Turning and boring

Turning is the machining process used to generate external, cylindrical

forms by usually with a single-point cutting tool.
Boring is essentially internal turning to generate internal shapes. A typical
machined parts produced by turning are shown in Fig.

Fig.

Standard turning operations

For turning operations serve a machine called lathe. The lathe is

machine for holding and turning pieces of metal, wood or plastics while they
are being shaped. Besides turning, the lathe can be used thread cutting,
drilling, boring, grinding, polishing, etc.
Parts such as shown in Fig. can now be produced more rapidly than was
possible in the past and at relatively less cost due to the advances in cutting
and machine tool technologies.
High-speed steel (HSS), cast nonferrous alloys (Stellite and Tantungcommercial names), and cemented carbides (sintered carbides) are among
the most widely used turning, boring, and milling tool bit materials. The
speed and feed tables for the various materials and machining mathods are
provided by the manufacturers who produce the cutting tools. Their research
and development efforts, coupled with their experience and experise, will be
appreciated by those who use these tables. The tool nomenclature for
turning operations will be explained in one of next chapters.
Drilling
Drilling is a machining operation for producing round holes in metallic
and nonmetallic materials. A drill is a rotary-end cutting tool with one or
more cutting edges or lips and one or more straight or helical grooves or
flutes for the passage of chips and cutting fluids and coolants. Figure shows
the standard twist drill form with the appropriate terminology describing its
characteristic features.

Fig.

Twist-drill features

When the depth of the drill hole reaches three or four times the drill
diameter, a reduction must be made in the drilling feed and speed. A
coolante-hole and drill can produce drilled depths to eight or more times the
diameter of the drill. The gundrill can produce an acuurate hole to depths of
more 100 times the diameter of the drill with great precision.
Enlarging a drilled hole for a portion of its depth is called
countersinking, while a counterbore for cleaning the surface a small
amount around the hole is called spotfacing. Cutting an angular bevel at
the perimeter of a drilled hole is also termed countersinking.
Drills are classified by materials, length, shape, number, and type of
helix flute, shank, point characteristics, and siye series. Most drills are made

for right-hand rotation. Right-hand drills, as viewed from their point, with the
shank facing away from your view, are rotated clockwise in a similar manner.
Over a period of many years, the metalworking industry has developed
many different point styles for a wide variety of applications from drilling soft
plastics to drilling the hardest types of metal alloys.
Drills below 0.020 in the diameter are considered to be microdrills. In
order to use microdrills, special machines have been developed for
controlling these extremely small and fragile tools. Needless to say, a
microdrilling operation is conducted under a high-magnification viewing
device, with the hand motions of the operator greatly reduced in magnitude
by linkage translators on the microdrilling machine.
Drills and microdrills are manufactured from high-speed steel, cobaltbase carbides, and solid-tungsten carbides, and a limited selection is
available in diamond and CBN surfaces.
Milling
Milling is a machining process for generating machined surfaces by
removing a predetermined amount of material progressively from the
workpiece. The milling process employes relative motion between the
workpiece and the rotating cutting tool to generate the required surfaces.
In some applications the workpiece is stationary and the cutting tool moves,
while in others the cutting tool and the worpiece are removed in relation to
each other and to the machine. A characteristic feature of the milling process
is that each tooth of the cutting tool takes a portion of the stock in the form
of small, individual chips.
The angle of entry is determined by the position of the cutter
centerline in relation to the edge of the workpiece. A negative angle of entry
is preffered and is illustrated in Fig. , where the centerline of the cutter is
below the edge of the worpiece.

Fig.

Milling entry angels

A negative angle is preffered because it ensures contact with the

workpiece at strongest point of the insert cutter. A positive angle of entry will
increase insert chipping.
Broaching
Broaching is a precision machining operation where in a broach tool is
either pulled or pushed through a hole in a worpiece or over the surface of
workpiece to produce a very accurate shape such as round, squadre,
hexagonal, spline, keyway, and so on. Keyways in gear and sprocket hubs
are broached to an exact dimension so that the key will figure very little
tolerance between the hub of the gear or sprocket and the shaft. The cutting
teeth on broaches are increased in size along the axis of the broach so that
the broach is pushed or pulled through the workpiece, a progressive series of
cuts is made to the finished size in single pass.
Broaches are driven or pulled by manual arvor presses and horizontal
or vertical broaching machines. A single stroke of the broaching tool

completes the machining operation. Broaches are commonly made from

premium-quality HSS and different shapes. Fig. shows a number of different
types of broaches such as round, square, hexagonal, keyway, and etc.

Fig. Different types of broaches produced by Zastava Alati, Kragujevac,

Serbia
Grinding
The manufacturing process "grinding with a rotation tool" is classified
in the German standard DIN 8589 Part 11 as subdivision 3.3.1. of the group
"chip removal with geometrically undefined cutting edges". The cutting
edges takes account of the process specific characteristics such as type of
surface, the kinematics of the cutting process and the tool shape (profile),
giving the following processes:
Surface grinding
Cylindrical grinding
Thread grinding
Profile grinding
Profile copy grinding
Most of these processes are applicable both for internal and external
machining. The names of the grinding processes given in Fig. are intended
to show the principle according to German classification scheme.

Fig.

Classification of grinding processes "Grinding with rotation tool"

according to DIN 8589, Part 11, Ed. 1.84.

In grinding processes existing a different terms which are necessary to

know. According the movment of grinding tool and workpiece it could be
recognized next terms, Fig.

Lapping
Lapping is a finishing operation which
improvements to a workpiece:
1. Extreme accurancy of dimension
2. Correction of minor imperfections
3. Better surface finish
4. Close fit between mating or faying surfaces

results

in

four

major

In normal lapping operations, less heat is generated than in most other

finishing operations. In manual and semiautomatic machine lapping, the end
results depend on the following major factors:
Type of lap material
Type of lapping medium or compound
Speed of the lapping motion
The material to be lapped
Lap materials Cast iron is the most efficient machine lapping material.
Other materials used for hand lapping include soft steel, bronze, brass, lead,
leather, and various cloths. Leather and cloth are used for polishing. The
material of the lap should be softer than the material that is being lapped.
Lapping media
Silicon carbide - for rapid stock removal
Fused aluminium oxide - for soft steel and non-ferous alloys
Unfused aluminium oxide - for excellent polishing action
Diamond - for precious stones and tungsten carbides
The manufacturers who produce the lapping media also provide the
proper mixtures and viscosities of the lapping solutions.
Lapping speeds Efficient lapping speeds range from 300 to 800 sfpm
(surface footh per minute). Higher speeds will improve the surface finish.
Lapping pressures range between 1 and 3 psi for soft materials to 10 psi for
hard materials. In manual lapping, the final surface finish depends on the
skill of the operator and the lapping media. New materials which can be used
for lapping include cerium oxied and microfine aluminium oxied of optical
grade. There are known materials other than optical rouge and cerium oxied
for producing ultrafine finishes on glass and metallic materials.
Honing
Honing is a low-speed abrading process using bonded abrasive sticks
for removing stock from metallic and nonmetallic materials. Honing corrects
surface errors produced by other machining or grinding operations. Honing
has its most important functions in the final finishing of internal cylindrical
surfaces.