SFTY 335

Chapter 1 Questions
Name: Alvin Wong (2400442)
Benedict (2398843)
Kesavan (2377586)
Sanker (2387844)
Loqman Shariff (2400282)
Date: 29/03/2015

1. Describe static strength in terms of loads and load factors. (Alvin Wong, 2400442)
An aircraft during its service lifetime experiences a variety of static and dynamic loads. Loads come in
different forms, such as in maneuvers and during rough weather where turbulence due to up drafts, down
drafts, gusts and wind shear impose a load on the structure of the aircraft. Static loads mainly come from the
weight of the aircraft itself, acting on its own structure, such as bending moment on the wings due to lift, or
while it is sitting on the ground, typically in a steady state condition where there is no oscillations. Static
strength is how much load the structure can take before it eventually reaches its failure point (Fracture or
breakage).
Load factor is basically the flight load an aircraft is experiencing, measured in terms of a ratio of its lift to
weight (Gs). So in straight and level flight, the load factor of an aircraft is at 1G. When the same aircraft
does a banked turn and is experiencing 2Gs, the load factor is at a value of 2.
Aircrafts are designed with a limit load factor, depending on their purpose. For example, a civil airliner such
as the Boeing 747 would have a positive limit load factor of 2.5Gs, and the ultimate load factor for safety is
150% of the limit load factor, which is about 3.75Gs. The ultimate load factor cannot be exceeded in any
circumstances, if not structural failure would occur.
References:
http://tlgaerospace.com/index.php/services/aircraft-loads/
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-a-static-load.htm
http://tlgaerospace.com/index.php/services/aircraft-loads/

2. Describe rigidity requirements in terms of aerolastic problems, including aileron reversal, divergence,
flutter, and vibrations. (Benedict, 2398843)
Aeroelastic problems are often correlated with the absence of rigidity that is generally broken down into
problems such as aileron reversal, divergence, and flutter and vibrations issues.

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Aileron reversal happens when the wing of a plane experience absence of enough rigidity to resist the
pitching moment when the aileron is deflated downwards causing a reversing upward aerodynamic force at
the aileron hinge point. It is often known as elastic wing which cause the plane to suffer a reduction of lift
during operation at a lower angle of attack. The elastic wing experiences a decrease in aileron effectiveness
against increment of air speed and eventually reaches aileron reversal speed when the aileron effectiveness
hits 0% at a relatively high air speed.
Divergence happens when there is an absence of why twisting rigidity. Lift is increased with upwards gust
that causes an upwards aerodynamic force motion causing nose upwards about its elastic axis. Having in
place angle of attack, high air speed, high up-gust and low rigidity, the wing may diverge from the body of
the air plane.
Flutter and vibration occurs naturally with its own natural frequency of vibration. Resonant vibration will be
produced between two parts abutting and connected with each other with the same natural frequencies.
Planes are more than often designed to prevent flutter and vibration by having the natural frequencies of
different parts at different levels. It is also critical that maintenance technicians do not conduct unapproved
correction to the aircraft structure which may change the natural vibration frequencies that would impose a
risk during flight.

3. What factors should be taken into account when considering "service life"? (Kesavan, 2377586)
Service life is stipulated in accordance with MIL-A-008866B in terms of
a)
Total flight hours
b)
Total number of flights
c)
Total number and type of landings.
These data defines the aircrafts durability which the ability of the airframe and wings to resist cracking
(including stress corrosion and hydrogen induced cracking), corrosion, thermal degradation, delamination,
wear, and the effects of foreign object damage for a specified period of time.
For commercial aircraft the design service life is limited by the total flight hours (FH) flown and/or flight
cycles (FC) which is one take-off and landing.
Metal fatigue is the limiting factor for the determination of the aircrafts lifespan. Because of pressurization
(hoop stress) and cyclic loading on the wings (tension on upper wing and compression on lower wing during
on ground and vice versa when in flight) the metallic structure of the airplane undergoes fatigue.
Flight cycles are mainly used as the indication to state the design life of the airplane. Since for one flight
cycle the aircraft undergoes a sequence structural loading and unloading, this figure is used in conjunction
with FH to calculate the service life of the aircraft. Limit of Validity (LOV) data provided by the aircraft
manufacturer is used by FAA to grant the type certificate for the aircraft and specifies the total lifespan of the
airplane.

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An aircraft should be operable for about 30 years before reaching the cycle limit. The lifetime can be
stretched by special inspection and maintenance programs. Some Boeing 747s are still flying after clocking
more than 100,000 FH.
4. What are the primary types of fuselage construction? (Sanker, 2387844)
There are two primary types of fuselage construction methods used in the aircraft industry, monocoque and
welded truss. A third type of fuselage, semi-monocoque, is a hybrid of the two.
Monocoque fuselages use a rigid outer skin attached to a series of bulkheads that are supported by stringers.
The skin on a monocoque fuselage handles all the stress on the body of the fuselage, not the supporting
bulkheads structure.
A welded truss fuselage uses metal tubes (longerons) along the whole length of the body welded to
supporting metal tubes to form the frame. The frame absorbs the various stresses the body is exposed to,
allowing the skin to be constructed of light, flexible, composite or rigid materials.
Semi-monocoque fuselages use additional longitudinal support members between the bulkheads to allow
more of the stress on the craft to be dispersed through the frame than in monocoques. This allows for less
rigid and lighter skins to be used, decreasing the weight of the fuselage.
5. Describe the different types of flight control surfaces and the influence of load and load limits. (Loqman
Shariff, 2400282)
Aircraft flight controls surfaces can be divided into two parts, the main flight control surfaces which are the
ailerons, elevators and rudders and secondary flight control surfaces mainly the spoilers, flaps, slats and
airbrakes.
Main Flight Control Surfaces:
The ailerons controls the roll, the elevator controls the pitch while the rudder controls the yaw of the aircraft.
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces:
Spoilers are used to disrupt flow over the wing to reduce lift while the flaps and slats raises the Maximum
coefficient of lift of the aircraft thus reducing its stalling speed. Slats and Flaps are deployed during take-off
and landing to generate more lift at slower speeds.
Airbrakes are utilized to increase drag or increase angle of attack during landing.
During an unsymmetrical maneuver, the wing that rises will have more lift on it so it has a greater load factor
than a down going wing.

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