic symbolism). What is striking
about these phenomena is that they are quite rare and perhaps due only to chance (see
Taylor & Taylor, 1965).
1.13.3 OPENNESS
“Openness. New linguistic messages are coined freely and easily” ( Hockett, 1966,
p.11). This is one of the most important universal characteristics of human language.
Consider for a moment a simple question: How many sentences are there in English?
Although it may not be immediately obvious, the correct answer is that there is no
limit.
1.13.4 DUALITY OF PATTERNING
“Duality of patterning.” Language is, essentially, a means of relating two different

kinds of patterns or forms of representation—sound and meaning. The representation;
the representation of meanings, the semantic system, is an internal representation. The
means of relating the two is a language’s syntactic system.
1.14 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
For the psycholinguist and the linguist, probably the most important characteristics
are the last two universals we discussed—openness and duality of patterning.
The central fact to keep in mind is that the external form of language does not involve
representations of meanings. Meanings is conveyed from person to person
linguistically only when the speaker translates the meaning he wishes to convey into
an external form and the listener translates that form back into a representation of the
meaning. Thus, it is the internal and external codes as well as the means by which
translations between them are accomplished that constitute language. A language can
be thought of as both the two codes and the set of rules or procedures for turning a
representation in one of them into a representation in the other. In principle, the
procedures must be able to carry out an unlimited number of such translations, each
one novel.
To put it slightly differently, what a person knows when he knows a language is how
to translate between internal and external representations. The rules and procedures
involved in such translations are, as we have already suggested, quite complicated.
This in itself would make the task of understanding what a person knows and how he
is able to make use of that knowledge a difficult one. Yet as we will soon see, the task
is made even more difficult by the fact that we do not have direct access to the
knowledge involved. Language users cannot say in any details what it is they know or
how they use that knowledge. But before exploring the implications of this lack of
awareness, there are a few additional points about the nature of language that should
be touched upon.
1.15 A UNIQUE CODE AND A GENERAL CODE
Although the external and internal codes will be discussed in detail later, one point of
contrast is worth mentioning here. The external code, the highly structured
phonological system, is unique to language and serves almost no function other than
its linguistic one.Occasionally, the close relationship between the external code and
the translation process has led people to speak as if the code itself were language.
The internal code, on the other hand, is probably not unique to language. This code
appears to serve functions in addition to its linguistic ones. The semantic code
involves concepts and propositions of the sorts involved in thought. Language is one
way, though not necessarily the only way, of translating these representations into an
external code is, of course, not necessary. We often think without speaking. And in
some cases a translation can be performed only with great difficulty. We sometimes
have trouble finding the appropriate form for expressing what is represented in the
internal code. In cases where the translation does occur, we tend to think of the
internal code as semantic and a part of language. When translation into the external
code of language does not occur, we tend to think of the internal code as a general
cognitive code. The semantic and cognitive codes are interrelated, perhaps identical.
1.16 LANGUAGE AND THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM

We have suggested that the internal, meaningful representations may occur in a
general cognitive code, the same code involved in thinking. We might think of this
code as being the interface between language and though, the place where the two
meet. This implies that the relationship between forming and manipulating
representations in the internal cognitive code on the one hand, and translating some of
them into and out of representations in the external phonological code on the other.
The fact that such translations can be performed does not require that they must be.
Also, it does not imply that such translations can always be performed easily.
If the internal representations that underlie language are the same kind as those
involved in thinking, then it seems likely that there will be close relationships
between the kinds of phenomena we observe in language and those we observe in
some other kinds of cognitive functioning. This suggests that we might learn a great
deal about language and language processing from considering certain other aspects
of cognitive functioning. For example, it might be helpful to view that processes
involved in a child’s acquiring language as reflections of those underlying general
cognitive development .
This view that there are important parallels between the processes of understanding,
producing, and acquiring language on the one hand, and other cognitive processes on
the other, has not always been a being special, separate from other human cognitive
processes. This latter view has been reflected in a tendency to characterize the
universal properties of language as being linguistic universals, implying that there is
something specifically linguistic about them . The question of how language is related
to other human cognitive processes is, of course, not a matter to be settled by
definition. It is an empirical question, a question of what the facts are.
1.17 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Certainly a child must be exposed to a language in order to acquire it. How else could
we account for such obvious facts as that children who are exposed to Chinese but not
English learn Chinese and not English? But beyond the mere fact of exposure to a
language, is there anything about how children interact with adult language users that
is important for their acquiring the adults’ language?
Most parents believe that there is, and if asked are likely to say that they taught their
children to talk. Several processes are frequently mentioned in this context—
reinforcement, imitation, and expansion being prominent among them.
1.17.1REINFORCEMENTS
The general notion about how reinforcement works is that adults respond positively to
some of the utterances children produce but not to others. By encouraging the
children, agreeing with what they say, showing interest, etc., they reinforce these
utterances, making the children more likely to use them in the future. If reinforcement
is selective, and only the most adult-like utterances are reinforced, it is these that are
strengthened. The other utterances, the ones that is unreinforced because they are less
adult-like, come to occur less frequently. Thus, over a period of time, the child’s
utterances become more and more like those of adults.
Such a proposal has an appealing simplicity; it sounds like something that might
happen in interactions between adults and children. Unfortunately, the proposal’s
apparent plausibility is highly misleading, because this account of language
development is wrong. Reinforcement is not a central part of language development.
The question about reinforcement is not whether the sorts of reinforcing interchanges
we have mentioned actually occur. They do. The question is whether reinforcement
has the kind of effect on language acquisition that the proposal suggests. That is, what
does the child learn about language by having certain utterances reinforced?
The reinforcement proposal suggests that language acquisition is a process of
strengthening and shaping particular behaviors, in this case utterance. In order for a
child’s utterance to be strengthened or shaped, he must first produce it. Hence,
reinforcement cannot easily account for the initial occurrence of utterances. And, as
we have already said, utterances are understood before they are produced. Thus, there
are many aspects of language acquisition about which the reinforcement proposal has
nothing to say.
1.17.2 IMITATION
Young children often reproduce portions of utterances they have recently heard,
though such reproductions, or imitations, are generally not exact copies of those
utterances. It is often suggested that imitation serves to increase the child’s language
abilities, that is, that he learns about language through imitating it . The question of
interest here is not whether children imitate utterances they hear. Clearly, they do.
The question is, rather, whether imitation has an effect upon language development.
There is clear evidence that imitating utterances is not a necessary condition for
language development. Occasionally children are born who, because of disorders of
the speech production mechanisms, are unable to produce the sounds of human
speech. But such children show essentially normal development of the ability to
understand language (Lenneberg, 1962; MacNeilage, Rootes, & Chase, 1967). Thus,
being able to produce speech (and hence being able to imitate) is not essential for
progress in other aspects of language development.
1.17.3 EXPANSION
Children imitate adults’ utterances, but adults also “imitate” children. But while a
child’s imitations of an adult are likely to be reductions of the adult’s utterances, the
adult’s imitations of the child are likely to be expansions, taking the child’s
incomplete utterances and expanding them into appropriate full sentences.
1.18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Children obviously do not acquire language simply to amuse themselves or because

they have nothing better to do. One of the major functions that children’s language
serves for them is communicating—communicating information about what they
know (and, in asking questions, about what they do not know), about how they feel,
what they need, and so forth. Even young children communicate about such things,
sometimes verbally, sometimes non-verbally, and often in both ways simultaneously.
But communicating effectively requires more than just knowing a language and
having something to communicate. It requires, in addition, being able to take into
account the characteristics of the audience to which the communication is directed-
what they already know, what they might be interested in knowing, etc. in discussing
sentence production in adults .
1.19 WRITING SYSTEMS
It is tempting to think of written material as simply a way of making spoken language

visible and permanent. However, this view is too simple. For one thing, there are
many written forms that do not correspond at all closely to the way that people talk.
Consider, for example, the instructions on an income tax form, or those that come
with a do-it-yourself electronics kit. No one, not even a government bureaucrat, talks
like these written forms. Much descriptive writing also has a style quite unlike any
spoken form (read any travel brochure for evidence of this). Since many things that
we read are quite different in structure and style from what we hear, the view that
writing is just speech made permanent simply cannot be correct. Writing is an abstract
system which certainly bears an intimate relationship to the abstract system of spoken
language, but that relationship is not generally one of simple and direct translation.
As we think about the way in which the reader translates the printed word into a
meaningful message, our conception of this process must be shaped by the nature of
the written code itself. Not all writing systems encode information in the same way.
The inventions do not all have the same patent number. Early writing may have
developed out of the use of symbols that represented animals and other images. These
early symbols bore more-or-less direct relationships to the things they represented, as
when a stylized picture of a horse was used to represent a horse. Around 15,000 B.C.,
some marks began to be used in more abstract ways, perhaps to represent lunar cycles
(Marshack, 1972). This was an important step in the evolution of writing. However,
we do not speak of symbolic notations as being writing until the symbols were used to
represent elements of the spoken language (e.g., words, syllables, phonemes).
Writing, then, did not appear until long after the early symbolic period.
Three major systems of writing have been invented, along with many that are
combination forms. The three major ones are the logographic, the syllabic, and the
alphabetic. The earliest writing of which we have records is Egyptian, and comes
from the latter part of the fourth millennium B.C. the Egyptian system consisted of
approximately five hundred symbols (hieroglyphs) which represented words for
objects, actions, and abstractions (Lehmann, 1962). Since each symbol represented a
word or concept, the system is called logographic (from the Greek logos or word).
Later, the Egyptian system developed into one in which the hieroglyphs sometimes
represented words and sometimes syllables. (When the written symbol represents a
syllable, the writing system is, of course, syllabic.)
Some time before 1500 B.C. an important advance in writing systems was made by
Semtic-speaking people. The Semtic system still used hieroglyphs, but it used only 24
such symbols, each of which stood for a consonant (Bloomfield, 1933). It was the
Greeks who added written representations for the vowels and essentially made the
writing system alphabetic. (In an alphabetic system the written symbol represents,
approximately, a phoneme.) According to Lehmann (1962), “This advance in writing
systems has never been independently duplicated, nor have writing systems
developed beyond it.” The development of the alphabetic principle has stimulated
scholars to rapturous admiration:
The notion of representing a sound by a graphic symbol is itself so stupefying a leap
of the imagination that what is remarkable is not so much that it happened relatively
late in human history, but rather that it happened at all. (Goody & Watt, 1963)
Writing systems based upon all three principles still exist today. The Chinese system
is primarily logographic; the Japanese is a combination of logographic and syllabic;
and, of course, English is primarily an alphabetic system. Not all symbols in English
are alphabetic, however; the symbol “c” is logographic, and a symbol like “4th”
involves a combination of systems.The process involved in extracting information
form a printed page no doubt depend heavily upon which kind of writing system is
being read. Users of a logographic system are presented with a different set of
problems than are users of an alphabetic system. Many psychologists have speculated
that learning a logographic system like Chinese may be much more difficult than
learning to read English.
1.20 LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN
The existence of a relationship between the brain and language has been recognized
for a very long time. The ancient Egyptians recorded reports of head injuries that
resulted in the loss of speech, the phenomenon we now know as aphasia. Many of the
phenomena we have discussed throughout his book point to the central role which the
brain plays in linguistic competence and performance. Similarly, the speech
perception and comprehension processes discussed earlier are to be accounted for
mainly in terms of cortical mechanisms and functioning. In this chapter we will focus
directly on the nature of the brain’s involvement in language.
Three themes will guide our discussion. One concerns the possible relationships
between specific brain structures and specific language functions. This topic is
generally referred to as the localization of language functions. The second topic,
closely related to the first, concerns the effects of brain damage upon language
functions. The primary focus here will be on the kind of language deficit known as
aphasia. The third topic concerns the extent to which language is unique to humans.
We will be concerned here with whether or not the human brain is the only one
possessing the structures and capabilities necessary for language. This is the question
of the species specificity of language. Throughout the discussion our guiding concern
will be to discover what can be learned from a study of the brain-language
relationship about the psychological processes involved in language.
1.21 THE STUDY OF THE BRAIN-LANGUAGE RELATIONSHIP
Since the ancient Egyptians first discovered aphasia, we have learned a great deal
about the brain and about language. But although we have acquired a great many
facts, a coherent account of the relationships between these two areas of interest still
eludes us. Almost every aspect of the brain’s involvement in language still gives rise
to heated arguments. We should not find this too surprising, for we have seen
abundant evidence that the processes involved in such performances as understanding
and producing utterances are enormously complex. And it is equally apparent that the
human brain is unequalled in complexity by any other organ. Finding the
relationships that hold between one set of complexities and another has to be very
difficult.
However, it is not just their complexity that underlies our ignorance of the
relationships between the brain and language. Rather, it is that much of what we know
about the brain is the wrong sort of knowledge. The relevant things we know about
language are largely about the processes involved in translating from a speech signal
to a meaning and back again. In the case of the brain, we know a great deal about the
anatomy and physiology of its Mann interrelated structures, but we are still all too
ignorant of the functions those structures serve. That is, we know what kinds of things
the brain must be doing when producing or understanding utterances, but we do not
know very know how it does those things.
One reason for this unhappy situation is the immense difficulty of obtain relevant data
about brain functions. To discover such data generally requires studying the brain
while it is functioning (though a certain amount can be learned from anatomical data
collected at autopsy). In the main, we are forced to work with two kinds of data:
records of brain activity occurring during language related activities (e.g.,
electrophysiological data), and data on the effects of pathological brain conditions on
activities involving language.
There are, essentially, two relevant kinds of electrophysiological data concerning
brain activity. One comes from stimulating brain structures electrically while those
structures are exposed for surgery (see, e.g., Penfield & Roberts, 1959). Since patients
are generally conscious during such surgery, it is possible to observe the effects that
stimulating a particular area has on their speech performance. But brain surgery is not
performed for the purpose of collecting such data. It is done to treat some
pathological condition (e.g., to remove a tumor). Thus, such data are available only
for brains that are not functioning normally, and it is difficult to interpret them in
terms of language-related brain functions in the normal, nonpathological brain.
The second kind of electrophysiological data comes from recording the brain’s
surface electrical activity (electroencephalographic, or EEG, activity) while subjects
are engaged in some language activity. This technique can, of course, be used with
normal subjects, giving it an advantage over other techniques. The difficulty is that
there are no simple relationships between such surface electrical activity and the
underlying brain processes which give rise to it. The data are very “noisy”. One of our
colleagues has remarked about EEG studies of auditory perception that learning about
audition from them is like trying to learn how baseball is played by analyzing
recordings made with a microphone attached to the top of the Houston Astrodome. It
is not that there is nothing to be learned this way. The problem is, rather, that unless
you already know what you are looking for in the EEG data it is very difficult to find
it amid all the other, irrelevant things that are also there. For this reason we will not
be able to make much use of the EEG data available.
The other main source of evidence on the brain-language relationship is studies of
language deficits produced by such pathological conditions of the brain as those
resulting from cerebral hemorrhages, tumors, and injuries. A wealth of data
concerning such effects has accumulated over the past century. As we will see
shortly, there is considerable debate over both the usefulness and the interpretation of
these data. For example, it is generally difficult to pinpoint the exact nature or extent
of brain damage. Although techniques for obtaining such information have improved
in the past few years, the relevant anatomical data are usually unavailable until an
autopsy can be performed, often many years after the initial damage. During the
interim, many brain changes can occur, clouding the picture of the damage which
produced the language deficit in the first place.
But although there are major difficulties in interpreting the kinds of data available on
the brain functions underlying language, they are all the data we have. We have little
choice but to try to make as much sense of them as we can. Before considering these
data on the relationships between brain structures and language functions, it will be
useful to very briefly review some of the relevant structures.
1.22 BRAIN STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE
In discussions of language and the brain, one often hears the statement that humans
have large brains, relative to body weight, compared with other animals. This fact is
sometimes used to “explain” why humans alone have language: only they have large
enough brains to cope with linguistic complexities. It is true that the ratio of brain
weight to body weight is relatively high in humans (Lenneberg, 1967). This ratio is
about 1/47 (with a brain weight of 1.35 kg) for an adult human, compared to about
1/104 (with a brain weight of .45 kg) for an adult chimpanzee.
It appears, however, that neither the mass of the brain nor the brain/body weight ratio
is the crucial determinant of language capabilities. Humans with remarkably small
brains have acquired language. There is, for example, a rare condition known as
nanocephalic dwarfism in which, unlike other dwarfs, the individuals preserve the
body proportions of normal humans. Such individuals may be only 75 cm ( 21/2 feet)
tall as adults. The adult brain weight of nanocephalic dwarfs may be as little as. 4 kg,
barely more than that of a normal newborn infant. Their brain/body weight ratio is
about 1/34, about the same as a 3-year-old (i.e still immature) chimpanzee, whose
brain weight is also .4 kg. Although these dwarfs are mentally retarded, with a mental
age of 5 or 6 years, the majority master language skills at the 5-year-old level. We
know from chapter 6 and 7 that this is a substantial mastery of language.
The nanocephalic dwarf has a very small brain and almost masters language. Other
creatures match these individuals in brain weight and in brain/body weight ratio and
do not acquire language. This calls into doubt the argument that brain size is all-
important to language. Lenneberg (1967) noted that the important fact about the
nanocephalic dwarf’s brain is that it is a human brain—it has the structural and
organizational characteristics distinctive of the human species. It is not the brain’s
size that is important for language. Rather, it is the brain’s structure and organization.
The human brain, viewed from the outside, looks rather like a wrinkled boxing glove.
Somewhat more accurately, it looks like two boxing gloves held tightly together with
the thumbs along the outside edges. Like the rest of the body, the brain is roughly
symmetrical around the midline—it’s left and right halves, or hemispheres, are nearly
mirror-images of each other. Most concern about the brain’s involvement in language
has focused on the cerebral cortex, the thin layer of fissured and convoluted tissue
which covers the surface of the brain and gives it its wrinkled appearance. The two
hemispheres of the cortex are almost completely separated at the midline, being
joined only by a sheet of nerve fibers known as the corpus callosum. All
communication between the cortical areas of the two hemispheres occurs thought the
corpus callosum.
Two areas of the cerebral cortex that are generally accepted as being intimately
involved in language functions are Brocas’s area and Wernicke’s area. The first of
these is named for Paul Broca, who is generally regarded as being the first (1861) to
point out a relationship between damage to a particular brain area and aphasia. Broca
argued that the structures of this area are the one primarily involved in the production
of speech, a view still accepted by many, though not all, authorities.
Wernicke’s area, named for another pioneering aphasiologist, is often regarded as

being involved mainly in receptive aspects of language processing. A third cortical
area regarded as important for language is the supplementary motor area. That these
areas are involved in language functioning is indisputable. What is far more
controversial, as we shall see, is how they are involved.
One fact on which there is considerable agreement is that the brain’s left hemisphere
is more intimately involved in language than the right hemisphere. Since the time of
Broca, for example, it has been apparent that damage to the left hemisphere is far
more likely to result in aphasia than is corresponding damage to the right hemisphere.
This lateral difference, sometimes referred to as cerebral dominance, appears to be
related in a complex way to handedness. For nearly all right-handed adults, it is the
left hemisphere that is dominant for language. The correlation is more complex for
individuals who are left-handed. The majority of these (60-70%) are also left-
hemisphere that is dominant for language while the remainder are right-hemisphere
dominant. There is little doubt that the two hemispheres of the cortex serve somewhat
different functions and that these differences are in some way involved with language.
But, as we shall see later, the nature of the difference is highly complex and a matter
of considerable controversy. In any event, Broca’s observation that aphasia was
associated with left hemisphere damage was the first indication that language
functions might be localized in particular areas of the brain.
1.23 THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE
Learning common term for a set of objects permits the set to be more readily
manipulated in our cognitive systems. As a result, those objects in the culture that are
referred to by a common linguistic term will tend to be manipulated together in the
speaker’s cognitive system. It is important to note, however, that the language does
not have complete freedom to sort just any set of objects together. As the researcher
get further from perceptual objects such as shape and color, our flexibility in choosing
what can be members of a common class may increase, but there probably are always
cognitive constraints upon what conceptual (as well as perceptual ) objects can go
together as members of a useful cognitive category.
Let us return for a moment to the example of the verb be in Black English. We can
ask whether speakrs of BE are more aware of whether an event is momentary or
ongoing than are speakers of SE. According to the weak version of Whorf’s
hypothesis, they should be. Since the language requires that this aspect of the event be
coded in the verb system of BE, speakers must attend to it. Speakers of SE are not
required to encode this aspect of events in their speech, and therefore they may not be
as aware of the distinction.
We do not want to make the same mistake that Whorf made and stop here. The
linguistic distinction is not in itself evidence about the cognitive stat of the language
user. We know of no direct evidence that bears on the point, so our comments must
remain at the level of speculation for now. But there are plenty of reasons to be
skeptical about the claim that speakers of BE are more aware of the ongoing or
momentary nature of the events they describe than are speakers of SE. One reason for
skepticism has to do with the notion of “awareness” that we have been using so
loosely up to this point. When a language makes use of a distinction this fact alone
does not imply that the language user is consciously aware of that distinction. The
processing which makes use of the distinction may occur so automatically as to be
outside of the speaker’s conscious awareness.
For example, we are almost always unaware of whether the final phonological
segment of singular nouns is voiced or unvoiced, but we consistenltly make use of the
voicing information when we add plural markers. Words ending in voiceless
consonants are made plural by adding /s/ while those ending in voiced consonants are
pluralized by adding /z/. the operations that carry out this process occur outside of our
awareness. Do we “pay attention” to the voicing feature when we form plurals? In
one sense, we do. Our production mechanism takes voicing into account as it carries
out its operations. In another sense, we don’t. we are not consciously aware of the
distinction and, in fact, probably were not aware of it even when we acquired it. A
text book can point out the distinction, but even then it does not become part of our
conscious awareness as we are actually producing sentences and making use of it.
Analogously, it is not obvious that speakers of BE are consciously aware of the
distinction between the ongoing or temporary state of an event even as they produce.
So, before we can answer the question of whether or not the cognitive state of the
speaker of BE is different form that of the speaker of SE, we must clarify what is
going to count as a difference in cognitive state.
In sum, then, whether or not one concludes that systematic linguistic differences lead
to systematic cognitive differences depends on what one means by the latter phrase. If
it is taken to mean, “differences in conscious awareness of aspects of the
environment,” then the answer to the question is not likely to be the same as when it
means “differences in processing operations.” In the latter case the weak version of
Whorf’s hypothesis is reduced to a truism. That is, if the linguistic code is different
between two dialects (and it is, by definition) then the processing operations of the
speakers who possess the two dialects must also be different. In the former case,
however, more work has to be done before the hypothesis is shown to be true.
In order to make clear the relationship between language and thinking, we must first
clarify our picture of each of these separately. We need to have a better theory of
cognitive processes in general and of language processing in particular. In limited
domains, such as solving the kinds of word problems that Clark put to his subjects,
we have “mini-theories” of thought. In these cases some of the relationships between
our theory of language and our theory of thinking have been spelled out. But Clark’s
theory and the other mini-theories that exist, even if correct, will not generalize to all
aspects of question answering left alone to all aspects of thinking.
1.24 CONCLUSION:
An aspect of Writing proficiency that is receiving increasing attention fits with the
view of “Writer as a thinker”.Language and Thought process is a central and
important part of writing , as it able to enhance the quality of writing. The investigator
collected literature and analyzed various studies related to writing competence,
Psycholinguistic and Neurolinguistics.
As a next step the researcher had ventured to get a comprehensive view of the
research works already done on the major issues relating to the topic. Through the
researcher had collected exhaustive materials, only the most significant and relevant
studies are reviewed and presented in the following chapter.
CHAPTER – II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 INTRODUCTION:
The review of the literature involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of
research as well as reports of casual observation and opinion that are related to the
individuals planned research project.
Survey of literature is as crucial as planning of the study and time; spent in such a
survey invariable is a wise investment. It gives the knowledge of the previous studies
undertaken, the latest trend in the field of present investigation, the missing gaps and
gives scope for future investigation. The major purpose of reviewing the literature is
to determine what has already done that to the research topic under investigation. This
knowledge not only avoid unintentional duplication but also provides understanding
and insights necessary to develop a logical frame work into which the research topic
fit.
In this chapter, the researcher gave studies based on Psycholinguistic and

Neurolinguistics and Writing competence which was already done by various
researchers and the investigator reviewed it for references for her study .This chapter
contains nearly forty reviews of various researches.
2.1 STUDIES BASED ON NEUROLINGUISTICS
Carey, John; Churches, Richard; Hutchinson, Geraldine; Jones, Jeff; Tosey, Paul,(2010),
did a study on Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Learning: Teacher Case Studies on the
Impact of NLP in Education. This research paper reports on evidence from 24 teacher-
led action research case studies and builds on the 2008 CfBT Education Trust
published paper by Richard Churches and John West-Burnham "Leading learning
through relationships: the implications of Neurolinguistic programming for
personalisation and the children's agenda in England". The current research focused
on two gaps in the research literature: (1) The absence of any formal and systematic
literature review of evidence in relation to the impact and use of NLP in education;
and (2) The lack of any substantive teacher-led and classroom-based action research
in this area. Teachers followed the Teacher Learning Academy framework in
designing and implementing their research--a framework that CfBT Education Trust
was closely involved in the development of. All of the case studies demonstrate
significant impact in relation to teacher development, with many demonstrating
positive impacts on pupil learning outcomes. The paper also contains the first
systematic and comprehensive literature review of research evidence into the impact
of NLP in education and discusses the content of 111 papers and references including
quantitative and qualitative research evidence. The majority of published work was
found to be supportive of the use of NLP in schools and education although, as the
authors point out, this should only be considered as an interim finding because of the
wide range of methods used and variations in the quality of some of the research.
Helm, David Jay, (2009) did a study on Improving English Instruction through Neuro-
Linguistic Programming, This study examines the background information and
numerous applications of neuro-linguistic programming as it applies to improving
English instruction. In addition, the N.L.P. modalities of eye movement, the use of
predicates, and posturing are discussed. Neuro-linguistic programming presents all
students of English an opportunity to reach their full intellectual potential in the
learning environment.
Morett, Laura, (2007) did a study on Second Language Learning in an Undergraduate

Population: Applications of Psycholinguistic Theory, A mini-lesson in Spanish
vocabulary was taught to undergraduates unfamiliar with the language using one of
two predominant L2 teaching methodologies, the grammar-translation approach or the
communicative approach. Both experimental groups showed significant improvement
in learning the target language over the baseline measure set by the control group, but
no significant differences were observed between the two experimental groups.
Working memory efficiency appeared to be related to L2 learning. Two weeks later,
there were no significant differences between the performance of the any of the
groups. A subset of participants who underwent a neuroimaging procedure while
performing the experimental tasks showed higher overall cerebral blood flow
velocities under the condition based on the grammar-translation approach compared
to the condition based on the communicative approach. Taken as a whole, these
results form a mosaic of the mechanisms and variables involved in second language
learning, providing insight into the process of second language acquisition in
undergraduate students. Appended are: (1) Informed consent form for main task
component; (2) Pre-screening quiz; (3) Demographic survey; (4) Bilingual vocabulary
sheet; (5) Graphic vocabulary sheet; (6) Bilingual worksheet; (7) Graphic worksheet;
(8) Metacognitive survey; (9) Short-term post assessment; (10) Debriefing form for
main task component; (11) Informed consent form for follow-up component; (12)
Long-term post assessment; (13) Debriefing form for follow-up component; (14)
Informed consent form for neuroimaging component; (15) Debriefing form for
neuroimaging component; (16) Informed consent form for multicultural component;
(17) Interview questions; and (18) Debriefing form for multicultural component.
Valarino H., Elizabeth, (1997) did a study on Automatism and Neurolinguistics in the
Creation of a Fairy Tale for Adults: Excerpts of "The Secret of the Seventh Tower.", Present
excerpts of a fairy tale for adults entitled "The Secret of the Seventh Tower,"
indicating the presence of the neurolinguistic systems of representation used in its
creation during the process of automatism (automatic writing). Notes that the model
can facilitate the resolution of writer's block and enhance creative writing in seminars
for students and university professors.
Hynd, George W.; (1991) did a study on, Developmental Dyslexia, Neurolinguistic Theory
and Deviations in Brain Morphology. This research reviews computer tomography and
magnetic resonance imaging studies examining deviations in brain morphology.
Discusses methodological and technical issues. Concludes that dyslexics show
variations in specific brain regions. Suggests that neuroimaging procedures appear to
provide direct evidence supporting the importance of deviations in normal patterns of
brain morphology in dyslexia.
Sandhu, Daya Singh,(1991) did a study on , Application of Neurolinguistic Programming

for Treatment and Relapse Prevention of Addictive Behaviors. The dilemma of relapse
exists for a number of addictive behaviors, and mental health authorities agree that
keeping addictive behaviors off permanently is much more difficult than treating the
behaviors initially. Several relapse prevention models have been posited and
environmental, physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and affective factors have been
proposed to explain relapse after treatment of addictive behaviors. A conceptual
model for relapse prevention and treatment was developed which underscores the role
of intrapsychic variables that form the structure of subjective experiences of the
clients and contribute to relapse. Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) techniques are
incorporated into the model to deal with the relapse problems of addictive clients.
This NLP model emphasizes establishing rapport with clients to access their
subjective experiences. NLP techniques are employed to examine the client's belief
system, including beliefs about addictive behaviors, change, dealing with
incongruence or conflicting beliefs, and targets of intervention. The NLP model
works to plan a road map to change. NLP meta-tactics are used to re-imprint new
beliefs on the client, access the deep structure of the client's subjective experience,
explore the client's change history, reframe the situation, program the client's brain to
"go in a new direction" through the "swish" technique, and ensure that positive
changes that took place during therapy become generalized to other contexts through
the technique of future pacing.
Johnsen, Birgitta,(1990) did a study on, Acquisition of Reading and Writing. A

Neurolinguistic Approach. In the neurolinguistic approach to the study of the
acquisition of reading and writing, language may be used to express thoughts and
intellectual attitudes as well as emotions and emotional attitudes. Experimental
studies and clinical data suggest that grammatical rules for spoken language
predominantly rely on the left hemisphere of the brain, while the grammatical rules
for body language (expressing emotions) rely more on the right hemisphere. The
neurolinguistic approach also holds that: (1) in normal children and adults there is a
strong relationship between expressive speech ability and reading and writing; (2)
dyslexia is related to a left hemisphere lesion or to the absence of left hemisphere
dominance for auditory discrimination of speech sounds; (3) speechless persons can
develop reading and writing skills; (4) there are some basic abilities that must be
available to these persons; and (5) it is possible to support the development of these
abilities by using pictorial symbols.
Williams, M. F.; Jacobson, W. H.,(1989) did a study on , Neurolinguistic Programming in

Orientation and Mobility. The research describes the neurolinguistic programing model
and applies it to teaching orientation and mobility skills to congenitally blind
students, who have access to only the auditory and kinesthetic primary systems.
Understanding the effects on thought of limited representational systems can help
trainers teach more effective cane or dog guide use.
Leavell, Carol; Lewandowski, Lawrence (1989) did a study on, Neurolinguistic Deficits
and the Left Hemisphere in the Reading Disabled. This study addressed the left
hemisphere deficiency hypothesis, associated with reading disability, by accounting
for attention and examining the relationship between dichotic listening results and
neuropsychological deficits. Twenty reading-disabled (RD) and 20 non-reading-
disabled (NRD) boys, aged 8-12, were administered the Verbal Dichotic Listening
Task, the Non Verbal Dichotic Listening Task, the Lindamood Auditory Conceptual
Test (LAC), and the Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Childrens Revision
(LNNB-CR). Results showed that RD children performed significantly more poorly
than NRD children on: tests designed to measure overall "neurological involvement";
scales believed to tap predominantly left hemispheric processes, including the LNNB-
CR Writing, Expressive Language, and Reading scales; the LAC, a test of phonemic
segmentation; and the Left Sensorimotor scale, a scale which presumably taps left
hemispheric sensory and motor functions. RD children performed equivalently to
NRD children on the right hemispheric Visual scale. While RD children exhibited a
similar left ear advantage for dichotic words as NRD children, they performed more
poorly with both left and right ears. These data suggest that RD boys have problems
with specific, predominantly left hemisphere-controlled functions, some of which are
critical to reading.
Sharpley, Christopher F. (1987) did a study on , Research Findings on Neurolinguistic

Programming: Nonsupportive Data or an Untestable Theory?, This research examines the
experimental literature on neurolinguistic programming (NLP). Sharpley (l984) and
Einspruch and Forman (l985) concluded that the effectiveness of this therapy was yet
to be demonstrated. Presents data from seven recent studies that further question the
basic tenets of NLP and their application in counseling situations.
Cassiere, M. F.; (1987) did study on, Gender Differences in the Primary Representational
System according to Neurolinguistic Programming. Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)
is a currently popular therapeutic modality in which individuals organize information
through three basic sensory systems, one of which is the Primary Representational
System (PRS). This study was designed to investigate gender differences in PRS
according to the predicate preference method. It was expected that males would be
identified as primarily visual and that females would be identified as primarily
kinesthetic. Results suggest that standard guidelines should be developed for scoring
predicates and that NLP should be used cautiously until further research has been
conducted.
Schmedlen, George W. (1987) did a study on , Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Matching

Sensory Predicates, and Rapport. A key task for the therapist in psychotherapy is to
build trust and rapport with the client. Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)
practitioners believe that matching the sensory modality (representational system) of a
client's predicates (verbs, adverbs, and adjectives) improves rapport. In this study, 16
volunteer subjects participated in two sessions of analogue therapy. The findings fail
to support the hypotheses in terms of increased perception of the therapist's Level of
Regard or improved showing on the Depth/Value, Smoothness/Ease or Positive
Feeling indices at the .05 level. The findings are interpreted as supporting the idea
that systematic matching (versus mismatching) of a client's sensory predicates
improves the client's perception of the empathic component of rapport in the therapist.
Burton, Grace M., (1986) did a study on , Using Neurolinguistic Programming: Some
Suggestions for the Remedial Teacher. The use of neurolinguistic programming
techniques is suggested as a means of enhancing rapport with students. Mirroring,
digital mirroring, analog mirroring, metaphors, knowing persons, and how these aid
in presenting content are each discussed.
Obler, Loraine K., (1983) did a study on , Knowledge in Neurolinguistics: The Case of
Bilingualism. This research emphasizes the importance of psycholinguistic research in
enabling us to discover phenomena which will later be seen to have representations in
the brain. In addition, the different ways a second language is learned and used, as
well as the differences in the actual language structures themselves, will participate in
determining brain organization for language.
2.2 STUDIES BASED ON PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
Scovel, Thomas, (1998) did study on Psycholinguistics. Oxford Introductory to Language

Study. This brief survey of the field of psycholinguistics is intended for both students
and anyone interested in language. It contains a summary overview of the main
features of this area of language study: scope and principles of inquiry; basic
concerns; and key concepts. Chapter topics include: language acquisition (first words,
the birth of grammar, evidence or the innateness of language ability, linguistic
creativity, stages of linguistic development); language production (conceptualization,
formulation, articulation, self-monitoring); comprehension (of sounds, words,
sentences, texts); and language loss (neurolinguistics and language loss, speech and
language disorders). A section on related readings offers suggestions for further study
for each chapter.
Homstad, Alice, (1987) did a study on, . Neurolinguistic and Psycholinguistic Research on
Learning Modes of Older Language Learners: Classroom Implications. This research
reviews of neurolinguistic and psycholinguistic research regarding older (over 40
years of age) second language learners suggests classroom implications for dealing
with this population's pronunciation problems and ways to capitalize on their
superiority to younger students in terms of higher order linguistic processing.
Marcum, Karen, (1987) did a study on , Lozanov's Suggestopedy: A Psycholinguistic

Analysis of Its Theory and Praxis. Suggestopedia, the psycholinguistic second language
teaching methodology of Georgi Lozanov, has received both favorable and
unfavorable evaluations from well-known scholars in the field of language learning.
Some suspicious views by Western scholars may be due to the paucity of
interpretable scientific evidence for the method's claims. An examination of the
underlying principles of the method suggests that they are valid and accurate in light
of current theory on the nature of learning, language acquisition, and memory. While
the claims that the method induces "superlearning" or "hypermnesia" need more
substantial empirical validation, theory on learning may suggest that Lozanov's
method should achieve better than average results in learning.
Pyee-Cohen, Doris, (1986) did a study on, L'analyse psycholinguistique de l'activite
langagiere en langue non-maternelle: Bilan des recherches actuelles (Psycholinguistic
Analysis of Non-Native Language Activity: Indications on Current Research). Reviews
research on the psycholinguistic processes underlying second-language learning,
especially as it relates to the concept of interlanguage and the contributions made by
sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, and cognitive psychology.
Hatch, Evelyn Marcussen, (1983) did a study on , Psycholinguistics: A Second Language

Perspective. Perspectives of the field of psycholinguistics and second language
research are examined to provide a broader understanding of language learning and
language behavior. Psycholinguistics, which uses the approaches of psychology and
linguistics is defined as the search for an understanding of how humans comprehend
and produce language. Based on the view that language can be examined at different
hierarchical levels (psycholinguistic plan levels) and that the lower levels can affect
higher levels, research findings for the following levels are examined: (1) phonology;
(2) morphology; (3) lexicon; (4) syntax and sentence comprehension models; (5)
syntax and language acquisition; (6) discourse and sentence syntax; (7) discourse and
communication; (8) input/interaction and language development; (9) individual
factors--age; (10) neurolinguistics and bilingualism; and (11) cognition, cognitive
strategies, and language acquisition. By attending to factors related to second
language acquisition, questions not covered in the psycholinguistic literature are
discussed that may support linguistic rules or descriptions of language. While much
of the review research primarily represents the reductionist school, unified
explanations have also been addressed. The text may be appropriate for use in
methods courses.
Ellis, Nick C.; Simpson-Vlach, Rita; Maynard, Carson, (2008) did a study on, Formulaic
Language in Native and Second Language Speakers: Psycholinguistics, Corpus Linguistics,
and TESOL, Natural language makes considerable use of recurrent formulaic
patterns of words. This article triangulates the construct of "formula" from corpus
linguistic, psycholinguistic, and educational perspectives. It describes the corpus
linguistic extraction of pedagogically useful formulaic sequences for academic speech
and writing. It determines English as a second language (ESL) and English for
academic purposes (EAP) instructors' evaluations of their pedagogical importance. It
summarizes three experiments which show that different aspects of formulaicity
affect the accuracy and fluency of processing of these formulas in native speakers and
in advanced L2 learners of English. The language processing tasks were selected to
sample an ecologically valid range of language processing skills: spoken and written,
production and comprehension. Processing in all experiments was affected by various
corpus-derived metrics: length, frequency, and mutual information (MI), but to
different degrees in the different populations. For native speakers, it is predominantly
the MI of the formula which determines processability; for nonnative learners of the
language, it is predominantly the frequency of the formula. The implications of these
findings are discussed for (a) the psycholinguistic validity of corpus-derived
formulas, (b) a model of their acquisition, (c) ESL and EAP instruction and the
prioritization of which formulas to teach.
Diehl, Joshua J.; Bennetto, Loisa; Watson, Duane; Gunlogson, Christine; McDonough,
Joyce, (2008) did a study on, Resolving Ambiguity: A Psycholinguistic Approach to
Understanding Prosody Processing in High-Functioning Autism, Individuals with autism
exhibit significant impairments in prosody production, yet there is a paucity of
research on prosody comprehension in this population. The current study adapted a
psycholinguistic paradigm to examine whether individuals with autism are able to use
prosody to resolve syntactically ambiguous sentences. Participants were 21
adolescents with high-functioning autism (HFA), and 22 typically developing controls
matched on age, IQ, receptive language, and gender. The HFA group was
significantly less likely to use prosody to disambiguate syntax, but scored comparably
to controls when syntax alone or both prosody and syntax indicated the correct
response. These findings indicate that adolescents with HFA have difficulty using
prosody to disambiguate syntax in comparison to typically developing controls, even
when matched on chronological age, IQ, and receptive language. The implications of
these findings for how individuals with autism process language are discussed
Caplan, David; Waters, Gloria; DeDe, Gayle; Michaud, Jennifer; Reddy, Amanda, (2007)
did a study on, A Study of Syntactic Processing in Aphasia I: Behavioral (Psycholinguistic)
Aspects , This paper presents the results of a study of syntactically based
comprehension in aphasic patients. We studied 42 patients with aphasia secondary to
left hemisphere strokes and 25 control participants. We measured off-line, end-of-
sentence, performance (accuracy and reaction time) in two tasks that require
comprehension--enactment and sentence-picture matching--and in grammaticality
judgment, with whole sentence auditory presentation. The results showed that almost
no individual patients had stable deficits referable to the ability to interpret individual
syntactic structures, that a variety of structural features contributed to sentence
processing complexity both on-line and off-line, that correct responses were
associated with normal on-line and errors with abnormal performance, and that the
major determinant of performance is a factor that affected performance on all
sentence types. The results indicate that the major cause of aphasic impairments of
syntactically based comprehension are intermittent reductions in the processing
capacity available for syntactic, interpretive, and task-related operations.
Morett, Laura, (2007) did a study on, Second Language Learning in an Undergraduate
Population: Applications of Psycholinguistic Theory, A mini-lesson in Spanish
vocabulary was taught to undergraduates unfamiliar with the language using one of
two predominant L2 teaching methodologies, the grammar-translation approach or the
communicative approach. Working memory efficiency appeared to be related to L2
learning. A subset of participants who underwent a neuro imaging procedure while
performing the experimental tasks showed higher overall cerebral blood flow
velocities under the condition based on the grammar-translation approach compared
to the condition based on the communicative approach. Taken as a whole, these
results form a mosaic of the mechanisms and variables involved in second language
learning, providing insight into the process of second language acquisition in
undergraduate students. Appended are: (1) Informed consent form for main task
component; (2) Pre-screening quiz; (3) Demographic survey; (4) Bilingual vocabulary
sheet; (5) Graphic vocabulary sheet; (6) Bilingual worksheet; (7) Graphic worksheet;
(8) Metacognitive survey; (9) Short-term post assessment; (10) Debriefing form for
main task component; (11) Informed consent form for follow-up component; (12)
Long-term post assessment; (13) Debriefing form for follow-up component; (14)
Informed consent form for neuroimaging component; (15) Debriefing form for
neuroimaging component; (16) Informed consent form for multicultural component;
(17) Interview questions; and (18) Debriefing form for multicultural component.
Nergard-Nilssen, T.,(2006) did a study on, Word-Decoding Deficits in Norwegian: The

Impact of Psycholinguistic Marker Effects, The effects of regularity, frequency,
lexicality, and granularity on single word reading in Norwegian children with
dyslexia and control children matched for age and reading level were examined. The
reading impaired children showed the same pattern of performance as younger
children matched for reading level on most tasks except for the fact that they were
worse at nonword reading. The findings are discussed against different theoretical
models of reading.
Catton, Julie C., (2006) did a study on, A Pilot Study on a Holistic Model Incorporating a
Psycholinguistic Approach Accelerating Second Language Acquisition Students learning a
second language commonly confront insurmountable obstacles in the language
acquisition process, due to the ineffectiveness of traditional, grammar-first methods.
This creates detrimental effects on the learner and his or her self-esteem. Existing
literature contains information about problems created by traditional approaches, the
effectiveness of a natural approach and key elements necessary to establish it. The
purpose of this study is to examine the failings of traditional methods and to review
some important natural ways that remedy these failings, yet have their own
shortcomings. This study reports efforts to improve natural approaches through on-
going research at La Catalina Natural Language School that elaborates on a Holistic
Model, i.e., one that considers the individual as whole by productively integrating
their mind, body, and emotions. The following are appended: (1) Glossary; (2) Pilot
Course Registration Form; (3) Student Psychological Profile for Pilot Course; and (4)
Pilot Program English Assessment.
O'Connell, Daniel C.; Kowal, Sabine, (2005) did a study on , Where Do Interjections
Come From? A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Shaw's "Pygmalion", Starting from our recent
findings regarding emotional and initializing functions of interjections in TV and
radio interviews (Kowal & O'Connell, 2004b; O'Connell & Kowal, in press;
O'Connell, Kowal, & Ageneau, 2005.The following hypotheses were tested: (1) The
actors use the written cues selectively in their oral performance by substituting,
adding, and deleting interjections; (2) primary interjections added by the actors are
less conventional than those in the written text; (3) durations and number of syllables
of Eliza Doolittle's spoken renditions of her signature interjection ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-
ow-oo do not correlate with the length in letters and syllables of the written versions;
and (4) there is no evidence for Ameka's (1992b, 1994) characterization of
interjections as temporally isolated, i.e., preceded and followed by silent pauses, in
consequence of their syntactic isolation. Our findings confirmed all the hypotheses
except for one unexpectedly significant correlation between number of syllables in
Eliza Doolittle's signature interjection in the written version and duration in seconds
of the spoken version thereof. The common thread throughout these data is the actor's
need to personalize emotions in a dramatic performance--by means of interjections
other than those provided in the written text. In this process of personalization, the
emotional and initializing functions of interjections are confirmed.
Ziegler, Johannes C.; Goswami, Usha, (2005) did a study on , Reading Acquisition,
Developmental Dyslexia, and Skilled Reading Across Languages: A Psycholinguistic Grain
Size Theory, The development of reading depends on phonological awareness across
all languages so far studied. Languages vary in the consistency with which phonology
is represented in orthography. This results in developmental differences in the grain
size of lexical representations and accompanying differences in developmental
reading strategies and the manifestation of dyslexia across orthographies. Differences
in lexical representations and reading across languages leave developmental
"footprints" in the adult lexicon. The lexical organization and processing strategies
that are characteristic of skilled reading in different orthographies are affected by
different developmental constraints in different writing systems. The authors develop
a novel theoretical framework to explain these cross-language data, which they label a
psycholinguistic grain size theory of reading and its development.
Penke, Martina; Janssen, Ulrike; Eisenbeiss, Sonja, (2004) did a study on ,

Psycholinguistic Evidence for the Underspecification of Morphosyntactic Features , This
paper investigates the paradigmatic relations between inflected word forms (or their
affixes) and the feature specifications of these elements. In two sentence-matching
experiments German speakers had to decide whether sentence pairs involving
inflected adjectives or determiners were identical or not. In both experiments, there
was a delay when an inflected form contained positive feature specifications for
grammatical features that did not match the feature specifications of the grammatical
context in which it appeared. No delay, however, occurred when an incorrectly
inflected form had mismatching negative specifications, whereas its positively
specified features matched the respective positive features of the context. This result
provides evidence for a different status of positively and negatively specified
morphosyntactic features. It supports the idea of radical underspecification according
to which only positive feature specifications are part of the representations of
morphologically complex forms or affixes, whereas negative feature specifications
are assigned on the basis of paradigmatic contrasts.
Ottem, Ernst; Jakobsen, Unni, (2004) did a study on , Using the Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic Ability with Bilingual and Monolingual Language-Impaired Children , The
current popular case against the use of standardised ability tests in bilingual
assessment is not as unequivocal as may be commonly assumed. Evidence currently
available indicates that such tests generally measure the same constructs, with equal
accuracy, regardless of language backgrounds. The purpose of this paper is to
contribute to this debate by presenting a detailed comparison of the Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic Ability (ITPA) profiles of monolingual language-impaired children
who have received the diagnosis 'specifically language-impaired' (SLI) (N = 95) and
ITPA profiles of bilingual children who are referred for assessment of their language
problems (N = 43). It is concluded that most bilingual children suffer from a
'knowledge-based' problem, while most monolingual children suffer from a more
fundamental 'processing-based' problem. By presenting this analysis, we hope to
contribute to the general debate about whether this commonly used test can be used in
the assessment of bilingual children.
Tijms, Jurgen; Hoeks, Jan J. W. M.; Paulussen-Hoogeboom, Marja C.; Smolenaars, Anton
J., (2003) did a study on, Long-Term Effects of a Psycholinguistic Treatment for Dyslexia. ,
This research evaluates short- and long-term effects of a treatment for dyslexia. Notes
that the treatment focuses on learning to recognize and to make use of the
phonological and morphological structure of Dutch words. Finds that the results of
the treatment were clear improvements in reading words, reading text and spelling.
2.3 STUDIES BASED ON WRITING COMPETENCE
Beck, Sarah W.; Jeffery, Jill V. (2007) did a study on , Genres of High-Stakes Writing
Assessments and the Construct of Writing Competence, High-stakes writing assessments
currently exert a strong influence on the writing curriculum and instruction in schools
across the United States. Under these circumstances it is important to examine the
construct of writing competence on which these assessments are based, as well as the
extent to which this construct supports the goals of secondary education. In this paper
we conduct an exploratory analysis of the genre demands of high-stakes writing
assessments from three states - California, Texas, and New York - with the aim of
discerning, comparing, and evaluating the role that genre knowledge plays in the
construct of writing competence measured by these assessments. This method of
inquiry includes both task analysis of the prompts and genre analysis of high-scoring
benchmark papers written in response to these prompts. This results suggest a lack of
alignment between the genres of the benchmark papers designated as exemplary and
the genre demands of the prompts to which they were written. Findings from our
exploratory analysis lead us to argue for greater consistency and clarity of
expectations in the design of high-stakes writing exams, and for the design of writing
tasks that adequately represent the demands of discipline-specific forms of written
discourse.
Kleniewski, Nancy, (2007) did a study on , Joint Authorship: Faculty Members from Six
Institutions Collaborate to Measure Writing Competence, Southeastern Massachusetts is
home to six public institutions of higher education. In 2003, at the invitation of
Bridgewater President Dana Mohler-Faria, five of them joined together to form a
regional collaborative called CONNECT. They agreed that students faced two types
of challenges in the transfer process: administrative challenges and academic
challenges. To reduce administrative challenges, the four-year institutions agreed to
create "transfer coordinator" positions to help transfer students navigate their new
campuses. To reduce academic challenges, the institutions sought to ensure that
community college students would master the same basic skills and knowledge, cover
similar foundational work in their disciplines, and experience equivalent academic
expectations as in a bachelor's curriculum. The chief academic officers decided that
these issues of curriculum and evaluation standards could be best addressed through
faculty dialogue around course goals, syllabi, and evaluation methods. The chief
academic officers chose to begin the faculty dialogue with the institutions' first-year
writing courses. They reasoned that writing is the bedrock skill in any general
education program and that writing instructors were already practicing assessment (as
distinct from grading) through the placement process. Writing Project experience
points to several ingredients for a successful and lasting collaboration among different
types of institutions. First, peer-to-peer interaction with others in the discipline is a
powerful tool for faculty collaboration, reducing barriers between two- and four-year
institutions and between adjuncts and full-time faculty. Second, a focus on common
student learning outcomes and successful pedagogy allows all instructors to address a
common goal: creating a good teaching and learning environment. Finally, leadership
must come from the top, with the blessing and financial support of presidents,
provosts, and deans.
Dunsmuir, Sandra; Blatchford, Peter, (2004) did a study on, Predictors of Writing
Competence in 4- to 7-Year-Old Children, This longitudinal study sought to improve
understanding of the factors at home and school that influence children's attainment
and progress in writing between the ages of 4 and 7 years. Results: Preschool
variables that were found to be significantly associated with writing proficiency at
school entry included mother's educational level, family size, parental assessment of
writing and a measure of home writing. Child characteristics, skills and competencies
were measured at school entry and those found to be significantly associated with
writing at 7 years included season of birth, vocabulary score, pre-reading skills,
handwriting and proficiency in writing name. The only preschool variable that
maintained its significant relationship to writing at 7 years was home writing. Teacher
assessments of pupil attitudes to writing were consistently found to be significantly
associated with writing competence. Conclusions: This comprehensive study explored
the complex interaction of cognitive, affective and contextual processes involved in
learning to write, and identified specific features of successful writers. Results are
discussed in relation to educational policy and practice issues.
Hohn, Alisabeth M., (2001) did a study on , Effects of Survey Format on Perceived
Competence in Writing: A Developmental Study. Whether students of various ages
reported different self-perceptions of their writing because of survey design effects
was studied. As part of a writing performance assessment, 1,972 students in an
urban/suburban school district in grades 3 (n=736), 6 (n=636), and 9 (n=600)
completed a brief self-perception survey that contained 5 items measuring students'
perceived competence in writing. Students were randomly assigned to answer
questions or to respond to statements regarding their beliefs about themselves as
writers. Both versions of the survey contains response options that were ordered from
positive to negative for all items, and items were presented in the same order on both
versions. A univariate analysis that controlled for gender showed a two-way
interaction between grade level and survey format. Students rated themselves higher
on the question than statement format at all grade levels, but the difference between
groups increased with the age of the student. Older students generated more accurate
estimates of their competence than did younger students, but overall the correlations
between perceived competence and overall score on the writing assessment were low.
These results indicate that, by acknowledging the potential effects of survey design
decision on data interpretation, researchers will improve the validity of their
inferences in developmental studies as well as improving the comparability of data
across researchers.
TABLE – 2.1
STUDIES BASED ON WRITING COMPETENCE
2007 Beck, Sarah Genres of High-Stakes Findings from this exploratory

W.; Jeffery, Jill V. Writing Assessments and analysis lead us to argue for
the Construct of Writing greater consistency and clarity
Competence, of expectations in the design
of high-stakes writing exams,
and for the design of writing
tasks that adequately represent
the demands of discipline-
specific forms of written
discourse.
2007 Kleniewski, Nancy Joint Authorship: Faculty Writing Project experience
Members from Six points to several ingredients
Institutions Collaborate to for a successful and lasting
Measure Writing
collaboration among different
Competence
types of institutions.
2004 Dunsmuir, Predictors of Writing This comprehensive study
Sandra; Blatchford, Competence in 4- to 7- explored the complex
Peter Year-Old Children, interaction of cognitive,
affective and contextual
processes involved in learning
to write, and identified
specific features of successful
writers. Results are discussed
in relation to educational
policy and practice issues.
2001 Hohn, Alisabeth M. Effects of Survey Format The research results indicate
on Perceived Competence that, by acknowledging the
in Writing: A potential effects of survey
Developmental Study.
design decision on data
interpretation, researchers will
improve the validity of their
inferences in developmental
studies as well as improving
the comparability of data
across researchers.
1999 Parks, Susam; Coping with on-the-job Data from interviews and
Maguire, Mary H. writing in ESL: A observations indicated that
constructivist-semiotic social context and mediation
perspective, were an important part of
nurses’ ability to appropriate
competence in a subgenre of
nursing notes in English.
1987 McCutchen, Children’s discourse Describes a psycholinguistic

Dehorah skill: form and modality investigation of children’s
requirements of competence in the production
schooled writing of extended discourse,
concentrating on discourse
form (narrative versus
expository) and production
modality (written versus
spoken).
1984 Perez, Bertha Selecting computer Findings are the implications

software for limited for the development of
English speakers English as a second
language/CAI software are
considered. Multiple criteria
are presented, including
primary goals (such as
communicative competence
and functional literacy) and
the need for integrating the
effective, cognitive, and
psychomotor aspects of
learning. (KH)
1970 Alyeshmerni, Working with aspects The principal goal of this

Mansoor; Taubr, language manual is to encourage the
Paul student to make
generalizations about language
through his increased
awareness of facts about his
own language.
1978 Perron, Jack Changing the questions: The findings requires that the
psycholinguistics and classroom teacher shift the
writing emphasis in the teaching of
writing from a product-
oriented approach to one that
encourages the development
of current thinking processes
TABLE – 2.2
STUDIES BASED ON PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
1998 Scovel, Thomas Psycholinguistics. The brief survey of the

Oxford Introductory to field of psycholinguistics
Language Study is intended for both
students and anyone
interested in language. It
proves that there is interest
in Language.
1983 Hatch, Evelyn Marcussen Psycholinguistics: A By attending to factors
Second Language related to second language
Perspective. Perspectives acquisition, questions not
of the field
of covered in the
psycholinguistics and psycholinguistic literature
second language research are discussed that may
are examined to provide support linguistic rules or
a broader understanding descriptions of language
of language learning and
language behavior.
2008 Ellis, Nick Formulaic Language in This research describes the
C.; Simpson-Vlach, Native and Second corpus linguistic extraction
Rita; Maynard, Carson Language Speakers: of pedagogically useful

Psycholinguistics, Corpus
formulaic sequences for
Linguistics, and TESOL,
academic speech and
Natural language makes
writing. It determines
considerable use of
English as a second
recurrent formulaic
language (ESL) and
patterns of words.
English for academic
purposes (EAP)
instructors' evaluations of
their pedagogical
importance
2008 Diehl, Joshua Resolving Ambiguity: A The high-functioning
J.; Bennetto, Psycholinguistic Approach autism HFA group was
Loisa; Watson, to Understanding Prosody significantly less likely to
Duane; Gunlogson, Processing in High-

use prosody to
Christine; McDonough, Functioning Autism,
disambiguate syntax, but
Joyce, scored comparably to
controls when syntax alone
or both prosody and syntax
indicated the correct
response. These findings
indicate that adolescents
with HFA have difficulty
using prosody to
disambiguate syntax in
comparison to typically
developing controls, even
when matched on
chronological age, IQ, and
receptive language.
2007 Caplan, David; Waters, A Study of Syntactic The results indicate that
Gloria; DeDe, Processing in Aphasia I: the major cause of aphasic
Gayle; Michaud, Behavioral impairments of

(Psycholinguistic) Aspects
Jennifer; Reddy, syntactically based
Amanda, comprehension are
intermittent reductions in
the processing capacity
available for syntactic,
interpretive, and task-
related operations.
2007 Morett, Laura Second Language Learning The research results form a
in an Undergraduate mosaic of the mechanisms
Population: Applications of and variables involved in
Psycholinguistic Theory, second language learning,
providing insight into the
process of second
language acquisition in
undergraduate students.
2006 Nergard-Nilssen, T Word-Decoding Deficits in The effects of regularity,
Norwegian: The Impact of frequency, lexicality, and
Psycholinguistic Marker granularity on single word
Effects, reading in Norwegian
children with dyslexia and
control children matched
for age and reading level
were examined.
2006 Catton, Julie C. A Pilot Study on a Holistic This study reports efforts
Model Incorporatinga to improve natural
Psycholinguistic Approach approaches through on-
Accelerating Second
going research at La
Language Acquisition
Catalina Natural Language
Students learning
School that elaborates on a
Holistic Model, i.e., one
that considers the
individual as whole by
productively integrating
their mind, body, and
emotions.
2005 O'Connell, Daniel Where Do Interjections The research findings
C.; Kowal, Sabine, Come From? A confirmed all the
Psycholinguistic Analysis hypotheses except for one
of Shaw's "Pygmalion"
unexpectedly significant
correlation between
number of syllables in
Eliza Doolittle's signature
interjection in the written
version and duration in
seconds of the spoken
version thereof.
2005 Ziegler, Johannes Reading Acquisition, The researcher develop a
C.; Goswami, Usha Developmental Dyslexia, novel theoretical
and Skilled Reading Across framework to explain these
Languages: A cross-language data, which
Psycholinguistic Grain Size
they label a
Theory,
psycholinguistic grain size
theory of reading and its
development.
2004 Penke, Martina; Janssen, Psycholinguistic Evidence The research result

Ulrike; Eisenbeiss, Sonja for the Underspecification supports the idea of radical
of Morphosyntactic underspecification
Features
according to which only
positive feature
specifications are part of
the representations of
morphologically complex
forms or affixes, whereas
negative feature
specifications are assigned
on the basis of
paradigmatic contrasts.
2004 Ottem, Using the Illinois Test of This study concluded that
Ernst; Jakobsen, Unni Psycholinguistic Ability most bilingual children
with Bilingual and suffer from a 'knowledge-
Monolingual Language-
based' problem, while
Impaired Children
most monolingual children
suffer from a more
fundamental 'processing-
based' problem. By
presenting this analysis,
we hope to contribute to
the general debate about
whether this commonly
used test can be used in the
assessment of bilingual
children.
2003 Tijms, Jurgen; Hoeks, Jan Long-Term Effects of a This research finds that the
J. W. M.; Paulussen- Psycholinguistic results of the treatment
Hoogeboom, Marja Treatment for Dyslexia were clear improvements
C.; Smolenaars, Anton J. in reading words, reading
text and spelling.
1978 Perron, Jack Changing the questions: The findings requires that
psycholinguistics and the classroom teacher shift
writing the emphasis in the
teaching of writing from a
product-oriented approach
to one that encourages the
development of current
thinking processes
1980 Templeton, Shane; Beyond the Metalinguistic awareness,
Sulzby, Elizabeth psycholinguistic vise of researchers could focus on
competence/performance understanding as a
theory Why study function of what
metalinguistic individuals have been
awareness? exposed to, where the have
been, and where they
might yet go in their
linguistic explorations
1980 Swearingen, C.J. Psycholinguistics and Teachers should be careful
readability: The cognitive to distinguish this writing
reality of the reader. goal from the very
different goal of teaching
students to compose clear,
correct, and engaging
discourse.
1978 Perron, Jack Changing the questions The practical application

psycholinguistics and of these findings requires
writing that the classroom teacher
shift the emphasis in the
teaching of writing from a
product-oriented approach
to one that encourages the
development of current
thinking processes.
1987 Marcum, Karen, Lozanov's Suggestopedy: A The method induces

Psycholinguistic Analysis "superlearning" or
of Its Theory and Praxis. "hypermnesia" need more
Suggestopedia, the substantial empirical
psycholinguistic second validation, theory on
language teaching learning may suggest that
methodology of Georgi Lozanov's method should
Lozanov, has received achieve better than average
both favorable and results in learning.
unfavorable evaluations
from well-known
scholars in the field of
language learning.
1986 Pyee-Cohen, Doris L'analyse Reviews research on the
psycholinguistique de psycholinguistic processes
l'activite langagiere en underlying second-
langue non-maternelle: language learning,
Bilan des recherches especially as it relates to
actuelles the concept of
(Psycholinguistic interlanguage and the
Analysis of Non-Native contributions made by
Language Activity: sociolinguistics,
Indications on Current neurolinguistics, and
Research) cognitive psychology.
TABLE 2.3
STUDIES BASED ON NEUROLINGUISTICS
1987 Schmedlen, George Neuro-Linguistic The findings are interpreted

W Programming, Matching as supporting the idea that
Sensory Predicates, and systematic matching (versus
Rapport.
mismatching) of a client's
sensory predicates improves
the client's perception of the
empathic component of
rapport in the therapist
1986 Burton, Grace M Using Neurolinguistic The use of neurolinguistic
Programming: Some programming techniques is
Suggestions for the suggested as a means of
Remedial Teacher.
enhancing rapport with
students. Mirroring, digital
mirroring, analog mirroring,
metaphors, knowing
persons, and how these aid
in presenting content are
each discussed.
1983 Obler, Loraine K. Knowledge in This research emphasizes

Neurolinguistics: The the importance of
Case of Bilingualism. psycholinguistic research in
enabling us to discover
phenomena which will later
be seen to have
representations in the brain.
In addition, the different
ways a second language is
learned and used, as well as
the differences in the actual
language structures
themselves, will participate
in determining brain
organization for language
2007 Russeler, Becker, The Department of The findings indicate that
Johanne and Munte Psychology II, dyslexics are phonologically
Neuropsychology impaired.
Unit
1980 Kagan, Dona M. Syntactic complexity This research describes two
and cognitive style studies of which one
analyzes syntactic
complexity in writing
samples by secondary and
postsecondary students,
while the other correlates
the syntactic dimensions
revealed by the former with
measures of cognitive style.
Correlations indicate an
association between
complexity and analytic
cognitive style.
1970 Alyeshmerni, Working with aspects The principal goal of this

Mansoor; Taubr, language manual is to encourage the
Paul student to make
generalizations about
language through his
increased awareness of facts
about his own language.
1980 Kagan, Dona M. Syntactic complexity This research describes two

and cognitive style studies of which one
analyzes syntactic
complexity in writing
samples by secondary and
post secondary students,
while the other correlates
the syntactic dimensions
revealed by the former with
measures of cognitive style.
Correlations indicate an
association between
complexity and analytic
cognitive style.
1990 Johnsen, Birgitta Acquisition of Reading This Experimental studies

and Writing. A and clinical data suggest
Neurolinguistic that grammatical rules for
Approach.
spoken language
predominantly rely on the
left hemisphere of the brain,
while the grammatical rules
for body language
(expressing emotions) rely
more on the right
hemisphere.
1991 Hynd, George W. Developmental This researvh concludes that
Dyslexia, dyslexics show variations in
Neurolinguistic Theory specific brain regions.
and Deviations in Brain
Suggests that neuroimaging
Morphology.
procedures appear to
provide direct evidence
supporting the importance
of deviations in normal
patterns of brain
morphology in dyslexia.
(RS)
1991 Sandhu, Daya Singh Application of NLP meta-tactics are used

Neurolinguistic to re-imprint new beliefs on
Programming for the client, access the deep
Treatment and Relapse
structure of the client's
Prevention of Addictive
subjective experience,
Behaviors.
explore the client's change
history, reframe the
situation, program the
client's brain to "go in a new
direction" through the
"swish" technique, and
ensure that positive changes
that took place during
therapy become generalized
to other contexts through
the technique of future
pacing.
1989 Williams, M. Neurolinguistic Understanding the effects
F.; Jacobson, W. H. Programming in on thought of limited
Orientation and representational systems can
Mobility.
help trainers teach more
effective cane or dog guide
use.
1989 Leavell, Neurolinguistic Deficits These research’s data

Carol; Lewandowski, and the Left suggest that (reading-
Lawrence Hemisphere in the disabled) RD boys have
Reading Disabled.
problems with specific,
predominantly left
hemisphere-controlled
functions, some of which
are critical to reading.
1987 Homstad, Alice Neurolinguistic and This research reviews of

Psycholinguistic neurolinguistic and
Research on Learning psycholinguistic research
Modes of Older regarding older (over 40
Language Learners: years of age) second
Classroom language learners suggests
Implications classroom implications for
dealing with this
population's pronunciation
problems and ways to
capitalize on their
superiority to younger
students in terms of higher
order linguistic processing.
(CB)
1987 Sharpley, Research Findings on This research examines the

Christopher F Neurolinguistic experimental literature on
Programming: neurolinguistic
Nonsupportive Data or
programming (NLP).
an Untestable Theory?
Sharpley (l984) and
Einspruch and Forman
(l985) concluded that the
effectiveness of this therapy
was yet to be demonstrated.
Presents data from seven
recent studies that further
question the basic tenets of
NLP and their application in
counseling situations.
1987 Cassiere, M. F.; Gender Differences in Results suggest that

the Primary standard guidelines should
Representational be developed for scoring
System according to
Neurolinguistic predicates and that NLP
Programming. should be used cautiously
until further research has
been conducted.
2.4 CONCLUSION:
From the above reviews and research findings the investigator has knowledge about
the topic for the research. It supported the researcher to do the research avoiding any
unnecessary repetition. It helped the researcher to go along with the work with proper
plan and pace. The review of research also helped to know the methodology and the
statistical techniques to be applied for the study.
CHAPTER – III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER-3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Writing is a process of analysis and writing is a very complex
process. So most of the students are still lacking behind in proper writing competency.
So, an experimental research done with the help of synergizing Psycholinguistics and
Neurolinguistics program to enhance writing competence.
This chapter deals with the procedure adopted in the conduct of
investigation. The entire chapter has been discussed under various sub-headings of
the study Viz., significance of the study, scope of the study, objectives of the study,
definition of the key terms, operational definition, assumption, Hypotheses,
delimitations of the study, experimental research, Planning of the treatment, research
process, sample, research design, duration of the treatment, internal validity, research
phase, Preparatory program, effects of the program, research tools and data
collection.

Writing is one of the important skills of communication through which
we express our thoughts. Writing is an art which plays a vital role in our language
communication. The 2009 secondary school exam results of pudhucherry reveals
students scored less in English when compared to other subjects. This information
made the investigator to find out the reason behind it. As a research, the investigator
wanted to critically analyse the reasons behind the low performance in English. The
researcher discussed this problem with the tenth standard English language teachers
of same schools in pudhucherry. It is understood that students are unable to present
their thoughts. They do commit spelling mistakes, punctuation mistakes, grammatical
errors and week sentence construction. As the medium of instruction is English, this
problem reflects in other subjects too. The researcher observed the English classroom
instruction and English text book. It has a list of writing competencies which they are
expected to achieve like Explaining, Report writing, Knowledge of using appropriate
punctuation marks, Precis writing, Letter writing, etc. If the student are expected to
perform these competencies in writing, they have to be given training in writing
components and they should be given frequent practices. The focus of the instruction
should be on development of writing ability and not an content transfer. But the
language English is being handled as a subject and not as skill development. All the
competencies prescribed for standard tenth, can not be developed overnight. It
regulates certain basics. Had they been given adequate training on their writing
competencies, student in class tenth would not have faced the above said problem in
communication. Hence, the researcher went through language objectives of the
classes sixth and eighth. It focuses on Paragraph writing , Synopsis writing, Using
appropriate punctuation marks.This observation, made the researcher to think on the
pedagogical aspects in school instruction program. Thus, the researcher designed an
effective pedagogy which would help them to acquire competencies in writing and
hence the researcher implemented with a new pedagogy under this title to enhance
writing competencies of school students.
3.3 NEED FOR THE STUDY:

Either in the corporate sector or in government sector, English is the
language for communication. This information era, experts every individual to equip
with competence to withstand competition and survival. Skill development and
language competencies express writing in GATE, SAT, and Various competitive
exam. Hence, it is imperative to find out a right pedagogy for writing competence
development and for students.
Communication skill is more important in our day today life for
expressing our ideas effectively to others. For tenth standard students, English
language is very very important because it is more helpful for their higher studies.
Their writing comprehension and communication abilities are expected for their
future success. So, this pedagogy is for enhancing writing competency , sure to
facilitate of students.
3.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:

This research is focusing on development of writing competence.
Psycholinguistics or Psychology of language, is the study of mind process and
produce language awareness should be given to language teachers and every
individual should have attitudinal change and aspirational change and every teacher
should program (practice) the students thinking and Neurolinguistics programming , a
technique that people use to help themselves or others think in a more positive way,
and which uses neurolinguistics as its basis, should be given to students. Therefore,
this research outcome will bring awareness among school teachers especially for
enhancing writing competencies in English language.
This research is an experimental method where neurolinguistic
programming and psycholinguistics principles are synergized to enhancing the
writing competence of the high school students. Psycholinguistics principles were
practiced by teachers and they want to teach with the help of NLP to the students.
This strategy or model will be considered as a better method than any other method
for enhancing Writing competence.
3.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The following are the objectives of the study
1. To find out the existing competence in writing among eighth standard
students.
2. To apply Psycholinguistics principles towards developing writing
competence among eighth standard students.
3. To apply NLP towards developing writing competence among eighth
standard students.
4. To find out the impact of the Neurolinguistic programming towards
writing competence.
5. To find out the effect of Psycholinguistics principles on the writing
competence.
6. To find out the synergizing effect of psycholinguistics principles and
NLP on developing writing competence among eighth standard students.
7. To identify the significant relationship between psycholinguistics and
writing competence.
8. To identify the significant relationship between NLP and writing
competence.
9. To identify the significant relationship between Psycholinguistics and
NLP and writing competence.
3.6 TITLE OF THE STUDY:

A synergy of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics Programming on
developing writing competence among Eighth standard students in
Sithanandha High School, Pudhucherry
3.7 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS:

According to 21st Century, Illustrated Oxford dictionary,
a) The term “Synergy” means the extra energy, power, success, etc., that is
achieved by two or more people or companies working together instead of their
own.
b) The term “Psycholinguistics” means the study of the mind process and
produces language.
c) The term “Neurolinguistics” means the study of the way the human brain
process language.
d) The term “Neurolinguistics Programming” means a technique that people use
to help themselves or others think in a more positive way , and which uses
neurolinguistics as its basis.
e) The term “Programming” means a set of instructions to make it perform a
particular task.
f) The term “Writing” means a group or sequence of letters or symbols.
g) The term “Competence” means the ability to do something well.
3.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION:

In the process of helping eighth standard students in acquiring writing
competence, the researcher applies psycholinguistics principles and tunes them to
practice Neurolinguistics Programming.
3.9 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY:

The following are the assumptions of the study.
a) Secondary School language teaching must be on psycholinguistics
principles.
b) Neurolinguistics programming helps the learner in second acquisition.
c) Synergising Psycholinguistics principles and Neurolinguistics programming
results in development of language competencies.
3.10 HYPOTHESES:
The following hypotheses were formulated in the research.
1) There will be significant difference between the Pre-test and the Post-test
scores of the experimental group.
2) There will be a relationship between Psycholinguistics principles and
writing competence.
3) There will be a relationship between Neurolinguistics programming and
Writing competence.
4) There will be an impact of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics
programming on writing competence.
3.11 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

The following are the delimitations of the study .
1. The study was restricted to eighth standard students of Sithananadha
High School, Lawspet, Pudhucherry-8.
2. The study was concerned only with thirty eighth standard students.
3. The study was focused on the need and development in writing
competence.
4. The researcher limited her study mainly to Writing competence in
English especially in paragraph writing.
5. The program was carried out only for ten days.
3.12 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY:

Experimental method is clearly for determining the casual effect of
independent variables on dependent variable. It provides a systematic and logical way
for answering the research questions. It is to establish cause and affect relationship
between variables. This method is considered to provide for a high degree of control
over extraneous variables and the manipulation of variables. It helps to test
hypotheses of relationship between variables. It also permits drawing inference about
causality.
Experimentation is defined as “observation under controlled
conditions”. Experiments are studies involving intervention by the investigator
beyond that required for measurement . The usual intervention is to manipulate how it
affects the subjects being studied by the investigator, manipulate the independent or
explanatory variable and then observe whether the hypothesized dependent variable is
affected by the intervention.
In the experimental studies, observably changes take place, which
help the investigator to establish a cause and effect relationship. It is the description
and analysis of what will be or what will occur or what can be made to occur under
carefully controlled conditions. Experimentation consists of the deliberate and
controlled modification of the conditions determining an event and in the observation
and interpretation of the changes that occur in the event itself.
Experimenters deliberately and systematically manipulate certain
stimuli, treatment or environmental conditions and observe how the condition or
behaviour of other factors that could influence the outcome and remove or control
them in such a way that they can establish a logical association between manipulated
factors and observed effects.
Since experimentation is considered to be the scientifically
sophisticated research method the investigator adopted experimental method to study
the effectiveness of applying Psycholinguistics principles and Neurolinguistics
program. The investigator wanted to develop writing competence among high school
students through Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics program activities. One
group was taken and Pre-test was administered followed by the treatment and the
Post-test was given to find out the treatments’ effect. In this study the investigator
adopted experimental design – one group- Pre test- Post test design.
3.13 SAMPLE:
As the researcher felt the urgent need for the improvement of writing competence
among the high school students in English, the investigator took a sample of 30
students from Sithananda High School, Lawspet, Pudhucherry.
3.14 PLANNING OF THE TREATMENT:

The researcher sensitized the problems faced by students with writing
difficulties and realized the need for development of writing competence. The existing
teaching learning process was analyzed. The students were selected and were
personally en quired about the problems being faced in the present school setting.
For enhancing writing competence the researcher found a new method or
pedagogy for instructions. This method involves Psycholinguistics principles for
teachers and Neurolinguistics programming for students to enhance writing
competence among students.
3.15 DURATION OF THE TREATMENT:

The investigator had the study for a period of one week for preparatory
program and ten days for the intervention program. One week preparatory program
starts from December last week, where the Pre-test was conducted to the samples and
collected the demographic particulars from the sample.
3.16 THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY:

After selecting the experimental group, the researcher took steps to avoid
threats to validity. In spite of careful planning and implementation, threats were more
on affecting the validity of the experimentation. Attempts were made to minimize
threats for ensuring experimental validity.
A researcher has to have an important consideration in planning an
experimental study or in evaluating the results of a reported study. In the likelihood of
possible threats to internal validity after selecting the experimental group the
researcher took steps to avoid threats to validity. Attempts were made to minimize
threats for ensuring experimental validity.
3.17 INTERNAL VALIDITY:

Internal validity is concerned with the extent to which the experience is
genuinely effective ie. The extent to which the manipulations in the independent
variables brings about changes in the dependent variables. It is concerned with the
true variance in the dependent variable that has been brought about by the induced
variations in the independent variables . The following are the threats to internal
validity which should be avoided.
3.17.1 SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS:

If the participants in the group happened to be different to be in the matter
of age, sex, etc., the results cannot be wholly attributed to working of independent
variable. This threat was also eliminated as the investigator selected only eighth
standard students’ of the same group.
3.17.2 MORTALITY:
This threat may happen if the participants in the selected group drop out in
the course of the study. The researcher carefully averted this threat in the selection of
students. Students from class eighth were selected and there were no drop outs.
3.17.3 LOCATION:
As this study was concentrated on writing skill of the students, the location
was only the classroom for the treatment. There was no change in the location. So it
did not affect the study.
3.17.4 INSTRUMENTATION:
Unreliable instruments used to measure aspects of behavior are threats to
the validity of an experiment. In the study actual performance of students was
evaluated. Students were given training on writing skills and were assessed for the
same.
The entire variables namely Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics
programming, Writing competence, Demographic particulars were all scored
uniformly. The validity and the reliability of all the tools were established.
3.17.5 TESTING:
Testing refers to a threat to interval validity which arises due to the
participant becoming “Test-wise”. The Pre-test given to students sensitized them to
the components of writing skills. Moreover the feed back received from everybody,
the follow up work was given due consideration. Post-test was administered to
students on a different aspect on the same pattern there by the effect of testing was
balanced out.
3.17.6 HISTORY:
Unplanned events do not occur during the research and affect the
results. The researcher carefully observed the treatment hour and protected it from
any new event.
3.17.7 MATURATION:
In refers to the change that may occur in the biological and
psychological conditions of the child during the course of study, and such changes are
likely to happen only if the study spreads over longer period of time but the present
study was confined to a period of ten days only. Hence the question of maturation did
not arise.
3.17.8 STATISTICAL REGRESSION :

It refers to the threat to validity, which occurs in studies that used
participants selected on the basis of extreme high or low scores. Here the researcher
selected the students based on their performance in previous exam (half-yearly) and
Pre-test scores. Thus this threat was also eliminated in the present research.
3.17.9 SELECTION BIAS:

In spite of the sample being purposive, the group taken for experiment
was really in need for the treatment for development in writing competence. Students
were from standard eighth having who really need to develop writing competence for
the competitive future study. Selection was based on students’ previous academic
performance.
3.17.10. EXPERIMENTER BIAS:

This type of threat occurs when the investigator has some previous
knowledge about the subject involved in the experiment. As the researcher was new
to the school the question of experimenter bias was ruled out.
3.17.11. IMPLEMENTATION:
The method of implementation may also affect internal validity. This can be
controlled by handling effective implementation strategies in the instructional
package.
3.18 EXTERNAL VALIDITY:

It is the extent to which the result of an experiment can be generalized to
pupils environmental conditions outside the context of the experiment. It is relatively
expensive with large sample.
3.19 CONTROLLING THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY:

In an experiment, several factors like Hawthrone effect, evaluation
apprehension may be associated with subject awareness being in study and these
factors may interact with treatments or effect responses on the dependent variable.
So the investigator made students to be aware of their participation
in the experiment. Thus the Hawthorne effect was eliminated.
3.20 RESEARCH PHASES:

In order to realize the objectives the investigator had proceeded
the research in the following manner.
Phase I – Preparatory Program
Phase II - Procedure for Execution of the study
Phase III – Treatment Program
Phase IV – Identifying the effect of the study
Phase V – Analysis and Data collection
Phase VI – Scheme of Data analysis.
3.21 PHASE – I ; PREPARATORY PROGRAM:

1. Identification of the Problem
2. Selection of the Sample
3. Observing the learning environment
4. Analyze the previous academic performance
5. Collecting the Related literature
6. Collection of research reviews
7. Development of tools
8. Establishment of Validity and Reliability
9. Developing and administering the pre-test tool
10. Instructional package development.
3.21.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM:
The investigator identified the existing problems in writing among VIII standard
students and found that difficulties in writing not only affect students' academic
performance but also affect their confidence and their future progress. The problem
had been identified by means of classroom observation, analyzing the previous
examination papers and by assessing the overall performance of students.
3.21.2 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE:
Sithanandha High School students (30 students) were selected by the
investigator for the study.
3.21.3 OBSERVING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT:
The investigator has observed the class to identify the problems among
students in an academic sense. In the teaching – learning process, little importance is
being given to develop writing skill. The teachers are more concerned about
completing the syllabus rather than encouranging students to write and understand
what they learn. The teacher tells the gist of the lesson in mother tongue. Answers for
the questions are given and students are tuned to repeat it. Thus from the observation
the investigator found that the present teaching – learning process does not develop
the writing ability of students. To put in a nut shell, students without understanding
the real meaning of the writing process face many difficulties in learning situation.
3.21.4 ANALYZING THE PREVIOUS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE:
The investigator has collected the previous academic marks of
students in their examinations. She collected the previous examinations papers to
identify students writing skills and their level of difficulty.
3.21.5 COLLECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE:

The investigator has collected the literature from books and
from Internet based on the identified problem.The investgator analyzed all practical
difficulties that are hindering students to get proficiency in writing and to secure
good marks. The investigator has already collected literature about the problem and
incorporated the material taken from the books and other sources.
3.21.6 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS:

The investigator has collected related research reviews on the basis of the
problem identified. The reviews gave knowledge about the various research works
done on the field. When the investigator reviewed related studies, she becomes aware
of the important and unimportant variables in the area concerned in the research. It
helped the investigator in avoiding any duplication of work done. The studies cited in
the foregoing review strongly suggest there is a great need for a multi model
intervention for enhancing writing competence.
3.21.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS:

In order to find out the effect of the treatment , the investigator has framed a
pre-test tool and post-test tool in English. The objectives are foccussed to develop
writing competence among upper primary students. The pre-test is administered
during this preparatory week itself.
3.21.8 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY:

The researcher wanted to find out the validity and reliability of the tool. To find
the validity of the tool, it has been given to the subject experts. After modifying the
necessary changes in the tool, it has allowed to find the reliability by using Split-half
method. The “r” value was 0.7.
Validity refers to what extent the instruments is to measure and how it measures.
Face validity concerns to what it appears to measure. The question paper for the field
of education to be tested for content validity and construct validity and the validity
was established.
3.21.9 DEVELOPING AND ADMINISTERING THE PRE-TEST TOOL:

To find out the present level of achievement of students in writing and writing
competence, a pre-test tool was developed and was administered among the students
of standard VIII. It includes all the important components of writing.
3.21.10 INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT:

After studying the related literature, and reviews the investigator designed
an “Instructional Package” to get a solution for the identified problem. The
instructional package was designed by calculating the total number of days along with
the special strategies adopted.

STUDY:
Designing of an intervention programme with the application of
Psycholinguistics Principles and Neurolinguistics programming in facilitating writing
competence.
Writing skill plays a vital role in the person's life. As in the present
scenario the teachers are more concerned about completing the syllabus rather than
encouraging students to read andd understand what they learn. The essence and
aesthetic sense lies in English has not been enjoyed by students. In many schools
even in English medium, English is portrayed as a complicated subject. Like the other
subjects, they are trained to memorize English also. They have not realized the
benefits of English which shapes their future and considered to be the window of the
modern world. As the present world is globalized, even to survive we need to learn
English.
Therefore the investigator was so particular in making students to enjoy

the language optimum and to have the real pleasure lies in it. The investigator
analyzed and discussed with the experts in the field of education and concluded that
through proper orientation and instruction in Punctuation and Capitalization make
students to excel in writing communication and comprehension. The investigator in
specified prepared an instructional program based on punctuation and capitalization
for the betterment of students because they play a vital and remarkable role in writing
comprehension. The investigator planned the program on punctuation and correct
capitalization through the assigned writing competencies prescribed in their syllabus.
Writing competencies assigned to them were- Paragraph writing, informal letters to
friends and relatives, formal letter relating to school context, filling in forms and
using punctuation. The investigator adopted the synergy of Psycholinguistics
Principles and Neurolinguistics Programming which paves the most for enhancing
writing competence.
Many teachers and most students have the mistaken impression that punctuation
is a very complex matter with hundreds of rules difficult to understand and next to
impossible to apply. First of all this impression should be erased from the minds of
students. The instructional program aimed at this and even specifically to make them
learn by their own using Psycholinguistics Principles and Neurolinguistics
programming for students. The Knowledge and process of Neurolinguistics
programming make students to be successful in life in all aspects.
3.23 TREATMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULE
Day Forenoon Session Afternoon session
1 Teaching Handwriting and  Giving exercises and activities
introduction of spelling and its like group activity of Language
rules. games, Cursive writing,etc.
 Collecting Think Aloud Protocol
and portfolio of that class.
2 Recapitalization of Previous day's  Giving exercise like Dictation,
portion and teaching spelling and Missing letters, etc.
its rules and introduction of  Collecting Think aloud protocol
Capitalization and portfolio of that class.
3 Recapitalization of previous day's  Giving exercise like writing their
portion and teach the students own sentences.
about capitalization and introduced  Giving activity like ask them to
Punctuation write a long paragraph or
dialogue and do the capitalization
in that.
and Portfolio also.
4 Recapitalization of Previous class  Giving exercise like writing their
and teach them Punctuation and own dialogue for a particular
introduced word order situation and do the punctuation
mark in it.
and Portfolio
5 Recapitalization of Previous class  Giving activities like language
and give instruction on word order games and give jumbled word
and introduce Sentence structure to sentence to students and ask them
them. to correct it.
and Portfolio also.
6 Recapitalization of previous class  Ask the students to write a
and teach sentence structure to paragraph on their own
them. experience
and Portfolio from the students.
7 Recapitalization of previous  Giving activities like Language
classes and disscused with them games, Missing letter game and
about Handwriting and Spelling ask them to write a paragraph
with neat handwriting
and Portfolio from the students
8 Recapitalization of Previous  Giving exercise like writing a
classes and discussed about story of their own and include
capitalization and punctuation capitalization and punctuation in
it.
 Collecting think Aloud Protocol
and Portfolio from the students.
9 Recapitalization of Previous  Giving exercise like jumbled
classes and have a discussion of word sentences and ask them to
word order and sentence structure make it to a meaningful
sentences.
 Ask them to write a paragraph of
their own.
and Portfolio from them.
10 Post-test, Pre- assessment self-  Teachers remark and feedback.
appraisal tool
3.24 PHASE – III – TREATMENT PROGRAM:

The instructional package developed by the investigator was administered in the
treatment program in the following way:
I. Preparing and setting the stage
II. Orientation
III. Intaking Psycholinguistics Principles
IV. Giving Neurolinguistics programming
V. Think Aloud Protocol
VI. Peer group discussion
3.24.1 PREPARING AND SETTING THE STAGE:
The study was well planned by the investigator and the treatment was decided
before hand. Each and every components is considered and the investgator
planned to make the study in order.
3.24.2 ORIENTATION:
First, the researcher gave importance to language and its skills and then the
researcher concentrated his view to writing competence. The researcher
oriented the students with various components like Spelling, Punctuation,
Handwriting, etc. The researcher gave importance to writing competence and
its usefulness in our day-to-day life.
3.24.3 INTAKING PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES:
The researcher taking Psycholinguistics Principles within himself and the
investigator use those principles while teaching. The psycholinguistics
principles are listed below.
a. From known to unknown
b. Motivation
c. Speech before reading and writing
d. Present language in basic sentence pattern
e. Language habits through practice and drill
f. The oral way
g. Imitation
h. Selection and Gradation
I. Controlled vocabulary
j. Reinforcement
k. Multiple line of approach, Language usages
3.24.4 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN

INSTRUCTION :
1 From Known to Unknown Setting for initiating Conceptualization
(writing – Paragraph)
2 Motivation Initial Prediction(Stimulating ideas about
Paragraph writing)
3 Speech before reading and writing  Interacting with them about
concept
 Getting their idea before writing
 Example for Paragraph writing
4 Present language in basic sentence  Using the meaning of the context-
pattern Missing word
 Understanding the Grammar.
5 Language habits through practice  Inter-group activities like Think
and drill Aloud Protocol, Reflective
thinking, etc.
6 The oral way Think Aloud Protocol.
7 Imitation  Perceiving the teaching and using
in the action of writing
 Listening to and repeating
8 Selection and Gradation Sequencing
9 Controlled Vocabulary  Identifying Synonyms and
antonyms.
 Enriching word power.
10 Reinforcement Direct and indirect experience in present.
11 Multiple line of approach, Language Drawing conclusions, Inference/
usage Generalizations.
3.24.5 GIVING NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING:

Neurolinguistics means the study of the way the human brain processes Language
and Neurolinguistics programming means a technique that people use to help
themselves or others think in a more positive way, and which uses neurolinguistics as
its basis.
The synergising effect, of Psycholinguistics Principles and Neuolinguistics
programming, will enhance writing competence.
3.24.6 THINK ALOUD PROTOCOL:
Think Aloud Protocol involve in students' thinking aloud as they are performing a set
of specified tasks. Students are asked to say whatever they are looking at,
thinking,doing, and feeling as they go about their task. This enables them to see first
hand the process of task completion (rather than only its final product). The purpose
of this technique is to make explicit what is implicitly present in subjects who are able
to perform a specific task.
3.24.7 PEER GROUP DISCUSSION:
Peer group discussion is being planned to implement after the answers for “Think
Aloud Protocol”. Peer group discussions allows everyone to participate. Students feel
more comfortable in small groups. They could analyze the answers and finalize an
answer apt to the question. The adaptation of group discussion makes students to have
a clear idea of the subject.
3.25 PHASE IV :IDENTIFYING THE EFFECT OF THE STUDY:

The intervention of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics program
had a great impact on students. These make them to improve their writing
comprehension. For each and everyday systematic organization of material had been
framed. As a predictable routine helps students to get organized, everyday is planned
in sequence. The objective of the investigator was to tune students towards the
components of second language and finally to facilitate writing competence. The
morning session began with testing their previous knowledge and recapitalization of
previous class. Then the investigator focus on the one components which is more
essential for writing. The investigator practices them by giving various exercise to
them. The afternoon session started with more activities which is based on their skill
and it is related to enhance writing competence. The investigator introduce more
activities like language games, group games, etc which makes students to express
them easily. Students were asked to write what they had learn t on that day as a
feedback and Think aloud protocol. This enhances their writing process and had a
close association with the treatment.
In-between Neurolinguistics Programming were also used to make the program
effective. An objective factor of attention , Namely “size” was applied by writing the
important points in different handwriting and by attractive techniques. “Intensity”was
administered by raising the tone wherever needed. “Change”was applied by making
students to give examples in between . “Contrast” was applied by asking students
questions in between the session. “Novelty” was used by giving examples from
stories and personal experience of the investigator.”Movement” was applied through
moving in the class and by using appropriate gestures while talking.”Repeatation”
was done by repeating the main content again and again.”Systematic form” was
administered by making the students to be aware of the topic before hand as an over-
view. Subjective factor of attention namely “Interest” was applied through making
students to write on a their own experience.”Need” was administered by giving the
importance and essentials of the topic. “Mental set” was applied by giving a clear cut
idea about the schedule. “Mood” was created by making students involve into the
study.
During every session, the utilization of Neurolinguistics Programming enhances the

listeningpower of students and even makes the study useful. Students could follow
with the investigator. They were aware of the program and effectively participated in
the study. Students were able to administer the strategies that the investigator adopts.
The application of Neurolinguistics programming makes the study more interesting

and lively. During each session questions were asked orally in between and students
who tried to give the answers were given one chocolate and who gave the correct
answers were awarded with two chocolates. This provokes an ease among students
and they observed and participated actively and keenly.
Every day the session started with the self-experience writing of students in order to
try out their thoughts and feelings in English. The present generation did not have
chance to write a Self- experienced topic by themselves. During the first day of the
session students felt shy and even feared and hesitated to write in English. The next
day they had some ideas and started to write. From the third day onwards they
enjoyed their writing and the investigator found tremendous improvement in their
writing process.
3.26 PHASE – V ; RESEARCH TOOLS AND DATA COLLECTION:

In order to asses the treatment given to the experimental group the investigator
intended to develop a tool for post-test. The content validity of the tool was
established by giving it to expert opinion. The reliability of the tool was established
by Split-half method.
As the outset the researcher wanted to know the influence of extraneous variables
intervention on the treatment given to the experimental group. Though the
experimental group was in the same school, the homogeneity of the group was
checked through collecting the demographic characteristics like the “Order of Birth”,
“Father's qualification and designation”, “Mother's qualification and designation”,
“the year of the study in the same school”, “choice of activities inside the classroom”,
“choice of activities in developing competencies in learning English”, etc., of the
group were collected through the questionnare. In addition to the demographic
particulars , awareness of writing competence were also collected through the
respective questionnare.
3.26.1 DATA COLLECTION:

The research design of this experiment study is pre-test and post-test experimental
group design. The Pre-test and post-test were given to students and data were
collected. The demographic particulars of students were collected. Awareness on
writing competence was collected and data were evaluated . Thus the available data
for analysis of students were,
 Demographic Particulars
 Pre-test and Post-test scores on the performance of the students in writing
competence in English.
 Awareness on writing competence
3.27 PHASE – VI; SCHEME OF DATA ANALYSIS:

In the present study, the relevant data obtained from scores on the pre-test and post-
test have been analyzed as follows:
 Descriptive analysis
 Relational analysis
 Differential analysis
3.28 CONCLUSION:
Even though methodology occupies a central in research endeavor, its efficacy could
be approved only through data analysis. Therefore data analysis is described in the
coming chapter.
CHAPTER- IV
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

CHAPTER – IV
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
After the collection of pertinent data through the use of appropriate tools and
techniques, the next step in the process of research is the organisation, analysis
and interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion.
Data were collected from the experimental group students on the following
factors.
10. Demographic Particulars

11. Pre-test and Post-test on Writing competence in English
12. Awareness on Writing competence
13. Awareness on Psycholinguistics Principles
14. Awareness on Neurolinguistics Programming
15. Awareness on Synergistic effect of Psycholinguistic principles and
Neurolinguistics Programming
Data obtained on the above factors were subjected to statistical
analysis. Analysis was categorized under:
16. Descriptive analysis
17. Relational analysis
18. Differential analysis
4.2 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS:

The term “Descriptive analysis” refers to a set of concepts and methods
used in organising, summarizing, tabulating, depicting and collection of
data. The goal of descriptive analysis is to provide a representation of the
data, which describes data or the results of the researcher in the tabular,
graphical or numerical form. The function of descriptive analysis is to
describe and indicate several characteristics common to the entire sample.
4.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE:
In this section, “the order of birth”, “father's qualification and designation”,
mother's qualification and designation”, “the years of study in the same
school”,”place of study other than this school”, “choice of grouping for activities”,
“mother tongue”, “choice of learning activities”, “importance according to
language skill”, etc., of the experimental group are explained.
TABLE – 4.2.1
“Order of Birth”of experimental group students
SAMPLE SIZE 1 2 3 4
N=30 14 9 6 1
46.6% 30% 20% 3.3%
Most of the students are from “1st” and “2nd” order of birth. A maximum of
46.6% of students in the experimental group are born of “1st” order. Students of
30% are of “2nd” order, 20% are of “3rd”order and only 3.3% are born of “4th”
order of birth.
Order of Birth of Experimental group
Sample size, N=30
47%
1st Order of birth

2nd Order of birth
3rd Order of birth
4th Order of birth
3%
30%
20%
TABLE – 4.2.2
Experimental group students' “Parents' Qualification”
SAMPLE IL ELE SSE HSE UG

SIZE (N=30)
Father's 1 8 14 4 3
qualification 3.3% 26.7% 46.6% 13.3% 10%
Mother's 3 12 10 3 2
qualification 10% 40% 33.3% 10% 6.7%
IL- Illiterate
ELE- Elementary Education
SSE – Secondary School Education
HSE – Higher Secondary Education
UG – Under Graduation
From the table, it is inferred that “illiteracy” is higher on the side of mothers
(10%) compared to fathers (3.33%). Fathers of 26.7% and mothers of 40% have
“Elementary Education”. A maximum of 46.6% of fathers and 33.3% of mothers
have “Secondary school Education”. Fathers of 13.3% and mothers of 10% have
“Higher secondary Education”. Only a minimum of 10% of fathers and 6.7% of
mothers have “Under Graduation”. Finally it is understood that most of the fathers
have undergone “Secondary school Education” and most of the mothers have
undergone “Elementary Education”.
Father's Qualification of Experimental group Students
Sample size, N=30
27%
Illiterate
Elementary School
Secondary School
47%
3% Higher secondary
Under Graduation
10%
13%
Mother's Qualification of Experimental group Students

Sample size, N=30
40%
Illiterate
Elementary School
10% Secondary School
Higher secondary
Under Graduation
7%
10%
33%
TABLE – 4.2.3
Experimental group students' “Father's Designation”
SAMPLE SIZE PROFESSION BUSINESS OTHERS

N=30 2 8 20
6.7% 26.7% 66.7%
In designation wise 66.7% of the experimental group students' fathers designation

come under “Others” category and 26.7% belongs to the “Business” category and
6.7% belongs to the “Profession” category.
Experimental Students' Father's Designation

Sample size, N=30
27%
PROFESSION
BUSSINESS
7% OT HERS
67%
TABLE – 4.2.4
Experimental group students' “Mother's Designation”
SAMPLE SIZE PROFESSION BUSINESS HOUSE WIFE OTHERS

N=30 1 1 26 2
3.3% 3.3% 86.7% 6.7%
A maximum of 86.7% of students' mothers serve as “Housewives”. A minimum of

3.3% comes under “Business”and “Professional” and 6.7% of mothers are comes
under “Others” category respectively.
Experimental group Students' Mother's Designation

Sample size, N=30
3%
3% PROFESSION
87%
BUSINESS
HOUSE WIFE
OT HERS
7%
TABLE – 4.2.5
“The years of study in the Same school “ of experimental group students.
SAMPLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
SIZE
N=30 2 2 9 1 0 1 3 12
6.7% 6.7% 30% 3.3% 0% 3.3% 10% 40%
A maximum of 40% of students have “8” years of study in the same school.
Students of 30% have “3” years of study, 10% have “7” years of study, 6.7% have
respectively “2” and “1” year of study and 3.3% of students have respectively “4”
and “6” years of study in the same school. From the data it is inferred that a
maximum of 40% of students have been studying in the school since 1 st standard
and 30% of students have been studying in the school since 6th standard.
“The years of study in the Same school “ of experimental group students
Sample size, N=30
30%
7%
3% One y ear
7% T wo y ear
3%
T hree y ear
Four y ear
Five y ear
10%
Six y ear
Seven y ear
Eight y ear
40%
TABLE – 4.2.6
Experimental group students' “Place of residence”
SAMPLE SIZE RURAL URBAN

N=30 27 3
90% 10%
A maximum of 90% of students are from “Rural” areas and a minimum of 10%
are from “Urban” areas.
Experimental group students' “Place of residence”
Sample size, N=30
90%
RURAL
URBAN
10%
TABLE- 4.2.7
Experimental group students' “Choice of grouping for activities”
SAMPLE SIZE A B C
N=30 1 6 23
3.3% 20% 76.7%
A- Practicing with the whole class

B- Practicing with the small groups
C – Practicing alone
A maximum of 76.6% students of experimental group prefer to “Practicing alone”
and 20% of students choose “Practicing with the small groups” and 3.3% of the
students prefer to “Practicing with the whole class”.
Experimental group students' “Choice of grouping for activities”

Sample size, N=30
20%
Practicing with the
whole class
Practicing with the
small groups
3%
Practicing alone
77%
TABLE – 4.2.8
Experimental group students' “Mother tongue”
SAMPLE SIZE TAMIL OTHERS

N=30 29 1
96.7% 3.3%
A maximum of 96.7% of students' mother tongue is “Tamil” and only 3.3%

students comes under “Others” category.
Experimental group students' “Mother tongue”
Sample size, N=30
97%
TAM IL
OTHERS
3%
TABLE – 4.2.9
Experimental group students' “Choice of learning activities”
SAMPLE SIZE A B C D
N=30 10 3 13 4
33.3% 10% 43.3% 13.3%
A-Articulating words
B- Dealing the exercise of the text book
C- Learning new words and phases
D- Studying text books
Experimental group students prefer “Learning new words and phases”followed by

“articulating words”. A maximum of 43.3% of students prefer to “learn new words
and Phrases”, 33.3% of students prefer to “articulate words”, 13.3% of students
prefer to “study text book” and only 10% of students prefer to “deal the exercises
of the textbook”.
Experimental group students' “Choice of learning activities”

Sample size, N=30
33%
10%
Articulating words
Dealing the exercise
of the text book
Learning new words
and phases
Studying text books
13%
43%
TABLE – 4.2.10
Experimental group students' “Importance according to language skill”
SAMPLE SIZE L R S W
N=30 17 1 8 4
56.7% 3.3% 26.7% 13.3%
L- Listening
R-Reading
S-Speaking
W- Writing
Students give much importance to “Listening” in language skills. A maximum of

56.7% prefer “Listening skill”, 26.7% prefer “speaking skill”, 13.3% prefer
“Writing skill” and only 3.3% prefer “Reading skill”.
Experimental group students' “Importance according to language skill”
Sample size, N=30
57%
Listening
Reading
Speaking
Writing
13%
3%
27%
4.2.2 CONCLUSION:
From the descriptive analysis it is evident that most of the students are from “1st”
and “2nd” order of birth. Only a minimum of 10% of fathers and 6.7% of mothers
have acquired”Under graduation”. Most of the fathers are involved in occupations
indicated as “Others” category and most of the mothers are “Housewives”. Around
40% of students have studied in the same school for a period of “8” years and 30%
of students have studied for a period of “3”years. This indicates that 40% of
students have been studying in this school since 1st standard and students of 30%
have been studying since 6th standard. Majority of students are from “Rural” areas.
The mother tongue of 96.7% of students is “Tamil”. A maximum of 83% of
students prefer to “Practice alone”. Students prefer “Learning new words and
phrases” followed by “Articulating words”. Students give much importance to
“Listening” in Language skills.
4.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS:
Relational analysis is attempted to find out the significant relationship between

varibles. The “r” value was calculated by using Pearson product moment
correlation to find out the relation between Pretest and Post-test scores, between
awareness on writing competence and Psycholinguistics principles, between
writing competence and Neurolinguistics programming and writing competence
and synergising effect of Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics
programming.
TABLE – 4.3.1
“r” value between the awareness on Psycholinguistic Principles and Writing

competence
Test “r” value between the awareness on

Psycholinguistic Principles and Writing
competence
Awareness on Psycholinguistic Principles and 0.75
Writing competence
There is a high relationship between awareness on Psycholinguistic Principles and

Writing competence.
TABLE – 4.3.2
“r” value between awareness on Neurolinguistics programming and Writing

competence
Test “r” value between awareness on

Neurolinguistics programming and Writing
competence
Awareness on Neurolinguistics programming 0.79
and Writing competence
There is a high relationship between awareness on Neurolinguistics Programming

and Writing competence.
TABLE – 4.3.3
“r” value between awareness on synergising effect of Psycholinguistic
Principles and Neurolinguistics programming.
Test “r” value between awareness on

synergising effect of Psycholinguistic
Principles and Neurolinguistics
programming
Awareness on synergising effect of 0.87
Psycholinguistic Principles and
Neurolinguistics programming.
There is a high relationship between awareness on synergising effect of

Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics programming.
4.3.1. CONCLUSION:
From the Relational analysis,the high relationship between awareness on writing
competence and Psycholinguistics principles, between writing competence and
Neurolinguistics programming and writing competence and synergising effect of
Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics programming are Highly
correlated. To put in nut shell, this new pedagogy will help to enhance Writing
competence.
4.4 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS:
The differential analysis is attempted to find out the significant mean difference
between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group students. In the
experimental group the application of Psycholinguistic Principles and
Neurolinguistics programming in writing competence is tested by comparing the
pre-test and post-test scores through computation of t-values between the pre-test
and post-test scores.
4.4.1. “t” TEST:
The most common statistical procedure for determining the level of significance
6;when two means are compared is the “t” test. The “t”test is a formula that
generates a number, and this number is used to determine the probability level of
rejecting/accepting the null hypothesis. The “t” test is used to observe the
difference between the two means. The “t” test is applied to know the difference
between the results from two matched groups or single group.
TABLE – 4.4.1
The mean and standard deviation of the pre-test scores of experimental group
students.
Test Sample size Mean Standard Deviation

PRE-TEST N=30 60.5 16.28
The mean and standard deviation of the pre-test scores on Writing competence in
English of the experimental group students are 60.5 and 16.5 respectively.
Mean and SD of the pre-test scores of experimental group students
Sample size, N=30
70
60.5
60
50
40
30
20
16.28
10
0
Mean Standard Deviation
TABLE – 4.4.2
The mean and standard deviation of the post-test scores of experimental

group students
.
Test Sample size Mean Standard Deviation
POST-TEST N=30 69.5 14.97
The mean and standard deviation of the post-test scores on writing competence in
English of the experimental group students are 69.5 and 14.97 respectively.
Mean and SD of the post-test scores of experimental group students
Sample size, N=30
80
70
69.5
60
50
40
30
20
14.97
10
0
Mean Standard Deviation
TABLE – 4.4.3
“t” value between pre-test and post-test scores of experimental group

students in achievement test in Writing competence.
Sample size df Test “t” value between

pre-test and post-test
N=30 58 Writing competence 2.23*
* significance at 0.05 level
For df, to be significant at 0.05 level the calculated “t” value should be greater
than or equal to 2.01. Hence, df= 58 and “t” = 2.23, and it is greater than the table
value. Hence, it is significant.
4.4.2 CONCLUSION:
The calculated t value (t=2.23) is far above the table value at 0.05(95%).Hence,
there is significant difference between pre-test and post-test score of the
experimental group students at 0.05 levels.
4. 5. CONCLUSION:
This chapter had extensively dealt with the calculations pertaining to different
statistical analysis of variables, tabulations and interpretations of results obtained.
The findings, discussions,educational implications and conclusion of the study are
listed in the successive chapter.
CHAPTER – V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

CHAPTER – V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The present study is to find out the synergising effect of Psycholinguistics
principles and Neurolinguistics Programming on facilitating writing competence
among upper primary students. Research effort can be said to be worthwhile if
only, it emanates some findings and educational implications. So along with this
discussion of the present study and follow up work to be taken in this area are
presented in this chapter.
5.2 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES:
investigator use those principles while teaching. The psycholinguistics principles
are listed below.
b. Motivation
f. The oral way
g. Imitation
j. Reinforcement
5 5.3 NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING:
themselves or others think in a more positive way, and which uses neurolinguistics
as its basis.
5
6 5.4 WRITING – AN ESSENTIAL SKILL :
Writing is a process of analysis. An appreciation of the full import of this
analytical process requires relative cognitive maturity and, in our literate society ,
also functions as a promoter of such maturity. As with most of his other
experiences the totality, or gestalt, of the language before he begins to take it apart.
To a child learning his native language, writing comes as a pleasant discovery
which greatly arouses his curiosity, as do the innards of an alarm clock which a
young boy has taken apart to see what makes it tick. Compared to this pleasant
discovery of writing, the reverse discovery of the spoken form by a child brought
up on R-W-L-S sequence is invariably a highly disconcerning one, since he seems
to have no clue how the bits and pieces of written language that he has been given
by the teacher add up to that awe-inspiring fluency of the spoken form which the
“Real” speaker of the language mouths with such devastating ease! It is easy
thereafter to feel cheated and frustrated, to feel that the real language has somehow
been missed altogether. And since usually this realization comes rather late in the
case of the second language, when other things in life have begun to be more
important, the best course seems to give up, or to just drift along.
5
6 5.5 SYNERGISING EFFECT OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING IN
WRITING COMPETENCE:
7 Psycholinguistics or Psychology of language, is the study of mind
process and produce language awareness should be given to language teachers
and every individual should have attitudinal change and aspirational change
and every teacher should program (practice) the students thinking and
Neurolinguistics programming , a technique that people use to help themselves
or others think in a more positive way, and which uses neurolinguistics as its
basis, should be given to students. Therefore, this research outcome will bring
awareness among school teachers especially for enhancing writing
competencies in English language.
This research is an experimental method where
neurolinguistic programming and psycholinguistics principles are synergized to
enhancing the writing competence of the high school students. Psycholinguistics
principles were practiced by teachers and they want to teach with the help of NLP
to the students. This strategy or model will be considered as a better method than
any other method for enhancing competence.
5.6 INFERENCES FROM THE REVIEW:
The investigator has collected research studies under the following sections as,
Psycholinguistics Principles, Neurolinguistics Programming and Writing
competence.The inferences drawn from the review of literature strongly suggest
that no single intervention can be effective to suit the academic needs of students.
When the investgator reviewed related literature, she becomes aware of the
variables in the area concerned in the research. It helped the investigator in
avoiding any duplication of work done.
Writing is one of the important skills of communication
through which we express our thoughts. Writing is an art which plays a vital role
in our language communication. The 2009 secondary school exam results of
pudhucherry reveals students scored less in English when compared to other
subjects. This information made the investigator to find out the reason behind it.
As a research, the investigator wanted to critically analyse the reasons behind the
low performance in English. The researcher discussed this problem with the tenth
standard English language teachers of same schools in pudhucherry. It is
understood that students are unable to present their thoughts. They do commit
spelling mistakes, punctuation mistakes, grammatical errors and week sentence
construction. As the medium of instruction is English, this problem reflects in
other subjects too. The researcher observed the English classroom instruction and
English text book. It has a list of writing competencies which they are expected to
achieve like Explaining, Report writing, Knowledge of using appropriate
punctuation marks, Precis writing, Letter writing, etc. If the student are expected
to perform these competencies in writing, they have to be given training in writing
components and they should be given frequent practices. The focus of the
instruction should be on development of writing ability and not an content
transfer. But the language English is being handled as a subject and not as skill
development. All the competencies prescribed for standard tenth, can not be
developed overnight. It regulates certain basics. Had they been given adequate
training on their writing competencies, student in class tenth would not have faced
the above said problem in communication. Hence, the researcher went through
language objectives of the classes sixth and eighth. It focuses on Paragraph writing
, Synopsis writing, Using appropriate punctuation marks.This observation, made
the researcher to think on the pedagogical aspects in school instruction program.
Thus, the researcher designed an effective pedagogy which would help them to
acquire competencies in writing and hence the researcher implemented with a new
pedagogy under this title to enhance writing competencies of school students.
5.8 NEED FOR THE STUDY:
Either in the corporate sector or in government sector, English
is the language for communication. This information era, experts every individual
to equip with competence to withstand competition and survival. Skill
development and language competencies express writing in GATE, SAT, and
Various competitive exam. Hence, it is imperative to find out a right pedagogy for
writing competence development and for students.
Communication skill is more important in our day today life for
expressing our ideas effectively to others. For tenth standard students, English
language is very very important because it is more helpful for their higher studies.
Their writing comprehension and communication abilities are expected for their
future success. So, this pedagogy is for enhancing writing competency sure to
facilitate of students.
5.9 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:
This research is focusing on development of writing
competence. Psycholinguistics or Psychology of language, is the study of mind
process and produce language awareness should be given to language teachers and
every individual should have attitudinal change and aspirational change and every
teacher should program (practice) the students thinking and Neurolinguistics
programming , a technique that people use to help themselves or others think in a
more positive way, and which uses neurolinguistics as its basis, should be given to
students. Therefore, this research outcome will bring awareness among school
teachers especially for enhancing writing competencies in English language.
This research is an experimental method where neurolinguistic programming
and psycholinguistics principles are synergized to enhancing the writing
competence of the high school students. Psycholinguistics principles were
practiced by teachers and they want to teach with the help of NLP to the students.
This strategy or model will be considered as a better method than any other method
for enhancing competence.
5.10 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The following are the objectives of the study framed by the
researcher and his / her aim to achieve those objectives.
1 To find out the existing competence in writing among eighth
standard.
2 To apply Psycholinguistics principles towards developing writing
competence among eighth standard students.
3 To apply NLP towards developing writing competence among
eighth standard students.
4 To find out the impact of the Neurolinguistic programming
towards writing competence.
5 To find out the effect of Psycholinguistics principles on the
writing competence.
6 To find out the synergizing effect of psycholinguistics principles
and NLP on developing writing competence among eighth
standard students.
7 To identify the significant relationship between psycholinguistics
and writing competence.
8 To identify the significant relationship between NLP and writing
competence.
9 To identify the significant relationship between Psycholinguistics
and NLP and writing competence.
5.11 TITLE OF THE STUDY:
A synergy of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics Programming on
developing writing competence among Eighth standard students in Sithanandha
High School, Pudhucherry.
5.12 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS:
According to 21st Century, Illustrated Oxford dictionary,
a The term “Synergy” means the extra energy, power, success, etc.,
that is achieved by two or more people or companies working
together instead of their own.
b The term “Psycholinguistics” means the study of the mind
process and produces language.
c The term “Neurolinguistics” means the study of the way the
human brain process language.
d The term “Neurolinguistics Programming” means a technique
that people use to help themselves or others think in a more
positive way , and which uses neurolinguistics as its basis.
e The term “Programming” means a set of instructions to make it
perform a particular task.
f The term “Writing” means a group or sequence of letters or
symbols.
g The term “Competence” means the ability to do something well.
5.13 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION:
In the process of helping eighth standard students in acquiring
writing competence, the researcher applies psycholinguistics principles and tunes
them to practice Neurolinguistics Programming.
5.14 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY:
The following are the assumptions of the study.
a) Secondary language teaching must be on psycholinguistics principles.
b) Neurolinguistics programming helps the learner in second acquisition.
c) Synergising Psycholinguistics principles and Neurolinguistics
programming results in development of language competencies.
5.15 HYPOTHESES:
The following hypotheses were formulated in the research.
1) There will be significant difference between the Pre-test and the Post-
test scores of the experimental group.
2) There will be a relationship between Psycholinguistics principles and
writing competence.
3) There will be a relationship between Neurolinguistics programming
and Writing competence.
1 There will be an impact of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics
programming on writing competence.
2
5.16 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:
The following are the delimitations of the study .
1. The study was restricted to eighth standard students of Sithananadha
High School, Lawspet, Pudhucherry-8.
2. The study was concerned only with thirty eighth standard students.
3. The study was focused on the need and development in writing
competence.
4. The researcher limited her study mainly to writing competence to
Writing competence in English especially in paragraph writing.
5. The program was carried out only for ten days.
5.17 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY:
Experimental method is clearly for determining the casual effect of
independent variables on dependent variable. It provides a systematic and logical
way for answering the research questions. It is to establish cause and affect
relationship between variables. This method is considered to provide for a high
degree of control over extraneous variables and the manipulation of variables. It
helps to test hypotheses of relationship between variables. It also permits drawing
inference about causality.
Experimentation is defined as “observation under controlled conditions”.
Experiments are studies involving intervention by the investigator beyond that
required for measurement . The usual intervention is to manipulate how it affects
the subjects being studied by the investigator, manipulate the independent or
explanatory variable and then observe whether the hypothesized dependent
variable is affected by the intervention.
In the experimental studies, observably changes take place, which help the
investigator to establish a cause and effect relationship. It is the description and
analysis of what will be or what will occur or what can be made to occur under
carefully controlled conditions. Experimentation consists of the deliberate and
controlled modification of the conditions determining an event and in the
observation and interpretation of the changes that occur in the event itself.
Experimenters deliberately and systematically manipulate certain stimuli,
treatment or environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behaviour
of other factors that could influence the outcome and remove or control them in
such a way that they can establish a logical association between manipulated
factors and observed effects.
Since experimentation is considered to be the scientifically sophisticated
research method the investigator adopted experimental method to study the
effectiveness of applying Psycholinguistics principles and Neurolinguistics
program. The investigator wanted to develop writing competence among high
school students through Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics program activities.
One group was taken and Pre-test was administered followed by the treatment and
the Post-test was given to find out the treatments’ effect. In this study the
investigator adopted experimental design – one group- Pre test- Post test design.
5.18 PLANNING OF THE TREATMENT:
The researcher sensitized the problems faced by students with writing
difficulties and realized the need for development of writing competence. The
existing teaching learning process was analyzed. The students were selected and
were personally en quired about the problems being faced in the present school
setting.
For enhancing writing competence the researcher found a new method
or pedagogy for instructions. This method involves Psycholinguistics
principles for teachers and Neurolinguistics programming for students to
enhance writing competence among students
5.19 RESEARCH PROCESS:
I this section the following aspects of the research process are presented.
 Sample
 Research design
 Duration of the treatment
 Threats to Experiemental validity
 Research phase
 Preparatory program
 Pre-test tool on assessing writing competence
 Planning for incorporation of Psycholinguistics principles
 Designing of the inculcation of Neurolinguistics programming
 Continuous application of Psycholinguistics principles and
Neurolinguistics programming and Writing competence
 Effects of the treatment
 Research tool and data collection
 Scheme of data analysis
5.20 SAMPLE:
As the researcher felt the urgent need for the improvement of writing
competence among the high school students in English, the investigator took a
sample of 30 students from Sithananda High School, Lawspet, Pudhucherry.
5.21 RESEARCH DESIGN :
5 A research design is a plan and conceptual structure of
investigation and procedure conceived that to obtain answers for
research question. “It is an outline of what for an investigator as that
for an archiect”.
6 The researcher selected experimental method and thus
designed a research design. The research process is given in the
research design. Standard VIII students were selected for the study.
The Pre-test, treatment and Post-test were designed and given on the
depentent variable. Thus there was one experiemental group and it
was decided to see the synergising effect of Psycholinguistics
Principles and Neurolinguistics programming in enhancing students'
writing competence.
5.22 DURATION OF THE TREATMENT:
The investigator had the study for a period of one week for preparatory
program and ten days for the intervention program. One week preparatory
program stars from December last week, were the Pre-test was conducted to the
samples and collected the demographic particulars from the sample.
5.23 THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY:
After selecting the experimental group, the researcher took
steps to avoid threats to validity. In spite of careful planning and implementation,
threats were more on affecting the validity of the experimentation. Attempts were
made to minimize threats for ensuring experimental validity.
A researcher has to have an important consideration in planning
an experimental study or in evaluating the results of a reported study. In the
likelihood of possible threats to internal validity after selecting the experimental
group the researcher took steps to avoid threats to validity. Attempts were made to
minimize threats for ensuring experimental validity.
5.24 INTERNAL VALIDITY:
Internal validity is concerned with the extent to which the
experience is genuinely effective ie. The extent to which the manipulations in the
independent variables brings about changes in the dependent variables. It is
concerned with the true variance in the dependent variable that has been brought
about by the induced variations in the independent variables . The following are
the threats to internal validity which should be avoided.
5.24.1 SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS:

If the participants in the group happened to be different to be in
the matter of age, sex, etc., the results cannot be wholly attributed to working of
independent variable. This threat was also eliminated as the investigator selected
only eighth standard students’ of the same group.
5.24.2 MORTALITY:
This threat may happen if the participants in the selected group
drop out in the course of the study. The researcher carefully averted this threat in
the selection of students. Students from class eighth were selected and there were
no drop outs.
5.24.3 LOCATION:
As this study was concentrated on writing skill of the students,
the location was only the classroom for the treatment. There was no change in the
location. So it did not affect the study.
5.24.4 INSTRUMENTATION:
Unreliable instruments used to measure aspects of behavior are
threats to the validity of an experiment. In the study actual performance of
students was evaluated. Students were given training on writing skills and were
assessed for the same.
The entire variables namely Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics
programming, Writing competence, Demographic particulars were all scored
uniformly. The validity and the reliability of all the tools were established.
5.24.5 TESTING:
Testing refers to a threat to interval validity which arises due
to the participant becoming “Test-wise”. The Pre-test given to students sensitized
them to the components of writing skills. Moreover the feed back received from
everybody, the follow up work was given due consideration. Post-test was
administered to students on a different aspect on the same pattern there by the
effect of testing was balanced out.
5.24.6 HISTORY:
Unplanned events do not occur during the research and affect
the results. The researcher carefully observed the treatment hour and protected it
from any new event.
5.24.7 MATURATION:
In refers to the change that may occur in the biological and
psychological conditions of the child during the course of study, and such changes
are likely to happen only if the study spreads over longer period of time but the
present study was confined to a period of ten days only. Hence the question of
maturation did not arise.
5.24.8 STATISTICAL REGRESSION :

It refers to the threat to validity, which occurs in studies that
used participants selected on the basis of extreme high or low scores. Here the
researcher selected the students based on their performance in previous exam
(half-yearly) and Pre-test scores. Thus this threat was also eliminated in the
present research.
5.24.9 SELECTION BIAS:

In spite of the sample being purposive, the group taken for
experiment was really in need for the treatment for development in writing
competence. Students were from standard eighth having who really need to
develop writing competence for the competitive future study. Selection was based
on students’ previous academic performance.
5.24.10. EXPERIMENTER BIAS:

This type of threat occurs when the investigator has some
previous knowledge about the subject involved in the experiment. As the
researcher was new to the school the question of experimenter bias was ruled out.
5.24.11. IMPLEMENTATION:
The method of implementation may also affect internal validity.
This can be controlled by handling effective implementation strategies in the
instructional package.
5.25 EXTERNAL VALIDITY:
It is the extent to which the result of an experiment can be
generalized to pupils environmental conditions outside the context of the
experiment. It is relatively expensive with large sample.
5.26 CONTROLLING THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY:
In an experiment, several factors like Hawthrone effect,
evaluation apprehension may be associated with subject awareness being in study
and these factors may interact with treatments or effect responses on the dependent
variable.
So the investigator made students to be aware of their
participation in the experiment. Thus the Hawthorne effect was eliminated.
5.27 RESEARCH PHASES:
In order to realize the objectives the investigator had proceeded
the research in the following manner.
Phase I – Preparatory Program
Phase II - Procedure for Execution of the study
Phase III – Treatment Program
Phase IV – Identifying the effect of the study
Phase V – Analysis and Data collection
Phase VI – Scheme of Data analysis.
5.28 PHASE – I ; PREPARATORY PROGRAM:

1 Identification of the Problem
2 Selection of the Sample
3 Observing the learning environment
4 Analyze the previous academic performance
5 Collecting the Related literature
6 Collection of research reviews
7 Development of tools
8 Establishment of Validity and Reliability
9 Developing and administering the pre-test tool
10 Instructional package development.
5.28.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM:
The investigator identified the existing problems in writing among VIII
standard students and found that difficulties in writing not only affect students'
academic performance but also affect their confidence and their future progress.
The problem had been identified by means of classroom observation, analyzing
the previous examination papers and by assessing the overall performance of
students.
5.28.2 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE:
Sithanandha High School students (30 students) were selected by the
investigator for the study.
5.28.3 OBSERVING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT:
The investigator has observed the class to identify the problems among
students in an academic sense. In the teaching – learning process, little importance
is being given to develop writing skill. The teachers are more concerned about
completing the syllabus rather than encouranging students to write and understand
what they learn. The teacher tells the gist of the lesson in mother tongue. Answers
for the questions are given and students are tuned to repeat it. Thus from the
observation the investigator found that the present teaching – learning process
does not develop the writing ability of students. To put in a nut shell, students
without understanding the real meaning of the writing process face many
difficulties in learning situation.
5.28.4 ANALYZING THE PREVIOUS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE:

The investigator has collected the previous academic marks
of students in their examinations. She collected the previous examinations papers
to identify students writing skills and their level of difficulty.
5.28.5 COLLECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE:

The investigator has collected the literature from
books and from Internet based on the identified problem.The investgator analyzed
all practical difficulties that are hindering students to get proficiency in writing
and to secure good marks. The investigator has already collected literature about
the problem and incorporated the material taken from the books and other sources.
5.28.6 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS:

The investigator has collected related research reviews on the basis of
the problem identified. The reviews gave knowledge about the various research
works done on the field. When the investigator reviewed related studies, she
becomes aware of the important and unimportant variables in the area concerned
in the research. It helped the investigator in avoiding any duplication of work
done. The studies cited in the foregoing review strongly suggest there is a great
need for a multi model intervention for enhancing writing competence.
5.28.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS:

In order to find out the effect of the treatment , the investigator
has framed a pre-test tool and post-test tool in English. The objectives are
foccussed to develop writing competence among upper primary students. The pre-
test is administered during this preparatory week itself.
5.28.8 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY:
The researcher wanted to find out
the validity and reliability of the tool. To find the validity of the tool, it has been
given to the subject experts. After modifying the necessary changes in the tool, it
has allowed to find the reliability by using Split-half method.
Validity refers to what extent the instruments is to measure and how it
measures. Face validity concerns to what it appears to measure. The question
paper for the field of education to be tested for content validity and construct
validity and the validity was established.
5.28.9 DEVELOPING AND ADMINISTERING THE PRE-TEST TOOL:

To find out the present level of achievement of students in writing
and writing competence, a pre-test tool was developed and was administered
among the students of standard VIII. It includes all the important components of
writing.
5.28.10 INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT:

After studying the related literature, and reviews the investigator
designed an “Instructional Package” to get a solution for the identified problem.
The instructional package was designed by calculating the total number of days
along with the special strategies adopted.
STUDY:
Designing of an intervention programme with the application of
Psycholinguistics Principles and Neurolinguistics programming in facilitating
writing competence.
Writing skill plays a vital role in the person's life. As in the present scenario
the teachers are more concerned about completing the syllabus rather than
encouraging students to read andd understand what they learn. The essence and
aesthetic sense lies in English has not been enjoyed by students. In many schools
even in English medium, English is portrayed as a complicated subject. Like the
other subjects, they are trained to memorize English also. They have not realized
the benefits of English which shapes their future and considered to be the window
of the modern world. As the present world is globalized, even to survive we need
to learn English.
Therefore the investigator was so particular in making students to enjoy the
language optimum and to have the real pleasure lies in it. The investigator
analyzed and discussed with the experts in the field of education and concluded
that through proper orientation and instruction in Punctuation and Capitalization
make students to excel in writing communication and comprehension. The
investigator in specified prepared an instructional program based on punctuation
and capitalization for the betterment of students because they play a vital and
remarkable role in writing comprehension. The investigator planned the program
on punctuation and correct capitalization through the assigned writing
competencies prescribed in their syllabus. Writing competencies assigned to them
were- Paragraph writing, informal letters to friends and relatives, formal letter
relating to school context, filling in forms and using punctuation. The investigator
adopted the synergy of Psycholinguistics Principles and Neurolinguistics
Programming which paves the most for enhancing writing competence.
Many teachers and most students have the mistaken
impression that punctuation is a very complex matter with hundreds
of rules difficult to understand and next to impossible to apply. First
of all this impression should be erased from the minds of students.
The instructional program aimed at this and even specifically to
make them learn by their own using Psycholinguistics Principles and
Neurolinguistics programming for students. The Knowledge and
process of Neurolinguistics programming make students to be
successful in life in all aspects.
5.30 PHASE – III – TREATMENT PROGRAM:
The instructional package developed by the investigator was
administered in the treatment program in the following way:
I Preparing and setting the stage
II Orientation
III Intaking Psycholinguistics Principles
IV Giving Neurolinguistics programming
V Think Aloud Protocol
VI Peer group discussion
5.30.1 PREPARING AND SETTING THE STAGE:
The study was well planned by the investigator and the treatment was decided
before hand. Each and every components is considered and the investgator
planned to make the study in order.
5.30.2 ORIENTATION:
First, the researcher gave importance to language and its skills and then the
researcher concentrated his view to writing competence. The researcher oriented
the students with various components like Spelling, Punctuation, Handwriting, etc.
The researcher gave importance to writing competence and its usefulness in our
day-to-day life.
5.30.3 INTAKING PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES:
investigator use those principles while teaching. The psycholinguistics principles
are listed below.
b. Motivation
f. The oral way
g. Imitation
j. Reinforcement
5.30.4 GIVING NEUROLINGUISTICS PROGRAMMING:
themselves or others think in a more positive way, and which uses neurolinguistics
as its basis.
5.30.5 THINK ALOUD PROTOCOL:
Think Aloud Protocol involve in students' thinking aloud as they are performing a
set of specified tasks. Students are asked to say whatever they are looking at,
thinking,doing, and feeling as they go about their task. This enables them to see
first hand the process of task completion (rather than only its final product). The
purpose of this technique is to make explicit what is implicitly present in subjects
who are able to perform a specific task.
5.30.6 PEER GROUP DISCUSSION:
Peer group discussion is being planned to implement after the answers for “Think
Aloud Protocol”. Peer group discussions allows everyone to participate. Students
feel more comfortable in small groups. They could analyze the answers and
finalize an answer apt to the question. The adaptation of group discussion makes
students to have a clear idea of the subject.
5.31 PHASE IV :IDENTIFYING THE EFFECT OF THE STUDY:

The intervention of Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics
program had a great impact on students. These make them to improve their writing
comprehension. For each and everyday systematic organization of material had
been framed. As a predictable routine helps students to get organized, everyday is
planned in sequence. The objective of the investigator was to tune students
towards the components of second language and finally to facilitate writing
competence. The morning session began with testing their previous knowledge
and recapitalization of previous class. Then the investigator focus on the one
components which is more essential for writing. The investigator practices them
by giving various exercise to them. The afternoon session started with more
activities which is based on their skill and it is related to enhance writing
competence. The investigator introduce more activities like language games, group
games, etc which makes students to express them easily. Students were asked to
write what they had learn t on that day as a feedback and Think aloud protocol.
This enhances their writing process and had a close association with the treatment.
In-between Neurolinguistics Programming were also used to make the program
effective. An objective factor of attention , Namely “size” was applied by writing
the important points in different handwriting and by attractive techniques.
“Intensity”was administered by raising the tone wherever needed. “Change”was
applied by making students to give examples in between . “Contrast” was applied
by asking students questions in between the session. “Novelty” was used by giving
examples from stories and personal experience of the investigator.”Movement”
was applied through moving in the class and by using appropriate gestures while
talking.”Repeatation” was done by repeating the main content again and
again.”Systematic form” was administered by making the students to be aware of
the topic before hand as an over-view. Subjective factor of attention namely
“Interest” was applied through making students to write on a their own
experience.”Need” was administered by giving the importance and essentials of
the topic. “Mental set” was applied by giving a clear cut idea about the schedule.
“Mood” was created by making students involve into the study.
During every session, the utilization of Neurolinguistics Programming enhances
the listeningpower of students and even makes the study useful. Students could
follow with the investigator. They were aware of the program and effectively
participated in the study. Students were able to administer the strategies that the
investigator adopts.
The application of Neurolinguistics programming makes the study more

interesting and lively. During each session questions were asked orally in between
and students who tried to give the answers were given one chocolate and who gave
the correct answers were awarded with two chocolates. This provokes an ease
among students and they observed and participated actively and keenly.
Every day the session started with the self-experience writing of students in order
to try out their thoughts and feelings in English. The present generation did not
have chance to write a Self- experienced topic by themselves. During the first day
of the session students felt shy and even feared and hesitated to write in English.
The next day they had some ideas and started to write. From the third day onwards
they enjoyed their writing and the investigator found tremendous improvement in
their writing process.
5.32 PHASE – V ; RESEARCH TOOLS AND DATA COLLECTION:

In order to asses the treatment given to the experimental group the investigator
intended to develop a tool for post-test. The content validity of the tool was
established by giving it to expert opinion. The reliability of the tool was
established by Split-half method.
As the outset the researcher wanted to know the influence of extraneous variables
intervention on the treatment given to the experimental group. Though the
experimental group was in the same school, the homogeneity of the group was
checked through collecting the demographic characteristics like the “Order of
Birth”, “Father's qualification and designation”, “Mother's qualification and
designation”, “the year of the study in the same school”, “choice of activities
inside the classroom”, “choice of activities in developing competencies in learning
English”, etc., of the group were collected through the questionnare. In addition to
the demographic particulars , awareness of writing competence were also collected
through the respective questionnare.
5.32.1 DATA COLLECTION:
The research design of this experiment study is pre-test and post-test experimental
group design. The Pre-test and post-test were given to students and data were
collected. The demographic particulars of students were collected. Awareness on
writing competence was collected and data were evaluated . Thus the available
data for analysis of students were,
 Demographic Particulars
 Pre-test and Post-test scores on the performance of the students
in writing competence in English.
 Awareness on writing competence
5.33 PHASE – VI; SCHEME OF DATA ANALYSIS:
In the present study, the relevant data obtained from scores on the pre-test and
post-test have been analyzed as follows:
 Descriptive analysis
 Relational analysis
 Differential analysis
5.34 FINDINGS :
 The mean and standard deviation of the pre-test scores on
Writing competence in English of the experimental group
students are 60.5 and 16.5 respectively.
 The mean and standard deviation of the post-test scores on
writing competence in English of the experimental group
 There is significant difference between the pre-test and post-tesr
scores of the experimental group at 0.05 (95%) level.
 There is significant relationship between the pre-test and post-
test scores on writing competence due to the intervention of
Psycholinguistics Principles on the experimental group at 0.75
Neurolinguistics Programming on the experimental group at 0.79
synergising effect of Psycholinguistics Principles and
Neurolinguistics Programming on the experimental group at
0.87.
 The above findings suggest that there is remarkable improvement
in the academic performance of students due to the intervention
of synergising effect Psycholinguistics principles and
Neurolinguistics programming.
 There is significant relationship between parent's level of education and
students learning and post-test scores of the experimental group.
 Most of the students are from “1st” and “2nd” order of birth. A
maximum of 46.6% of students in the experimental group are
born of “1st” order. Students of 30% are of “2nd” order, 20% are
of “3rd”order and only 3.3% are born of “4th” order of birth.
 it is inferred that “illiteracy” is higher on the side of mothers
(10%) compared to fathers (3.33%). Fathers of 26.7% and
mothers of 40% have “Elementary Education”. A maximum of
46.6% of fathers and 33.3% of mothers have “Secondary school
Education”. Fathers of 13.3% and mothers of 10% have “Higher
secondary Education”. Only a minimum of 10% of fathers and
6.7% of mothers have “Under Graduation”. Finally it is
understood that most of the fathers have undergone “Secondary
school Education” and most of the mothers have undergone
“Elementary Education”.
 In designation wise 66.7% of the experimental group students'
fathers designation come under “Others” category and 26.7%
belongs to the “Business” category and 6.7% belongs to the
“Profession” category.
 A maximum of 86.7% of students' mothers serve as
“Housewives”. A minimum of 3.3% comes under “Business”and
“Professional” and 6.7% of mothers are comes under “Others”
category respectively.
 A maximum of 40% of students have “8” years of study in the
same school. Students of 30% have “3” years of study, 10% have
“7” years of study, 6.7% have respectively “2” and “1” year of
study and 3.3% of students have respectively “4” and “6” years
of study in the same school. From the data it is inferred that a
maximum of 40% of students have been studying in the school
since 1 st standard and 30% of students have been studying in the
school since 6th standard.
 A maximum of 90% of students are from “Rural” areas and a
minimum of 10% are from “Urban” areas.
 A maximum of 76.6% students of experimental group prefer to
“Practicing alone” and 20% of students choose “Practicing with
the small groups” and 3.3% of the students prefer to “Practicing
with the whole class”.
 A maximum of 96.7% of students' mother tongue is “Tamil” and
only 3.3% students comes under “Others” category.
 Experimental group students prefer “Learning new words and
phases”followed by “articulating words”. A maximum of 43.3%
of students prefer to “learn new words and Phrases”, 33.3% of
students prefer to “articulate words”, 13.3% of students prefer to
“study text book” and only 10% of students prefer to “deal the
exercises of the textbook”.
 Students give much importance to “Listening” in language skills.
A maximum of 56.7% prefer “Listening skill”, 26.7% prefer
“speaking skill”, 13.3% prefer “Writing skill” and only 3.3%
prefer “Reading skill”.
 From the descriptive analysis it is evident that most of the
students are from “1st” and “2nd” order of birth. Only a
minimum of 10% of fathers and 6.7% of mothers have
acquired”Under graduation”. Most of the fathers are involved in
occupations indicated as “Others” category and most of the
mothers are “Housewives”. Around 40% of students have studied
in the same school for a period of “8” years and 30% of students
have studied for a period of “3”years. This indicates that 40% of
students have been studying in this school since 1st standard and
students of 30% have been studying since 6th standard. Majority
of students are from “Rural” areas. The mother tongue of 96.7%
of students is “Tamil”. A maximum of 83% of students prefer to
“Practice alone”. Students prefer “Learning new words and
phrases” followed by “Articulating words”. Students give much
importance to “Listening” in Language skills.
 There is a high relationship between awareness on
Psycholinguistic Principles and Writing competence.
 There is a high relationship between awareness on
Neurolinguistics Programming and Writing competence.
 There is a high relationship between awareness on synergising
effect of Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics
programming.
 From the Relational analysis,the high relationship between
awareness on writing competence and Psycholinguistics
principles, between writing competence and Neurolinguistics
programming and writing competence and synergising effect of
Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics programming
are Highly correlated. To put in nut shell, this new pedagogy will
help to enhance Writing competence.
 The mean and standard deviation of the pre-test scores on
Writing competence in English of the experimental group
 The mean and standard deviation of the post-test scores on
writing competence in English of the experimental group
 For df, to be significant at 0.05 level the calculated “t” value
should be greater than or equal to 2.01. Hence, df= 58 and “t” =
2.23, and it is greater than the table value. Hence, it is significant.
 The calculated t value (t=2.23) is far above the table value at
0.05(95%).Hence, there is significant difference between pre-test
and post-test score of the experimental group students at 0.05
level.
 Students prefer to write on a self-selected topic and opportunity
should be given to strengthen their writing competence.
 Improved Self-esteem and confidence.
 Notable difference in the achievement level of students.
5.35SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER STUDY:

On the basis of the study, reported by the investigator, he recommended further
research on the forth coming lines. The attempt made by the investigator was a
successful one; there are some gaps, Which can be filled by the future work.
 Writing Competence in English is mainly focused in this study. A study
can also be done not only with concerns with Writing competence in
English but also with reading comprehension in English.
 The present study has done only by using 10 days. So, the study could
be done for more than one or two months.
 The present study could be done in Socio economic back ground of the
family.
 The present study could be done in applying various strategies other
than Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics programming
instruction.
 The present study could be done in more than one institutions and also
in large samples.
 The present study could be done to enhance or disrupts the socio economic
backgrounds.
5.36 DISSCUSSIONS:
The investigator through relational analysis found that there is significant
relationship between the awareness of Psycholinguistic Principles and writing
competence at 0.7. It is concurrent with the findings of Morett, Laura, (2007) in the
study on Second Language Learning in an Undergraduate Population: Applications of
Psycholinguistic Theory, A mini-lesson in Spanish vocabulary was taught to
undergraduates unfamiliar with the language using one of two predominant L2
teaching methodologies, the grammar-translation approach or the communicative
approach. Both experimental groups showed significant improvement in learning
the target language over the baseline measure set by the control group, but no
significant differences were observed between the two experimental groups.
Working memory efficiency appeared to be related to L2 learning. Two weeks
later, there were no significant differences between the performance of the any of
the groups. A subset of participants who underwent a neuroimaging procedure
while performing the experimental tasks showed higher overall cerebral blood
flow velocities under the condition based on the grammar-translation approach
compared to the condition based on the communicative approach. Taken as a
whole, these results form a mosaic of the mechanisms and variables involved in
second language learning, providing insight into the process of second language
acquisition in undergraduate students. Appended are: (1) Informed consent form
for main task component; (2) Pre-screening quiz; (3) Demographic survey; (4)
Bilingual vocabulary sheet; (5) Graphic vocabulary sheet; (6) Bilingual worksheet;
(7) Graphic worksheet; (8) Metacognitive survey; (9) Short-term post assessment;
(10) Debriefing form for main task component; (11) Informed consent form for
follow-up component; (12) Long-term post assessment; (13) Debriefing form for
follow-up component; (14) Informed consent form for neuroimaging component;
(15) Debriefing form for neuroimaging component; (16) Informed consent form
for multicultural component; (17) Interview questions; and (18) Debriefing form
for multicultural component.
The investigator through relational analysis found that there is significant
relationship between the awareness of Neurolinguistics programing and writing
competence at 0.7. It is concurrent with the findings of Williams, M. F.; Jacobson,
W. H.,(1989) in the study on , Neurolinguistic Programming in Orientation and
Mobility. The research describes the neurolinguistic programing model and applies
it to teaching orientation and mobility skills to congenitally blind students, who
have access to only the auditory and kinesthetic primary systems. Understanding
the effects on thought of limited representational systems can help trainers teach
more effective cane or dog guide use.Sharpley, Christopher F. (1987) in the study
on , Research Findings on Neurolinguistic Programming: Nonsupportive Data or an
Untestable Theory?, This research examines the experimental literature on
neurolinguistic programming (NLP). Sharpley (l984) and Einspruch and Forman
(l985) concluded that the effectiveness of this therapy was yet to be demonstrated.
Presents data from seven recent studies that further question the basic tenets of
NLP and their application in counseling situations.
The investigator through the study insisted the importance of writing competence
and it is concurrred with the findings of Boquet, Elizabeth H.; Lerner, Neal (2008)
in the study “Reconsiderations :After “The Idea of a Writing Center” that writing
centers are greatly needed for potentially valuable scholarly inquiry.
5.37 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:

The result of this study presented a practical model for improving writing
competence with the intervention of Psycholinguistic principles and
Neurolinguistics Programming over a short duration. Writing competence is an
essential factor in language learning . It should be developed within students as it
is a process which comes throughout the life time of a person. As writing
competence is found to be low among students Psycholinguistic principles and
Neurolinguistics programming strategies help students to make students as
proficient learners. Students gain confidence and become more independent.
Independence leads to ownership as students realize they can pursue their own
intellectual needs and discover a world of information at their fingerprints.
5.38 CONCLUSION:
The present study is on enhancing writing competence in English by applying the

intervention of Psycholinguistic principles and Neurolinguistics programming.
Writing competence will enhance the achievement mark in English. Writing
competence is a life long process which the growth of a person.
This research has shown a strong link between students writing competence,
Psycholinguistic Principles and Neurolinguistics programming strategies. The
application of
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APPENDIX
INVENTORY TO ACCESS THE AWARENESS ON WRITING
COMPREHENSION AMONG UPPER PRIMARY STUDENTS.
Kindly read the following and say whether you can find them applicable or not by TICK mark.
Sl.no PART - A Yes/No
1. I can punctuate any given passage as per the meaning in the

context
2. I can arrange the given jumbled sentences into a meaningful arrangement
3. I can write with clarity without mistakes
4. I can write sentences with correct structure
5. I can write with correct grammar.
6. I can identify the synonyms from the given words.
7. I can identify the antonyms from the given words.
8. I can frame spelling for an unknown word.
9. I can take notes in the class effetively.
10. I can comprehend any given passage and jot down the important details.
11. I can comprehend any written passage.
12. I can take regular writing exercises to improve learning potential.

INVENTORY TO ACCESS THE AWARENESS ON WRITING
COMPREHENSION AMONG UPPER PRIMARY STUDENTS.
Kindly read the following and say whether you can find them applicable or not by TICK mark.
Sl.no PART - A Yes/No
1. I can punctuate any given passage as per the meaning in the context
2. I can arrange the given jumbled sentences into a meaningful arrangement
3. I can write with clarity without mistakes
4. I can write sentences with correct structure
5. I can write with correct grammar.
6. I can identify the synonyms from the given words.
7. I can identify the antonyms from the given words.
8. I can frame spelling for an unknown word.
9. I can take notes in the class effetively.
10. I can comprehend any given passage and jot down the important details.
11. I can comprehend any written passage.
12. I can take regular writing exercises to improve learning potential.

THINK ALOUD PROTOCOL
Read the following questions , Think Aloud and Answer.
1. What is the content about ?
2. What do I already know about ?
3. What did I understand in the class ?
4. What have I enriched in the class ?
5. What have I enriched from the content ?

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A SYNERGY OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PRINCIPLES AND NEUROLINGUISTICS

PROGRAMMING ON DEVELOPING WRITING COMPETENCE AMONG EIGHTH

Under the guidance of

I do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled “ A SYNERGY OF

Dr.M.S. LALITHAMMA, Dr. K. CHELLAMANI,

I am indebted to Dr.M.S.Lalithamma, Professor and head, School of Education,

1.7.1 COMPOSITION COMPETENCIES

1.7.1.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES

1.7.1.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.7.2 ANALYSIS COMPETENCIES

1.7.2.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES

1.7.2.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.7.3 LANGUAGE COMPETENCIES

1.7.3.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES

1.7.3.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.7.4 RESEARCH COMPETENCIES

1.7.4.1 ACQUISITION STRATEGIES

1.7.4.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.7.5 PRESENTATION COMPETENCIES

1.7.5.2 ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.8 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: COMPETENCE, PERFORMANCE

1.9 THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE:

1.10 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

1.11 THE MYTH OF PURE LANGUAGE

1.13 LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS

1.13.4 DUALITY OF PATTERNING

1.14 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

1.15 A UNIQUE CODE AND A GENERAL CODE

1.16 LANGUAGE AND THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM

1.17 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1.18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1.19 WRITING SYSTEMS

1.21 THE STUDY OF THE BRAIN-LANGUAGE RELATIONSHIP

1.22 BRAIN STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE

1.23 THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE

CHAPTER – II , REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

5.8 NEED FOR THE STUDY

5.9 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

5.10 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

5.11 TITLE OF THE STUDY

5.12 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS

5.13 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

5.14 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

5.17 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

5.18 PLANNING OF THE TREATMENT

5.19 RESEARCH PROCESS

5.21 RESEARCH DESIGN

5.22 DURATION OF THE TREATMENT

5.23 THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY

5.24.1 SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS

5.24.8 STATISTICAL REGRESSION

5.24.9 SELECTION BIAS

5.24.10 EXPERIMENTER BIAS

5.25 EXTERNAL VALIDITY

5.26 CONTROLLING THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

5.27 RESEARCH PHASES

5.28 PHASE – I ; PREPARATORY PROGRAM

5.28.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

5.28.3 OBSERVING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

5.28.5 COLLECTING THE RELATED LITERATURE

5.28.6 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS

5.28.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS

5.28.8 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY